A small assemblage of worked and decorative shell was found in the shell midden at Sand. it compr... more A small assemblage of worked and decorative shell was found in the shell midden at Sand. it comprises scallop and cowrie shells and constitutes all the scallop and cowrie from Sand. In addition, a small assemblage of perforated limpet shells has been considered. it is not yet clear whether the limpet perforations are natural or artificial, but it is possible that the shells were deliberately collected.
This section provides information on all sites where artefactual material was recovered. It inclu... more This section provides information on all sites where artefactual material was recovered. It includes sites that were test pitted, shovel pitted or sites where surface collections took place. It does not include sites with surface midden that were not test pitted. There are specialist contributions on a bone comb, charcoal, coarse stone tools, metal and glass, pottery, shellfish, animal bone and fish bone.
During the Mesolithic in Europe, there is widespread evidence for an increase in exploitation of ... more During the Mesolithic in Europe, there is widespread evidence for an increase in exploitation of aquatic resources. In contrast, the subsequent Neolithic is characterised by the spread of farming, land ownership, and full sedentism, which lead to the perception of marine resources subsequently representing marginal or famine food or being abandoned altogether even at the furthermost coastal limits of Europe. Here, we examine biomarkers extracted from human dental calculus, using sequential thermal desorption- and pyrolysis-GCMS, to report direct evidence for widespread consumption of seaweed and submerged aquatic and freshwater plants across Europe. Notably, evidence of consumption of these resources extends through the Neolithic transition to farming and into the Early Middle Ages, suggesting that these resources, now rarely eaten in Europe, only became marginal much more recently. Understanding ancient foodstuffs is crucial to reconstructing the past, while a better knowledge of l...
These papers aim to explore ways of investigating those social and cultural aspects which do not ... more These papers aim to explore ways of investigating those social and cultural aspects which do not show up in the material record, largely through the use of ethnoarchaeological studies to "generate new ideas and theories which focus on wider underlying trends linked to cultural relativism and/or universals rather than direct analogy". Topics include social organization, ritual behaviour, subsistence, shamanism, and the history and development of ethnoarchaeology.
Scotland's First Settlers comprised a survey project to locate and examine sites relating to ... more Scotland's First Settlers comprised a survey project to locate and examine sites relating to the earliest, Mesolithic, settlement of the Inner Sound, along the coastlands between Skye and the west coast of Scotland. Particular foci of interest included the existence and nature of midden sites, the use of rockshelters and caves, and the different types of lithic raw material in use. In addition, information relating to the human use of the area up to the present day was recorded. Fieldwork took place over five years between 1999 and 2004: the entire coastline of the Inner Sound together with its islands was walked; 129 new archaeological sites were recorded; 36 sites were shovel pitted; 44 test pitted; and one major excavation took place. This archive consists of the results of survey and excavation work as well as detailed artefact reports, full information on ecofacts such as shell, and bone, and information on the development of the landscape and environment, including sea level change
In 2013, Hardyet al.offered a broad behavioural context for the hypothesis that the ingestion of ... more In 2013, Hardyet al.offered a broad behavioural context for the hypothesis that the ingestion of non-nutritional plants (yarrow and camomile) by Neanderthals was for the purpose of self-medication. Chemical traces of these plants had been detected in samples of dental calculus from Neanderthals at the site of El Sidrón, Spain, along with traces of bitumen and wood smoke, as well as starch granules that showed evidence of roasting (Hardyet al.2012). Subsequently, the presence of traces of resin and a piece of non-edible conifer wood were also identified from these samples (Radiniet al.2016). Although not rejecting our interpretation for the presence of these two non-edible plants as evidence of medicinal plant use, two recent articles offer alternative scenarios for why and how those plants may have reached the mouth and, eventually, the dental calculus of the individual concerned. Buck and Stringer (2014) suggest that the plants were not deliberately ingested, and that the traces of...
A small assemblage of worked and decorative shell was found in the shell midden at Sand. it compr... more A small assemblage of worked and decorative shell was found in the shell midden at Sand. it comprises scallop and cowrie shells and constitutes all the scallop and cowrie from Sand. In addition, a small assemblage of perforated limpet shells has been considered. it is not yet clear whether the limpet perforations are natural or artificial, but it is possible that the shells were deliberately collected.
This section provides information on all sites where artefactual material was recovered. It inclu... more This section provides information on all sites where artefactual material was recovered. It includes sites that were test pitted, shovel pitted or sites where surface collections took place. It does not include sites with surface midden that were not test pitted. There are specialist contributions on a bone comb, charcoal, coarse stone tools, metal and glass, pottery, shellfish, animal bone and fish bone.
During the Mesolithic in Europe, there is widespread evidence for an increase in exploitation of ... more During the Mesolithic in Europe, there is widespread evidence for an increase in exploitation of aquatic resources. In contrast, the subsequent Neolithic is characterised by the spread of farming, land ownership, and full sedentism, which lead to the perception of marine resources subsequently representing marginal or famine food or being abandoned altogether even at the furthermost coastal limits of Europe. Here, we examine biomarkers extracted from human dental calculus, using sequential thermal desorption- and pyrolysis-GCMS, to report direct evidence for widespread consumption of seaweed and submerged aquatic and freshwater plants across Europe. Notably, evidence of consumption of these resources extends through the Neolithic transition to farming and into the Early Middle Ages, suggesting that these resources, now rarely eaten in Europe, only became marginal much more recently. Understanding ancient foodstuffs is crucial to reconstructing the past, while a better knowledge of l...
These papers aim to explore ways of investigating those social and cultural aspects which do not ... more These papers aim to explore ways of investigating those social and cultural aspects which do not show up in the material record, largely through the use of ethnoarchaeological studies to "generate new ideas and theories which focus on wider underlying trends linked to cultural relativism and/or universals rather than direct analogy". Topics include social organization, ritual behaviour, subsistence, shamanism, and the history and development of ethnoarchaeology.
Scotland's First Settlers comprised a survey project to locate and examine sites relating to ... more Scotland's First Settlers comprised a survey project to locate and examine sites relating to the earliest, Mesolithic, settlement of the Inner Sound, along the coastlands between Skye and the west coast of Scotland. Particular foci of interest included the existence and nature of midden sites, the use of rockshelters and caves, and the different types of lithic raw material in use. In addition, information relating to the human use of the area up to the present day was recorded. Fieldwork took place over five years between 1999 and 2004: the entire coastline of the Inner Sound together with its islands was walked; 129 new archaeological sites were recorded; 36 sites were shovel pitted; 44 test pitted; and one major excavation took place. This archive consists of the results of survey and excavation work as well as detailed artefact reports, full information on ecofacts such as shell, and bone, and information on the development of the landscape and environment, including sea level change
In 2013, Hardyet al.offered a broad behavioural context for the hypothesis that the ingestion of ... more In 2013, Hardyet al.offered a broad behavioural context for the hypothesis that the ingestion of non-nutritional plants (yarrow and camomile) by Neanderthals was for the purpose of self-medication. Chemical traces of these plants had been detected in samples of dental calculus from Neanderthals at the site of El Sidrón, Spain, along with traces of bitumen and wood smoke, as well as starch granules that showed evidence of roasting (Hardyet al.2012). Subsequently, the presence of traces of resin and a piece of non-edible conifer wood were also identified from these samples (Radiniet al.2016). Although not rejecting our interpretation for the presence of these two non-edible plants as evidence of medicinal plant use, two recent articles offer alternative scenarios for why and how those plants may have reached the mouth and, eventually, the dental calculus of the individual concerned. Buck and Stringer (2014) suggest that the plants were not deliberately ingested, and that the traces of...
Recent genomic data have revealed multiple interactions between Neanderthals and modern humans1, ... more Recent genomic data have revealed multiple interactions between Neanderthals and modern humans1, but there is currently little genetic evidence regarding Neanderthal behaviour, diet, or disease. Here we describe the shotgun-sequencing of ancient DNA from five specimens of Neanderthal calcified dental plaque (calculus) and the characterization of regional differences in Neanderthal ecology. At Spy cave, Belgium, Neanderthal diet was heavily meat based and included woolly rhinoceros and wild sheep (mouflon), characteristic of a steppe environment. In contrast, no meat was detected in the diet of Neanderthals from El Sidrón cave, Spain, and dietary components of mushrooms, pine nuts, and moss reflected forest gathering2,3. Differences in diet were also linked to an overall shift in the oral bacterial community (microbiota) and suggested that meat consumption contributed to substantial variation within Neanderthal microbiota. Evidence for self-medication was detected in an El Sidrón Neanderthal with a dental abscess4 and a chronic gastrointestinal pathogen (Enterocytozoon bieneusi). Metagenomic data from this individual also contained a nearly complete genome of the archaeal commensal Methanobrevibacter oralis (10.2× depth of coverage)—the oldest draft microbial genome generated to date, at around 48,000 years old. DNA preserved within dental calculus represents a notable source of information about the behaviour and health of ancient hominin specimens, as well as a unique system that is useful for the study of long-term microbial evolution.
The Archaeology of Europe’s Drowned Landscapes, 2020
The submerged landscapes around Great Britain are extensive and would have offered productive ter... more The submerged landscapes around Great Britain are extensive and would have offered productive territory for hunting, gathering, exploitation of aquatic and marine resources, and—in the final stages of postglacial sea-level rise—opportunities for agriculture. They would also have provided land connections to continental Europe and opportunities for communication by sea travel along now-submerged palaeocoastlines and river estuaries. Most of the archaeological material has been discovered in intertidal or shallow water conditions, but there are also discoveries in deeper water, with dates ranging from earliest human presence nearly one million years ago up to the establishment of modern sea level. Some later material is present where coastlines have continued to sink in more recent millennia. Intertidal sites are especially well represented because of relatively large tidal ranges and shallow offshore gradients on many coastlines. These are often associated with remains of submerged forests, which are periodically exposed at low tide and then covered up again by movements of sand. Some of the most distinctive intertidal finds are the human and animal footprints preserved in intertidal sediments in many locations, especially at Goldcliff East. The earliest, at Happisburgh, are dated between 0.78 and 1 Ma. Fully submerged sites include the Mesolithic site of Bouldnor Cliff with its worked timbers, and the Middle Stone Age artefacts from offshore aggregate Area 240 along with well-preserved ice age fauna and environmental indicators. Pioneering work using oil industry seismic records has produced detailed reconstructions of the submerged landscape, and this is being followed up by new work involving targeted acoustic survey and coring of sediments.
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