Over the last few decades, investigations of the southern African Late Pleistocene archeological ... more Over the last few decades, investigations of the southern African Late Pleistocene archeological record have transformed our understanding of Homo sapiens origins and evolution. However, the intensity of research on coastal and near-coastal records has surpassed that in the deep interior. One reason for the geographic bias is the rarity of well-preserved, datable rockshelter sites outside the more mountainous and karstic regions of South Africa. Here, we report stratified Middle Stone Age and Later Stone Age deposits at Ga-Mohana Hill North Rockshelter (GHN), near Kuruman, in the Northern Cape, South Africa. Contrary to a previous report, we show that the archeological deposits are in good context with minimal disturbance based on a detailed fabric analysis of plotted finds. Three dating methods, single-grain optically stimulated luminescence, radiocarbon, and uranium-thorium, indicate that the artifact-bearing deposits date to ~ 105 ka, ~ 31 ka, and ~ 15 ka. Thus, Ga-Mohana Hill North Rockshelter provides an important opportunity to investigate early human adaptation in this semiarid region of southern Africa.
Approximately 74 thousand years ago (ka), the Toba caldera erupted in Sumatra. Since the magnitud... more Approximately 74 thousand years ago (ka), the Toba caldera erupted in Sumatra. Since the magnitude of this eruption was first established, its effects on climate, environment and humans have been debated 1 . Here we describe the discovery of microscopic glass shards characteristic of the Youngest Toba Tuff—ashfall from the Toba eruption—in two archaeological sites on the south coast of South Africa, a region in which there is evidence for early human behavioural complexity. An independently derived dating model supports a date of approximately 74 ka for the sediments containing the Youngest Toba Tuff glass shards. By defining the input of shards at both sites, which are located nine kilometres apart, we are able to establish a close temporal correlation between them. Our high-resolution excavation and sampling technique enable exact comparisons between the input of Youngest Toba Tuff glass shards and the evidence for human occupation. Humans in this region thrived through the Toba event and the ensuing full glacial conditions, perhaps as a combined result of the uniquely rich resource base of the region and fully evolved modern human adaptation.
Grassridge Rockshelter is a multicomponent Pleistocene and Holocene archaeological site located i... more Grassridge Rockshelter is a multicomponent Pleistocene and Holocene archaeological site located in the interior of the Eastern Cape of South Africa, and was originally studied during the late 1970s and early 1980s. The Grassridge Archaeological and Palaeoenvironmental Project (GAPP) initiated new research at Grassridge in 2014, and here we present an overview of our initial excavations and research, with a focus on the Holocene occupations. Preliminary results indicate a more complex occupational and depositional history than previously thought. In addition to relocating the known mid-Holocene occupation , we have identified a previously unrecorded early Holocene occupation , which dates to the end of the Younger Dryas, and a thin flowstone located at the contact between the Holocene and Pleistocene deposits. The Holocene lithic assemblages are characterised by flake-based lithic reduction, primarily on hornfels, with an increase in the frequency and diversity of retouched pieces from the early to mid-Holocene. Ostrich eggshell beads are ubiquitous during both Holocene occupations, and marine shells have also been discovered. The latter are reported from Grassridge for the first time, and indicate a connection with the coast.
The origins of complex projectile weaponry provides insight into cultural and biological changes ... more The origins of complex projectile weaponry provides insight into cultural and biological changes associated with the origins and spread of modern human populations. Middle Stone Age backed pieces are often thought to be components of such armaments, however our limited understanding of their functional characteristics as projectiles precludes understanding the adaptive problems they may have solved. Despite acknowledgment of raw material differences and intra-assemblage variability, whether variability in backed piece form reflects functional , economic, or stylistic variation has a paucity of empirical support. Here, the functional differences in backed piece form (size and shape) while hafted transversely and obliquely as high-velocity complex projectile armatures are examined. If there are performance tradeoffs simply in how backed pieces are arranged at the end of armaments that can influence effectiveness, then identifying the archaeological arrangement can provide insight into what variables were being prioritized in prehistoric technological systems. How variation in backed piece size, elongation, and hafting arrangement influences complex projectile performance is tested using experimental and actualistic projectile replications with a calibrated crossbow against animal and ballistics gelatin targets. The results of this study show that, within the size and shape variation of silcrete backed pieces examined , tool form plays a relatively limited role in their performance as projectile armatures. However, hafting orientation has very different performance characteristics for complex projectiles shot at ballistics gelatin compared to animal targets. We demonstrate that transversely hafted tools have more lethal internal wounds, but obliquely hafted backed pieces have greater puncture reliability. These functional differences represent different technological design emphasis: transversely hafted tools create large, deep wounds, while obliquely hafted arrows and darts create a puncture more reliably. Although obliquely hafted armaments cause less internal trauma, they are more likely to penetrate the hide of ungulate prey. Variability in MSA hunting tactics may have played a role in the design of weapon systems to optimize these performance tradeoffs. Despite similarities in shape with ethno-historic technologies, based on these results, MSA-sized backed pieces hafted as projectile armatures were unlikely to have been used with small, low-powered bows-but would have been lethal with a high-velocity delivery system.
There are multiple hypotheses for human responses to glacial cycling in the Late Pleisto-cene, in... more There are multiple hypotheses for human responses to glacial cycling in the Late Pleisto-cene, including changes in population size, interconnectedness, and mobility. Lithic technological analysis informs us of human responses to environmental change because lithic assemblage characteristics are a reflection of raw material transport, reduction, and discard behaviors that depend on hunter-gatherer social and economic decisions. Pinnacle Point Site 5–6 (PP5-6), Western Cape, South Africa is an ideal locality for examining the influence of glacial cycling on early modern human behaviors because it preserves a long sequence spanning marine isotope stages (MIS) 5, 4, and 3 and is associated with robust records of paleoenvironmental change. The analysis presented here addresses the question, what, if any, lithic assemblage traits at PP5-6 represent changing behavioral responses to the MIS 5-4-3 interglacial-glacial cycle? It statistically evaluates changes in 93 traits with no a priori assumptions about which traits may significantly associate with MIS. In contrast to other studies that claim that there is little relationship between broad-scale patterns of climate change and lithic technology, we identified the following characteristics that are associated with MIS 4: increased use of quartz, increased evidence for outcrop sources of quartzite and silcrete, increased evidence for earlier stages of reduction in silcrete, evidence for increased flaking efficiency in all raw material types, and changes in tool types and function for silcrete. Based on these results, we suggest that foragers responded to MIS 4 glacial environmental conditions at PP5-6 with increased population or group sizes, 'place provisioning', longer and/or more intense site occupations, and decreased residential mobility. Several other traits, including silcrete frequency, do not exhibit an association with MIS. Backed pieces, once they appear in the PP5-6 record during MIS 4, persist through MIS 3. Changing paleoenviron-ments explain some, but not all temporal technological variability at PP5-6.
There is a general trend for increased selectivity and longer transport distances of lithic raw m... more There is a general trend for increased selectivity and longer transport distances of lithic raw materials for flintknapping in the Middle Stone Age compared to the Earlier Stone Age. The Stratum 4a assemblage at Kathu Pan 1, Northern Cape, South Africa, which dates to ~500 ka, presents a unique opportunity for assessing Pleisto-cene raw material foraging strategies at the onset of the Middle Stone Age. In this paper, I identify potential primary and secondary sources for the raw materials used for lithic reduction at Kathu Pan 1 (KP1), and quantify raw material variability at nearby secondary sources. Patterns of raw material selection are identified within the KP1 Stratum 4a assemblage and compared to a sample from the underlying Stratum 4b, an Acheulean assemblage , to test for a temporal pattern. Raw material use during the Stratum 4a occupation of Kathu Pan, which is focused on abundant locally available resources for flintknapping, is consistent with the general pattern for Earlier Stone Age foraging strategies, and differs from evidence at some more recent Middle Stone Age sites that show longer transport distances and increased selectivity for certain high-value materials. While many aspects of technology change at KP1 ~500 ka, these technological shifts are not associated with a significant change in the kinds of raw material that were exploited. There are, however, differences in how the raw material was exploited. In Stratum 4a, there is evidence that hominins intentionally exploited the natural banding in banded ironstone formation in order to produce elongated products, and this evidence is lacking in the underlying Acheulean assemblage.
The Middle Stone Age (MSA) is associated with early evidence for symbolic material culture and co... more The Middle Stone Age (MSA) is associated with early evidence for symbolic material culture and complex technological innovations. However, one of the most visible aspects of MSA technologies are unretouched triangular stone points that appear in the archaeological record as early as 500,000 years ago in Africa and persist throughout the MSA. How these tools were being used and discarded across a changing Pleistocene landscape can provide insight into how MSA populations prioritized technological and foraging decisions. Creating inferential links between experimental and archaeological tool use helps to establish prehistoric tool function, but is complicated by the overlaying of post-depositional damage onto behaviorally worn tools. Taphonomic damage patterning can provide insight into site formation history, but may preclude behavioral interpretations of tool function. Here, multiple experimental processes that form edge damage on unretouched lithic points from taphonomic and behavioral processes are presented. These provide experimental distributions of wear on tool edges from known processes that are then quantitatively compared to the archaeological patterning of stone point edge damage from three MSA lithic assem-blages—Kathu Pan 1, Pinnacle Point Cave 13B, and Die Kelders Cave 1. By using a model-fitting approach, the results presented here provide evidence for variable MSA behavioral strategies of stone point utilization on the landscape consistent with armature tips at KP1, and cutting tools at PP13B and DK1, as well as damage contributions from post-depositional sources across assemblages. This study provides a method with which landscape-scale questions of early modern human tool-use and site-use can be addressed.
Rots and Plisson (2014) question our conclusion that 500,000-year-old points from Kathu Pan 1, So... more Rots and Plisson (2014) question our conclusion that 500,000-year-old points from Kathu Pan 1, South Africa were used as spear tips (Wilkins et al., 2012). However, their reinterpretation of the fractures we identify as diagnostic impact fractures are incorrect. Despite the assertion, knapping processes alone do not explain the basal modifications on the KP1 points. Although Rots and Plisson are critical of the edge damage distribution method, it provides objective, quantitative and statistical comparisons of experimental and archaeological datasets. The data we present stand as reliable evidence for early hafted hunting technology. We suggest that the disagreement stems from a differing perspective on how lithic functional studies should deal with equifinality and the challenge of confidently assessing stone tool function.
Stone-tipped weapons were a significant innovation for Middle Pleistocene hominins. Hafted huntin... more Stone-tipped weapons were a significant innovation for Middle Pleistocene hominins. Hafted hunting technology represents the development of new cognitive and social learning mechanisms within the genus Homo, and may have provided a foraging advantage over simpler forms of hunting technology, such as a sharpened wooden spear. However, the nature of this foraging advantage has not been confirmed. Experimental studies and ethnographic reports provide conflicting results regarding the relative importance of the functional, economic, and social roles of hafted hunting technology. The controlled experiment reported here was designed to test the functional hypothesis for stone-tipped weapons using spears and ballistics gelatin. It differs from previous investigations of this type because it includes a quantitative analysis of wound track profiles and focuses specifically on hand-delivered spear technology. Our results do not support the hypothesis that tipped spears penetrate deeper than untipped spears. However, tipped spears create a significantly larger inner wound cavity that widens distally. This inner wound cavity is analogous to the permanent wound cavity in ballistics research, which is considered the key variable affecting the relative ‘stopping power’ or ‘killing power’ of a penetrating weapon. Tipped spears conferred a functional advantage to Middle Pleistocene hominins, potentially affecting the frequency and regularity of hunting success with important implications for human adaptation and life history.
Hafting stone points to spears was an important advance in weaponry for early humans. Multiple li... more Hafting stone points to spears was an important advance in weaponry for early humans. Multiple lines of evidence indicate that ~500,000-year-old stone points from the archaeological site of Kathu Pan 1 (KP1), South Africa, functioned as spear tips. KP1 points exhibit fracture types diagnostic of impact. Modification near the base of some points is consistent with hafting. Experimental and metric data indicate that the points could function well as spear tips. Shape analysis demonstrates that the smaller retouched points are as symmetrical as larger retouched points, which fits expectations for spear tips. The distribution of edge damage is similar to that in an experimental sample of spear tips and is inconsistent with expectations for cutting or scraping tools. Thus, early humans were manufacturing hafted multicomponent tools ~200,000 years earlier than previously thought.
The ∼500 thousand year old stratum 4a lithic assemblage from Kathu Pan 1, Northern Cape, South Af... more The ∼500 thousand year old stratum 4a lithic assemblage from Kathu Pan 1, Northern Cape, South Africa, is one of the earliest occurrences of blade technology and is the oldest dated assemblage attributed to the Fauresmith industry. A technological analysis of the Kathu Pan 1 stratum 4a assemblage reveals that blades were systematically removed using direct hard hammer percussion from organized blade cores that were extensively prepared via centripetal flaking. Some of these blades were retouched into points. Comparisons with published descriptions of the roughly contemporary blade assemblages from the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya and Qesem Cave, Israel demonstrate that diverse blade production strategies were employed during the earlier half of the Middle Pleistocene. The diversity best supports a scenario in which laminar technology was invented in multiple places and times.
Kudu Koppie is a stratified late Earlier Stone Age and Middle Stone Age archaeological site locat... more Kudu Koppie is a stratified late Earlier Stone Age and Middle Stone Age archaeological site located in the northern Limpopo Province of South Africa. The prepared core reduction strategies are described and temporal trends across the ESA–MSA boundary are presented. The prepared cores and endproducts of Kudu Koppie suggest that both the late ESA and MSA toolmakers employed the Levallois Volumetric Concept, but they often exploited a nodule’s natural convexities and form. The MSA toolmakers used a greater variety of prepared core methods and more intensively exploited cryptocrystalline and microcrystalline nodules, the scarcity of which may have resulted in a more ‘‘formalized’’ application of the Levallois Volumetric Concept. These observations are considered within the context of human behavioural evolution.
Three aspects of the African Middle Stone Age (MSA) archaeological record - the use of symbolic r... more Three aspects of the African Middle Stone Age (MSA) archaeological record - the use of symbolic resources, long-distance transfer of raw materials, and socalled ‘regional traditions’ in projectile point form - are examined within the context of the modern human behaviour debate. It is argued that projectile points in the MSA may have manifested active (but not emblemic) style, and may have once symbolized social relations between obligated individuals. Archaeological evidence for notational items, personal ornaments, and ochre processing attest to the manipulation of symbolic resources by MSA hominids, and raw material sourcing studies suggest they were involved in regional exchange networks. Together this evidence supports a scenario in which projectile points are integrated into a communal system of exchange and may explain both the homogeneity of form across space and time, and the heterogeneity of form observed across the continent. This perspective implies an early origin for behavioral modernity at least 80 kya.
In the Mapungubwe National Park, near the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo Rivers along South... more In the Mapungubwe National Park, near the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo Rivers along South Africa’s northernmost borders with Botswana and Zimbabwe, the site of Kudu Koppie is characterized by three lithologically and archaeologically distinct Stone Age units. From bottom to the top, these units are: (1) the Lower Kudu Koppie Unit (LKKU), which includes large tools such as handaxes, picks and cleavers, characteristic of a late Earlier Stone Age phase; (2) the Middle Kudu Koppie Unit (MKKU), which contains bifacially retouched points characteristic of a Middle Stone Age (MSA) industry; and (3) the Upper Kudu Koppie Unit (UKKU), which has sporadic segments and other tools characteristic of the Later Stone Age (LSA). A refitting and nodule analysis, which matches lithic pieces based on microscopic similarities in colour, texture, and other visible characteristics, demonstrates that site formation processes have caused some vertical displacement of material within, but not between the LKKU and MKKU. Within the national park, the Kudu Koppie sandstone outcrop is unusual in that it has an overhanging structure, which undoubtedly contributed to the initial formation and eventual preservation of the archaeological deposits. This paper presents several lines of evidence indicating that stratigraphic integrity at Kudu Koppie has been preserved and that the three horizons are in primary or near-primary context.
Numerous societies throughout sub-Saharan Africa supported strong political systems prior to Euro... more Numerous societies throughout sub-Saharan Africa supported strong political systems prior to European colonization. Seldom, however, are the boundaries of large, dominant polities sharply delineated, making it difficult to identify the extent of their influence on neighbouring, peripheral communities. In this report, we present ceramic evidence from the lowland rain forest of southwest Cameroon suggesting macro-regional interactions that, during the last millennium, connected later Iron Age polities of Central Africa with Nigeria and Burkina Faso, West Africa. We propose that these rain-forest communities were engaging in long-distance regional interaction networks with societies much farther west than previously expected and thus formed the eastern periphery of the Yoruba culture sphere.
Tools of the Trade presents a collection of academic papers from the 2005 Chacmool archaeological... more Tools of the Trade presents a collection of academic papers from the 2005 Chacmool archaeological conference which includes a wide range of contributions from international archaeologists, senior professors and students alike. Each chapter focuses on the discussion and application of unique and innovative 'tools' for archaeological analysis and interpretation, including micro- and macro-botanical analysis, experimental study, off-site survey, lithic use-wear, ceramic petrography, DNA analysis, chaines operatoires, space syntax, and Geographic Information Systems. As a collective volume, Tools of the Trade also covers an impressive diversity of geographic regions and time periods, such as Precolumbian Mesoamerica, Plio-Pleistocene Africa, and prehistoric & historic North America. Finally, this volume provides a somewhat introspective look at the origins of tool use, technological development, and the means by which we have become the only species to ask the questions: What does it mean to be us and how can we find out?
This special issue presents research from the 2010 event "Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Gradua... more This special issue presents research from the 2010 event "Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Graduate Students Lithic Symposium". The symposium was held at the University of Toronto from February 24-25 2010 and served as a venue for graduate students from across North America to share current research methodologies with their peers interested in lithic technology studies. Included in this issue are an introduction from the organizers summarizing the event, seven papers presented at the symposium, and the complete list of abstracts.
Over the last few decades, investigations of the southern African Late Pleistocene archeological ... more Over the last few decades, investigations of the southern African Late Pleistocene archeological record have transformed our understanding of Homo sapiens origins and evolution. However, the intensity of research on coastal and near-coastal records has surpassed that in the deep interior. One reason for the geographic bias is the rarity of well-preserved, datable rockshelter sites outside the more mountainous and karstic regions of South Africa. Here, we report stratified Middle Stone Age and Later Stone Age deposits at Ga-Mohana Hill North Rockshelter (GHN), near Kuruman, in the Northern Cape, South Africa. Contrary to a previous report, we show that the archeological deposits are in good context with minimal disturbance based on a detailed fabric analysis of plotted finds. Three dating methods, single-grain optically stimulated luminescence, radiocarbon, and uranium-thorium, indicate that the artifact-bearing deposits date to ~ 105 ka, ~ 31 ka, and ~ 15 ka. Thus, Ga-Mohana Hill North Rockshelter provides an important opportunity to investigate early human adaptation in this semiarid region of southern Africa.
Approximately 74 thousand years ago (ka), the Toba caldera erupted in Sumatra. Since the magnitud... more Approximately 74 thousand years ago (ka), the Toba caldera erupted in Sumatra. Since the magnitude of this eruption was first established, its effects on climate, environment and humans have been debated 1 . Here we describe the discovery of microscopic glass shards characteristic of the Youngest Toba Tuff—ashfall from the Toba eruption—in two archaeological sites on the south coast of South Africa, a region in which there is evidence for early human behavioural complexity. An independently derived dating model supports a date of approximately 74 ka for the sediments containing the Youngest Toba Tuff glass shards. By defining the input of shards at both sites, which are located nine kilometres apart, we are able to establish a close temporal correlation between them. Our high-resolution excavation and sampling technique enable exact comparisons between the input of Youngest Toba Tuff glass shards and the evidence for human occupation. Humans in this region thrived through the Toba event and the ensuing full glacial conditions, perhaps as a combined result of the uniquely rich resource base of the region and fully evolved modern human adaptation.
Grassridge Rockshelter is a multicomponent Pleistocene and Holocene archaeological site located i... more Grassridge Rockshelter is a multicomponent Pleistocene and Holocene archaeological site located in the interior of the Eastern Cape of South Africa, and was originally studied during the late 1970s and early 1980s. The Grassridge Archaeological and Palaeoenvironmental Project (GAPP) initiated new research at Grassridge in 2014, and here we present an overview of our initial excavations and research, with a focus on the Holocene occupations. Preliminary results indicate a more complex occupational and depositional history than previously thought. In addition to relocating the known mid-Holocene occupation , we have identified a previously unrecorded early Holocene occupation , which dates to the end of the Younger Dryas, and a thin flowstone located at the contact between the Holocene and Pleistocene deposits. The Holocene lithic assemblages are characterised by flake-based lithic reduction, primarily on hornfels, with an increase in the frequency and diversity of retouched pieces from the early to mid-Holocene. Ostrich eggshell beads are ubiquitous during both Holocene occupations, and marine shells have also been discovered. The latter are reported from Grassridge for the first time, and indicate a connection with the coast.
The origins of complex projectile weaponry provides insight into cultural and biological changes ... more The origins of complex projectile weaponry provides insight into cultural and biological changes associated with the origins and spread of modern human populations. Middle Stone Age backed pieces are often thought to be components of such armaments, however our limited understanding of their functional characteristics as projectiles precludes understanding the adaptive problems they may have solved. Despite acknowledgment of raw material differences and intra-assemblage variability, whether variability in backed piece form reflects functional , economic, or stylistic variation has a paucity of empirical support. Here, the functional differences in backed piece form (size and shape) while hafted transversely and obliquely as high-velocity complex projectile armatures are examined. If there are performance tradeoffs simply in how backed pieces are arranged at the end of armaments that can influence effectiveness, then identifying the archaeological arrangement can provide insight into what variables were being prioritized in prehistoric technological systems. How variation in backed piece size, elongation, and hafting arrangement influences complex projectile performance is tested using experimental and actualistic projectile replications with a calibrated crossbow against animal and ballistics gelatin targets. The results of this study show that, within the size and shape variation of silcrete backed pieces examined , tool form plays a relatively limited role in their performance as projectile armatures. However, hafting orientation has very different performance characteristics for complex projectiles shot at ballistics gelatin compared to animal targets. We demonstrate that transversely hafted tools have more lethal internal wounds, but obliquely hafted backed pieces have greater puncture reliability. These functional differences represent different technological design emphasis: transversely hafted tools create large, deep wounds, while obliquely hafted arrows and darts create a puncture more reliably. Although obliquely hafted armaments cause less internal trauma, they are more likely to penetrate the hide of ungulate prey. Variability in MSA hunting tactics may have played a role in the design of weapon systems to optimize these performance tradeoffs. Despite similarities in shape with ethno-historic technologies, based on these results, MSA-sized backed pieces hafted as projectile armatures were unlikely to have been used with small, low-powered bows-but would have been lethal with a high-velocity delivery system.
There are multiple hypotheses for human responses to glacial cycling in the Late Pleisto-cene, in... more There are multiple hypotheses for human responses to glacial cycling in the Late Pleisto-cene, including changes in population size, interconnectedness, and mobility. Lithic technological analysis informs us of human responses to environmental change because lithic assemblage characteristics are a reflection of raw material transport, reduction, and discard behaviors that depend on hunter-gatherer social and economic decisions. Pinnacle Point Site 5–6 (PP5-6), Western Cape, South Africa is an ideal locality for examining the influence of glacial cycling on early modern human behaviors because it preserves a long sequence spanning marine isotope stages (MIS) 5, 4, and 3 and is associated with robust records of paleoenvironmental change. The analysis presented here addresses the question, what, if any, lithic assemblage traits at PP5-6 represent changing behavioral responses to the MIS 5-4-3 interglacial-glacial cycle? It statistically evaluates changes in 93 traits with no a priori assumptions about which traits may significantly associate with MIS. In contrast to other studies that claim that there is little relationship between broad-scale patterns of climate change and lithic technology, we identified the following characteristics that are associated with MIS 4: increased use of quartz, increased evidence for outcrop sources of quartzite and silcrete, increased evidence for earlier stages of reduction in silcrete, evidence for increased flaking efficiency in all raw material types, and changes in tool types and function for silcrete. Based on these results, we suggest that foragers responded to MIS 4 glacial environmental conditions at PP5-6 with increased population or group sizes, 'place provisioning', longer and/or more intense site occupations, and decreased residential mobility. Several other traits, including silcrete frequency, do not exhibit an association with MIS. Backed pieces, once they appear in the PP5-6 record during MIS 4, persist through MIS 3. Changing paleoenviron-ments explain some, but not all temporal technological variability at PP5-6.
There is a general trend for increased selectivity and longer transport distances of lithic raw m... more There is a general trend for increased selectivity and longer transport distances of lithic raw materials for flintknapping in the Middle Stone Age compared to the Earlier Stone Age. The Stratum 4a assemblage at Kathu Pan 1, Northern Cape, South Africa, which dates to ~500 ka, presents a unique opportunity for assessing Pleisto-cene raw material foraging strategies at the onset of the Middle Stone Age. In this paper, I identify potential primary and secondary sources for the raw materials used for lithic reduction at Kathu Pan 1 (KP1), and quantify raw material variability at nearby secondary sources. Patterns of raw material selection are identified within the KP1 Stratum 4a assemblage and compared to a sample from the underlying Stratum 4b, an Acheulean assemblage , to test for a temporal pattern. Raw material use during the Stratum 4a occupation of Kathu Pan, which is focused on abundant locally available resources for flintknapping, is consistent with the general pattern for Earlier Stone Age foraging strategies, and differs from evidence at some more recent Middle Stone Age sites that show longer transport distances and increased selectivity for certain high-value materials. While many aspects of technology change at KP1 ~500 ka, these technological shifts are not associated with a significant change in the kinds of raw material that were exploited. There are, however, differences in how the raw material was exploited. In Stratum 4a, there is evidence that hominins intentionally exploited the natural banding in banded ironstone formation in order to produce elongated products, and this evidence is lacking in the underlying Acheulean assemblage.
The Middle Stone Age (MSA) is associated with early evidence for symbolic material culture and co... more The Middle Stone Age (MSA) is associated with early evidence for symbolic material culture and complex technological innovations. However, one of the most visible aspects of MSA technologies are unretouched triangular stone points that appear in the archaeological record as early as 500,000 years ago in Africa and persist throughout the MSA. How these tools were being used and discarded across a changing Pleistocene landscape can provide insight into how MSA populations prioritized technological and foraging decisions. Creating inferential links between experimental and archaeological tool use helps to establish prehistoric tool function, but is complicated by the overlaying of post-depositional damage onto behaviorally worn tools. Taphonomic damage patterning can provide insight into site formation history, but may preclude behavioral interpretations of tool function. Here, multiple experimental processes that form edge damage on unretouched lithic points from taphonomic and behavioral processes are presented. These provide experimental distributions of wear on tool edges from known processes that are then quantitatively compared to the archaeological patterning of stone point edge damage from three MSA lithic assem-blages—Kathu Pan 1, Pinnacle Point Cave 13B, and Die Kelders Cave 1. By using a model-fitting approach, the results presented here provide evidence for variable MSA behavioral strategies of stone point utilization on the landscape consistent with armature tips at KP1, and cutting tools at PP13B and DK1, as well as damage contributions from post-depositional sources across assemblages. This study provides a method with which landscape-scale questions of early modern human tool-use and site-use can be addressed.
Rots and Plisson (2014) question our conclusion that 500,000-year-old points from Kathu Pan 1, So... more Rots and Plisson (2014) question our conclusion that 500,000-year-old points from Kathu Pan 1, South Africa were used as spear tips (Wilkins et al., 2012). However, their reinterpretation of the fractures we identify as diagnostic impact fractures are incorrect. Despite the assertion, knapping processes alone do not explain the basal modifications on the KP1 points. Although Rots and Plisson are critical of the edge damage distribution method, it provides objective, quantitative and statistical comparisons of experimental and archaeological datasets. The data we present stand as reliable evidence for early hafted hunting technology. We suggest that the disagreement stems from a differing perspective on how lithic functional studies should deal with equifinality and the challenge of confidently assessing stone tool function.
Stone-tipped weapons were a significant innovation for Middle Pleistocene hominins. Hafted huntin... more Stone-tipped weapons were a significant innovation for Middle Pleistocene hominins. Hafted hunting technology represents the development of new cognitive and social learning mechanisms within the genus Homo, and may have provided a foraging advantage over simpler forms of hunting technology, such as a sharpened wooden spear. However, the nature of this foraging advantage has not been confirmed. Experimental studies and ethnographic reports provide conflicting results regarding the relative importance of the functional, economic, and social roles of hafted hunting technology. The controlled experiment reported here was designed to test the functional hypothesis for stone-tipped weapons using spears and ballistics gelatin. It differs from previous investigations of this type because it includes a quantitative analysis of wound track profiles and focuses specifically on hand-delivered spear technology. Our results do not support the hypothesis that tipped spears penetrate deeper than untipped spears. However, tipped spears create a significantly larger inner wound cavity that widens distally. This inner wound cavity is analogous to the permanent wound cavity in ballistics research, which is considered the key variable affecting the relative ‘stopping power’ or ‘killing power’ of a penetrating weapon. Tipped spears conferred a functional advantage to Middle Pleistocene hominins, potentially affecting the frequency and regularity of hunting success with important implications for human adaptation and life history.
Hafting stone points to spears was an important advance in weaponry for early humans. Multiple li... more Hafting stone points to spears was an important advance in weaponry for early humans. Multiple lines of evidence indicate that ~500,000-year-old stone points from the archaeological site of Kathu Pan 1 (KP1), South Africa, functioned as spear tips. KP1 points exhibit fracture types diagnostic of impact. Modification near the base of some points is consistent with hafting. Experimental and metric data indicate that the points could function well as spear tips. Shape analysis demonstrates that the smaller retouched points are as symmetrical as larger retouched points, which fits expectations for spear tips. The distribution of edge damage is similar to that in an experimental sample of spear tips and is inconsistent with expectations for cutting or scraping tools. Thus, early humans were manufacturing hafted multicomponent tools ~200,000 years earlier than previously thought.
The ∼500 thousand year old stratum 4a lithic assemblage from Kathu Pan 1, Northern Cape, South Af... more The ∼500 thousand year old stratum 4a lithic assemblage from Kathu Pan 1, Northern Cape, South Africa, is one of the earliest occurrences of blade technology and is the oldest dated assemblage attributed to the Fauresmith industry. A technological analysis of the Kathu Pan 1 stratum 4a assemblage reveals that blades were systematically removed using direct hard hammer percussion from organized blade cores that were extensively prepared via centripetal flaking. Some of these blades were retouched into points. Comparisons with published descriptions of the roughly contemporary blade assemblages from the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya and Qesem Cave, Israel demonstrate that diverse blade production strategies were employed during the earlier half of the Middle Pleistocene. The diversity best supports a scenario in which laminar technology was invented in multiple places and times.
Kudu Koppie is a stratified late Earlier Stone Age and Middle Stone Age archaeological site locat... more Kudu Koppie is a stratified late Earlier Stone Age and Middle Stone Age archaeological site located in the northern Limpopo Province of South Africa. The prepared core reduction strategies are described and temporal trends across the ESA–MSA boundary are presented. The prepared cores and endproducts of Kudu Koppie suggest that both the late ESA and MSA toolmakers employed the Levallois Volumetric Concept, but they often exploited a nodule’s natural convexities and form. The MSA toolmakers used a greater variety of prepared core methods and more intensively exploited cryptocrystalline and microcrystalline nodules, the scarcity of which may have resulted in a more ‘‘formalized’’ application of the Levallois Volumetric Concept. These observations are considered within the context of human behavioural evolution.
Three aspects of the African Middle Stone Age (MSA) archaeological record - the use of symbolic r... more Three aspects of the African Middle Stone Age (MSA) archaeological record - the use of symbolic resources, long-distance transfer of raw materials, and socalled ‘regional traditions’ in projectile point form - are examined within the context of the modern human behaviour debate. It is argued that projectile points in the MSA may have manifested active (but not emblemic) style, and may have once symbolized social relations between obligated individuals. Archaeological evidence for notational items, personal ornaments, and ochre processing attest to the manipulation of symbolic resources by MSA hominids, and raw material sourcing studies suggest they were involved in regional exchange networks. Together this evidence supports a scenario in which projectile points are integrated into a communal system of exchange and may explain both the homogeneity of form across space and time, and the heterogeneity of form observed across the continent. This perspective implies an early origin for behavioral modernity at least 80 kya.
In the Mapungubwe National Park, near the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo Rivers along South... more In the Mapungubwe National Park, near the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo Rivers along South Africa’s northernmost borders with Botswana and Zimbabwe, the site of Kudu Koppie is characterized by three lithologically and archaeologically distinct Stone Age units. From bottom to the top, these units are: (1) the Lower Kudu Koppie Unit (LKKU), which includes large tools such as handaxes, picks and cleavers, characteristic of a late Earlier Stone Age phase; (2) the Middle Kudu Koppie Unit (MKKU), which contains bifacially retouched points characteristic of a Middle Stone Age (MSA) industry; and (3) the Upper Kudu Koppie Unit (UKKU), which has sporadic segments and other tools characteristic of the Later Stone Age (LSA). A refitting and nodule analysis, which matches lithic pieces based on microscopic similarities in colour, texture, and other visible characteristics, demonstrates that site formation processes have caused some vertical displacement of material within, but not between the LKKU and MKKU. Within the national park, the Kudu Koppie sandstone outcrop is unusual in that it has an overhanging structure, which undoubtedly contributed to the initial formation and eventual preservation of the archaeological deposits. This paper presents several lines of evidence indicating that stratigraphic integrity at Kudu Koppie has been preserved and that the three horizons are in primary or near-primary context.
Numerous societies throughout sub-Saharan Africa supported strong political systems prior to Euro... more Numerous societies throughout sub-Saharan Africa supported strong political systems prior to European colonization. Seldom, however, are the boundaries of large, dominant polities sharply delineated, making it difficult to identify the extent of their influence on neighbouring, peripheral communities. In this report, we present ceramic evidence from the lowland rain forest of southwest Cameroon suggesting macro-regional interactions that, during the last millennium, connected later Iron Age polities of Central Africa with Nigeria and Burkina Faso, West Africa. We propose that these rain-forest communities were engaging in long-distance regional interaction networks with societies much farther west than previously expected and thus formed the eastern periphery of the Yoruba culture sphere.
Tools of the Trade presents a collection of academic papers from the 2005 Chacmool archaeological... more Tools of the Trade presents a collection of academic papers from the 2005 Chacmool archaeological conference which includes a wide range of contributions from international archaeologists, senior professors and students alike. Each chapter focuses on the discussion and application of unique and innovative 'tools' for archaeological analysis and interpretation, including micro- and macro-botanical analysis, experimental study, off-site survey, lithic use-wear, ceramic petrography, DNA analysis, chaines operatoires, space syntax, and Geographic Information Systems. As a collective volume, Tools of the Trade also covers an impressive diversity of geographic regions and time periods, such as Precolumbian Mesoamerica, Plio-Pleistocene Africa, and prehistoric & historic North America. Finally, this volume provides a somewhat introspective look at the origins of tool use, technological development, and the means by which we have become the only species to ask the questions: What does it mean to be us and how can we find out?
This special issue presents research from the 2010 event "Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Gradua... more This special issue presents research from the 2010 event "Between a Rock and a Hard Place: Graduate Students Lithic Symposium". The symposium was held at the University of Toronto from February 24-25 2010 and served as a venue for graduate students from across North America to share current research methodologies with their peers interested in lithic technology studies. Included in this issue are an introduction from the organizers summarizing the event, seven papers presented at the symposium, and the complete list of abstracts.
This paper explores the effect of taphonomic processes on 500-thousand-year-old stone points from... more This paper explores the effect of taphonomic processes on 500-thousand-year-old stone points from Kathu Pan 1, South Africa by statistically comparing archaeological edge damage distributions on the points to competing models of edge damage formation. We found that both taphonomic and behavioral processes influenced edge damage formation on the KP1 points, and the KP1 edge damage distribution is best explained by a combination of taphonomic effects and use as spear tips. The edge damage distribution method employed here advances studies of Stone Age weaponry because it can be used to quantitatively assess the effect of taphonomic and behavioral processes on stone tips without relying on subjective evaluations that attribute causation to individual wear features.
The aim of this thesis is to describe the prepared core reduction strategies employed at Kudu Kop... more The aim of this thesis is to describe the prepared core reduction strategies employed at Kudu Koppie, a stratified terminal Earlier Stone age/Sangoan and MSA archaeological site located in the Limpopo region of northern South Africa, and relate lithic reduction to the variables of time and raw material. A technological analysis of the prepared cores and endproducts of Kudu Koppie suggests that both the Sangoan and MSA toolmakers employed the Levallois Volumetric Concept, but often exploited a nodule’s natural convexities and form. The MSA toolmakers used a greater variety of prepared core methods and more intensely exploited cryptocrystalline nodules, the scarcity of which may have resulted in a more “formalized” application of the Levallois Volumetric Concept. These observations are considered in light of their cognitive and economic implications, and within the context of the behavioural modernity debate.
This dissertation describes the technological behaviors represented by the ~500-thousand-year-old... more This dissertation describes the technological behaviors represented by the ~500-thousand-year-old stratum 4a lithic assemblage from Kathu Pan 1 (KP1), Northern Cape, South Africa, and situates new evidence from this site into evolutionary context. The findings highlight the significance of the early Middle Pleistocene in Africa for understanding behavioral evolution in later Homo.
The stratum 4a assemblage at KP1 represents a mainly flake and blade-based industry that employed multiple strategies to produce blanks that were retouched into a variety of forms, including unifacially retouched points. Diverse core reduction strategies at KP1 suggests that KP1 hominins were flexible to the demands of local raw materials, consistent with increased degrees of ‘behavioral variability’ and adaptability.
Several lines of evidence indicate that the KP1 points were used as spear tips. Points from sites ~300 thousand years ago (ka) and younger were often used as weapon tips, and evidence for this behavior can now be pushed back to ~500 ka, with important implications for cognition and social behavior among early Middle Pleistocene hominins.
Raw materials in the KP1 assemblage were acquired from multiple local sources. Based on comparisons with a sample from the underlying stratum 4b Acheulean assemblage, the stratum 4a assemblage does not exhibit major changes in the kinds or quality of raw material exploited; thus, the technological changes represented by the stratum 4a assemblage are not explained by changes in raw material.
New evidence from KP1 poses problems for current models that link the appearance of Middle Stone Age technologies to speciation and dispersion ~300 ka. Middle Stone Age technologies appear in the African archaeological record by ~500 ka. The new timing for the origins of Middle Stone Age technologies provides a parsimonious explanation for technological similarities between the lithic assemblages of Neanderthals and modern Homo sapiens, who share a common ancestor in the early Middle Pleistocene. Limits imposed by the nature of the African archaeological record and chronometric analyses may explain why the antiquity of these technological changes was not previously recognized.
The location and distribution of macroscopic breaks (i.e. edge damage) on stone tools can inform ... more The location and distribution of macroscopic breaks (i.e. edge damage) on stone tools can inform archaeologists about stone tool function. The edge damage distribution method maps the location of damage scars along the edges of individual tools without attributing causation to any of the damage scars. It then pools the data for the whole assemblage of tools to generate damage frequencies at different edge locations. Using this method, archaeological and experimental frequency distributions can be statistically compared, and hypotheses about stone tool function can be tested.
In this workshop you will learn how to carry out an edge damage distribution analysis. While participating in this workshop, you will also help to generate an experimental assemblage of cutting tools.
The method involves several major steps; acquiring/generating the stone tool sample, photography, image georectification, edge damage mapping in ArcGIS, and data processing. This workshop is set up as 4 separate stations, where you will carry out each of these steps.
This methodology is now published as Supporting Information in Wilkins et al., 2017, Lithic techn... more This methodology is now published as Supporting Information in Wilkins et al., 2017, Lithic technological responses to Late Pleistocene glacial cycling at Pinnacle Point Site 5-6, South Africa. Plos One. http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0174051
"Coauthors: Kyle S. Brown, Simen Oestmo, Telmo Pereira, Kathryn Ranhorn, Benjamin J. Schoville, ... more "Coauthors: Kyle S. Brown, Simen Oestmo, Telmo Pereira, Kathryn Ranhorn, Benjamin J. Schoville, and Curtis W. Marean. Pinnacle Point Site 5-6 (PP5-6) on the south coast of South Africa provides a high resolution and nearly continuous record of Late Pleistocene occupation between ~90 and 50 ka. Fourteen meters of stacked occupation layers have been excavated with total station plotting and dated by 81 optically stimulated luminescence age estimates. We present the results of the analysis of more than 14,000 lithic artifacts from the sequence to examine aspects of change and continuity in raw material selection and heat-treatment, core reduction strategies, and tool types through time. At PP5-6, fine-grained raw materials (i.e., silcrete, quartz, chalcedony) dominate the assemblage after ~70 ka. Quartzite is more common ~90-70 ka, though some stratigraphic units during this period are silcrete-dominant. Quartz use peaks between ~70-63 ka. Based on the size-variability of lithic artifacts with remnant pre-heat treatment scars, silcrete nodules of various sizes and morphologies were heat-treated. Diverse core reduction methods were used throughout the sequence for blade, bladelet, and flake production, and these methods included the use of minimally-crested blades, pyramidal blade cores, and bipolar percussion. Backed pieces occur from ~70-50 ka, but with fluctuating frequencies and morphologies. Unretouched points are most common between ~90-80 ka and again at ~50 ka, and are rare between ~70 and 50 ka. These results are situated within the context of the African Middle and Later Stone Age to consider the nature of technological change and adaptation in the Late Pleistocene. Our comparative framework includes contemporary MSA sequences at Diepkloof Cave, Klasies River, Sibudu Cave, Border Cave, and younger Later Stone Age assemblages. The presented sequence is critical for understanding Late Pleistocene technological variability and how environmental change influenced the technological decisions of early modern humans."
Benjamin J. Schoville, Erik Otarola-Castillo, and Jayne Wilkins.
Recent genetic and fossil ev... more Benjamin J. Schoville, Erik Otarola-Castillo, and Jayne Wilkins.
Recent genetic and fossil evidence places the origins of the modern human lineage and anatomy at ~200-150ka ago in Africa. This time period is encompassed by MIS6, a long-lasting glacial phase which is estimated to have caused widespread aridity in Africa. Archaeological sites that date to this time period are uncommon. A single population origin model presumes that one region in Africa had high probability of supporting a population during MIS6 that led to all humans alive today and predicts population separation. An alternative multiple populations model argues for population interconnection throughout Africa during the evolution of modern humans. This model predicts multiple connected regions of high probability for population occurrence. To test these competing models, a Maximum Entropy species distribution model (SDM) using presence of recent hunter-gatherers during the Holocene are projected to a glacial period in Africa (LGM) to approximate MIS6 conditions. The model performs well compared to a random prediction model (AUC=0.784). The predicted glacial SDM suggests that widespread areas in Africa during MIS6 were unlikely to support substantial populations, consistent with the single population model. However, several large isolated regions appear to have strong likelihood of population occurrence, consistent with the multiple populations model."
The stratum 4a Fauresmith-designated assemblage at Kathu Pan 1 (KP1) in the Northern Cape Provinc... more The stratum 4a Fauresmith-designated assemblage at Kathu Pan 1 (KP1) in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa provides early evidence for many Middle Stone Age (MSA) innovations, including systematic blade production, Levallois core reduction, and lithic-tipped spears. The stratum 4a assemblage has been chronometrically dated by OSL to 464±47 ka and combined U-series/ESR to 542 +140/-107 ka. While surprising, these data are not contradictory with the African archaeological record. Other archaeological occurrences dated to between ~500 and 300 ka also contain MSA elements. Handaxes persist for a long time in Africa, until ~130 ka, but after ~500 ka, they occur in association with MSA technologies. At KP1, the stratum 4a Fauresmith handaxes are more weathered and patinated than the rest of the 4a assemblage, suggesting the possibility the handaxe component is intrusive. The relatively recent advances in chronometric dating together with weak archaeological visibility during the early Middle Pleistocene could explain why the MSA has not been previously reported from contexts >300 ka. The rough temporal correlation of the appearance of MSA and hafted spear technologies with the divergence of the Neanderthal and Homo sapiens lineages ~800-400 ka gives a parsimonious explanation for technological similarities between MSA and Middle Paleolithic assemblages.
It is frequently suggested that MSA points were hafted and used as spear tips, but so far only a ... more It is frequently suggested that MSA points were hafted and used as spear tips, but so far only a limited number of use wear and residue analyses of MSA points support this view. There have been no functional studies of points securely dated to >250 ka. However, the manufacture and use of lithic-tipped hunting weapons, which changes the efficiency of prey acquisition and foraging, has important implications for hominin evolution. At Kathu Pan 1 (KP1), South Africa, points were recovered from sediments dated by OSL to 464±47 and combined U-series/ESR to 542 +140/-107. Based on the co-occurrence of blades, points, and handaxes, the assemblage has been attributed to the ‘Fauresmith’ industry, variably designated as early MSA, late Earlier Stone Age, or ‘transitional’. Here we report results from a functional analysis of 210 points and point fragments from KP1 and replication experiments using hafted points and a calibrated crossbow. Edge damage was identified with 10-50x magnification, and systematically mapped using GIS software. Three hypotheses for edge damage formation on KP1 points were evaluated: use as armature tips, use as cutting tools, and post-depositional processes. Multiple lines of evidence support the hypothesis that KP1 points were used as spear tips. Edge damage distribution on ventral lateral margins is inconsistent with a distribution resulting solely from post-depositional processes. Damage on KP1 points increases significantly at the tip, and the left and right sides have equivalent distributions, consistent with experimental spear points but inconsistent with cutting tools and taphonomic patterning. ‘Diagnostic impact fractures’, proximal modification, and point morphometrics provide additional supporting evidence for the spear tip hypothesis. This study documents the earliest evidence for hafted hunting weapons.
To assess the argument that the unique characteristics of Fauresmith lithic assemblages (i.e. bla... more To assess the argument that the unique characteristics of Fauresmith lithic assemblages (i.e. blades and small handaxes) are the consequence of local raw material quality, a study of raw material availability and distribution in primary and secondary sources in the region surrounding KP1 was conducted. Nine locations that represent the range of raw material availability for KP1 were systematically sampled from outcrops and stream and river beds. Lithology, metrics, form, and workability were recorded for sampled materials within each location. The geological distributions are compared to the archaeological assemblage from the Fauresmith and Acheulean levels of KP1.
Stratum 4a at the site of Kathu Pan 1 in central South Africa has yielded a rich Middle Pleistoce... more Stratum 4a at the site of Kathu Pan 1 in central South Africa has yielded a rich Middle Pleistocene blade assemblage radiometrically dated to 500 ka. Presented here are the results of a technological analysis of the lithic component of strata 4a, which has been attributed to the Fauresmith industry. The chaînes opératoires of blade production at Kathu Pan are compared and contrasted with the published analyses of other Earlier and Middle Stone Age blade assemblages, including the 500 ka assemblage at Kapthurin Formation, Kenya and the Howiesons Poort assemblages at Rose Cottage Cave and Klasies River, South Africa.
Development of the capacity for symbolically-mediated behavior was an important milestone in the ... more Development of the capacity for symbolically-mediated behavior was an important milestone in the evolution of Homo sapiens, but acceptance of most markings as symbolic media is based on subjective/expert opinion (argument from authority) rather than objective testing. The statistical method advanced here tests whether line configurations engraved on the surface of objects differ from randomly-generated line configurations. Pattern significance is calculated from the observed frequency with which a single line configuration may be generated from a distribution of 9,999 randomized line configurations. Line configurations that are significantly different from random are more likely to be part of a patterned system of shared meaning and to have served as symbols intended to transfer information. Two control samples were analyzed here to test the feasibility and reliability of the method; (1) Later Stone Age incised stones from Wonderwerk Cave, Northern Cape, South Africa, and (2) “natural” pieces of stone collected from outside Wonderwerk Cave that exhibit lines due to the geological processes of cleavage and abrasion. The results conform fairly well to expectation. 1 of 10 of the natural pieces and 5 out of the 12 of the LSA pieces exhibit line configurations that differ significantly from a randomly generated pattern. This analysis reveals that natural processes can occasionally result in non-random configurations and that not all unequivocally engraved objects yield line configurations that are significantly different from random. The intent of this research is to expand on a method grounded in entropy information theory and move towards a more objective approach to exploring the origins of symbolic communication.
Acknowledgments: We thank Michael Chazan for facilitating access to the Wonderwerk incised LSA material and Colin Fortune, David Morris, and Leon Jacobson for enabling access to the material housed at the McGregor Museum, Kimberley.
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The stratum 4a assemblage at KP1 represents a mainly flake and blade-based industry that employed multiple strategies to produce blanks that were retouched into a variety of forms, including unifacially retouched points. Diverse core reduction strategies at KP1 suggests that KP1 hominins were flexible to the demands of local raw materials, consistent with increased degrees of ‘behavioral variability’ and adaptability.
Several lines of evidence indicate that the KP1 points were used as spear tips. Points from sites ~300 thousand years ago (ka) and younger were often used as weapon tips, and evidence for this behavior can now be pushed back to ~500 ka, with important implications for cognition and social behavior among early Middle Pleistocene hominins.
Raw materials in the KP1 assemblage were acquired from multiple local sources. Based on comparisons with a sample from the underlying stratum 4b Acheulean assemblage, the stratum 4a assemblage does not exhibit major changes in the kinds or quality of raw material exploited; thus, the technological changes represented by the stratum 4a assemblage are not explained by changes in raw material.
New evidence from KP1 poses problems for current models that link the appearance of Middle Stone Age technologies to speciation and dispersion ~300 ka. Middle Stone Age technologies appear in the African archaeological record by ~500 ka. The new timing for the origins of Middle Stone Age technologies provides a parsimonious explanation for technological similarities between the lithic assemblages of Neanderthals and modern Homo sapiens, who share a common ancestor in the early Middle Pleistocene. Limits imposed by the nature of the African archaeological record and chronometric analyses may explain why the antiquity of these technological changes was not previously recognized.
In this workshop you will learn how to carry out an edge damage distribution analysis. While participating in this workshop, you will also help to generate an experimental assemblage of cutting tools.
The method involves several major steps; acquiring/generating the stone tool sample, photography, image georectification, edge damage mapping in ArcGIS, and data processing. This workshop is set up as 4 separate stations, where you will carry out each of these steps.
Recent genetic and fossil evidence places the origins of the modern human lineage and anatomy at ~200-150ka ago in Africa. This time period is encompassed by MIS6, a long-lasting glacial phase which is estimated to have caused widespread aridity in Africa. Archaeological sites that date to this time period are uncommon. A single population origin model presumes that one region in Africa had high probability of supporting a population during MIS6 that led to all humans alive today and predicts population separation. An alternative multiple populations model argues for population interconnection throughout Africa during the evolution of modern humans. This model predicts multiple connected regions of high probability for population occurrence. To test these competing models, a Maximum Entropy species distribution model (SDM) using presence of recent hunter-gatherers during the Holocene are projected to a glacial period in Africa (LGM) to approximate MIS6 conditions. The model performs well compared to a random prediction model (AUC=0.784). The predicted glacial SDM suggests that widespread areas in Africa during MIS6 were unlikely to support substantial populations, consistent with the single population model. However, several large isolated regions appear to have strong likelihood of population occurrence, consistent with the multiple populations model."
Acknowledgments: We thank Michael Chazan for facilitating access to the Wonderwerk incised LSA material and Colin Fortune, David Morris, and Leon Jacobson for enabling access to the material housed at the McGregor Museum, Kimberley.