Senior University Lecturer and Docent in Hebrew Bible at the University of Helsinki. Habilitation LMU-München. More extensive biography: https://researchportal.helsinki.fi/en/persons/juha-pakkala and bibliography: https://researchportal.helsinki.fi/en/persons/juha-pakkala/publications/ Phone: +358-9-19122120 Address: Department of Biblical Studies Faculty of Theology P.O. Box 3 (Fabianinkatu 33) FIN-00014 University of Helsinki Finland
Editorial Techniques in the Hebrew Bible: Toward a Refined Literary Criticism presents and applie... more Editorial Techniques in the Hebrew Bible: Toward a Refined Literary Criticism presents and applies a model for understanding and reconstructing the diachronic development of the Hebrew Bible through historical criticism (or the historical-critical method). Reinhard Müller and Juha Pakkala refine the methodologies of literary and redaction criticism through a systematic investigation of the evidence of additions, omissions, replacements, and transpositions that are documented by divergent ancient textual traditions. At stake is not only historical criticism but also the Hebrew Bible as a historical source, for historical criticism has been and continues to be the only method to unwind those scribal changes that left no traces in textual variants.
Documented evidence has shown that the Hebrew Bible was edited by successive scribes for centurie... more Documented evidence has shown that the Hebrew Bible was edited by successive scribes for centuries, and the impact of editing on the resulting text has proven to be crucial. A better understanding of any issue in the Hebrew Bible and ancient Israel requires a deep understanding of the editorial processes. As a consequence, the editorial processes of the Hebrew Bible have come to the fore in the most recent scholarly debates. Nevertheless, editorial processes in the Hebrew Bible are still poorly understood and a methodological overview is lacking. It is apparent that collaboration between scholars of different fields is needed, and a methodological discussion that takes into account all the editorial techniques witnessed by documented evidence in the Hebrew scriptures and the rest of the ancient Near East is required. This book is a step in this direction. Contributions in this volume by leading scholars approach the issue from various perspectives, including methodology, textual criticism, redaction criticism, Dead Sea Scrolls, Assyriology, and Egyptology.
Texts from Ancient Levant. A collection of Finnish translations of most major Northwest-Semitic i... more Texts from Ancient Levant. A collection of Finnish translations of most major Northwest-Semitic inscriptions from the Iron Age related to the Hebrew Bible.
Tekstejä rautakauden Levantista tarjoaa ainutlaatuisen ikkunan muinaisen Israelin ja sen lähialueiden maailmaan rautakaudella (n. 1200–550 eaa.). Käännöskokoelman myötä lukijalla on ensi kertaa mahdollisuus päästä tutustumaan suomen kielellä kaikkiin merkittäviin luoteisseemiläisiin piirtokirjoituksiin Israelin kuningasajalta. Mukana on myös muutamia papyrustekstejä. Tekstit eivät ainoastaan täydennä Heprealaisen Raamatun antamaa kuvaa ajan kulttuurista, uskonnosta ja historiasta, vaan ne kuvaavat usein tapahtumia toisenlaisesta näkökulmasta. Historiallisina lähteinä tekstilöydöt ovatkin usein lähempänä tapahtumia kuin vuosisatoja myöhemmin kirjoitetut Raamatun tekstit.
Hepreankielisten tekstien lisäksi kokoelmassa on mukana tärkeimmät foinikiaksi, arameaksi, moabiksi, ammoniksi ja edomiksi kirjoitetut tekstit, jotka valottavat rautakautista kulttuuria. Mukana on tekstejä elämän eri alueilta: sotakirjeenvaihtoa, monumentaalipiirtokirjoituksia, hallinnollisia dokumentteja, sopimustekstejä, hautapiirtokirjoituksia, avunpyyntöjä, rukouksia, loitsu ja kalenteri. Tekstit antavat siten monipuolisen kuvan muinaisen Lähi-idän ja erityisesti Levantin maailmasta.
Introduction to Biblical Hebrew (in Finnish)
Ihan täyttä hepreaa on uusi Raamatun heprean peru... more Introduction to Biblical Hebrew (in Finnish)
Ihan täyttä hepreaa on uusi Raamatun heprean perusoppikirja, joka tarjoaa opiskelijalle sellaisen kielen osaamisen perustason, jolla hän voi lukea Heprealaista Raamattua sanakirjan avulla.
Ihan täyttä hepreaa johdattaa lukijan Raamatun heprean perusteisiin. Kirjassa käsitellään keskeiset kielioppiasiat, joiden oppimista harjoitukset tukevat. Tärkein sanasto kertautuu tehtävissä, niin että se on helppo omaksua. Harjoitukset on testattu opetustilanteissa Helsingin yliopistossa. Raamatun teksteistä poimitut esimerkit on valikoitu tukemaan perusteiden oppimista. Perustaitojen myötä karttuu kyky käyttää myös muita heprean apuneuvoja kuten kielioppeja ja sanakirjoja.
The articles in this volume investigate changes in texts that became to be regarded as holy and u... more The articles in this volume investigate changes in texts that became to be regarded as holy and unchangeable in Judaism and Christianity. The volume seeks to draw attention to the “empirical” evidence from Qumran, the Septuagint as well as from passages in the Hebrew Scriptures that have been shaped by the use of other texts. The contributions are divided into three main sections: The first section deals with methodological questions concerning textual changes. The second section consists of concrete examples from the Hebrew Bible, Qumran and Septuagint on how the texts were changed, corrected, edited and interpreted. The contributions of the third section will investigate the general influence and impact of Deuteronomistic ideology and phraseology on later texts.
Editorial modification within the Hebrew Bible was the rule rather than the exception, and signs ... more Editorial modification within the Hebrew Bible was the rule rather than the exception, and signs of editing can be found throughout its texts. The editing has been so substantial and frequent that scholars should not neglect editorial processes as irrelevant. This book features illustrative examples of short passages from different parts of the Hebrew Bible—in their original languages (Hebrew and Greek) and English translation—that provide insight into these editing processes. The book contributes to refining the exegetical method of literary and redaction criticism, and its results have important consequences for the future use of the Hebrew Bible in historical and theological studies.
"The book of Samuel tells the story of the origins of kingship in Israel in what seems to be an a... more "The book of Samuel tells the story of the origins of kingship in Israel in what seems to be an artistically structured, flowing narrative. Yet it is also marked by an inconsistent outlook, divergent styles, and breaks in the narrative. According to Noth’s Deuteronomistic History hypothesis, the Deuteronomistic historian constructed the narrative by piecing together early sources and generally refrained from commenting in his own voice. Recent studies have called into question the extent of Samuel’s sources and their redaction history, as well as the textual growth of the book as a whole. The essays in this book, representing the latest scholarship on this subject, reexamine whether the book of Samuel was ever part of a Deuteronomistic History. The contributors are A. Graeme Auld, Hannes Bezzel, Philip R.
Davies, Walter Dietrich, Cynthia Edenburg, Jeremy M. Hutton, Jürg Hutzli, Ernst Axel Knauf, Reinhard Müller, Richard D. Nelson, Christophe Nihan, K. L. Noll, Juha Pakkala, and Jacques Vermeylen."
The book investigates omissions in the textual transmission of the Hebrew scriptures. Literary cr... more The book investigates omissions in the textual transmission of the Hebrew scriptures. Literary criticism (Literarkritik) commonly assumes that later editors only expanded the older text; omissions would not have taken place. This axiom is implied in analyses and introductions to the methodology. The book investigates the validity of the axiom. After a review of literature, books of methodology, and past research, texts from different parts of the Hebrew Bible are discussed with this aim in view. The investigated texts consist of examples which preserve documented evidence about editorial changes. Passages with variant editions are compared in order to understand omissions as an editorial technique. The comparison of variant witnesses includes, for example, passages where the Greek and Hebrew versions differ and cases where parallel passages differ (e.g., Chronicles in relation to Kings, the Temple Scroll in relation the Pentateuch). Example texts have been taken from the Pentateuch, Samuel, Kings, Ezra-Nehemiah, Esther, Jubilees, etc.
The investigation shows that omissions took place in part of the transmission of the Hebrew scriptures. Although omissions were clearly less common than additions, the conclusion challenges the axiom of literary criticism. Rejecting the conventional implementation of the methodology, the book provides a new model for understanding the transmission of the Hebrew scriptures that integrates omissions as a possible editorial technique.
This monograph investigates the literary development of Ezra 7-10 and Neh 8. With a detailed lite... more This monograph investigates the literary development of Ezra 7-10 and Neh 8. With a detailed literary critical analysis the investigation shows that the text was produced in several successive editorial phases for at least two centuries. The final text cannot be used for historical purposes. The oldest text emerged as a short narrative, entirely written in the third person. It describes how a Torah scribe (Schriftgelehrter) called Ezra came from Babylon to Jerusalem to reinstate the written Torah. In the later editorial phases, Ezra's role was transformed from a scribe to a priest who brought cultic vessels to the Temple. The editorial development reveals that the text was originally influenced by Deuteronomy and the (Deutero)nomistic theology. Later, it came under priestly and Levitical influence.
Publications of the Finnish Exegetical Society 76, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: Helsinki/Göttingen, 1999., 1999
The task of this investigation was to examine intolerant monolatry in Israel’s religion. What was... more The task of this investigation was to examine intolerant monolatry in Israel’s religion. What was the background and historical context of this phenomenon? Where did it come from? A fundamental assumption in my approach was that there were two kinds of monolatry in the Deuteronomistic History (DH), intolerant and tolerant. This distinction proved to be a fruitful approach. The literary criticism demonstrated that most intolerance passages are later additions to their contexts. Furthermore, redaction-critical considerations suggested that most of these additions derive from the nomistic editors. These exilic writers were the first ones in the DH who attacked the other gods. The nomistic contribution to the intolerance of the DH is considerable, as only a small number of the intolerance passages are other than nomistic. Even these post-nomistic additions are clearly dependent on or influenced by the nomistic intolerance. The older layers of the DH, Deut and Exod 20-23; 34 did not attack the other gods. This conclusion is especially important for Deut 13 and Deut 17:2-7, which are usually thought to be among the earliest passages in the DH that prohibited the worship of the other gods. They appeared to be nomistic, possibly even late-nomistic. A similar conclusion was reached in the analyzed passages of Exodus. The intolerance laws of Exodus are dependent on the nomists of the DH. Intolerant monolatry is a late idea in the DH. It is a revolutionary development, the progression of which we may see inside the DH. This conclusion has considerable repercussions on the way we perceive the development of intolerance in Israel’s religion. Assuming that any development inside the OT’s most important historical source reflects the main developments and currents in Israel’s history and religion during the time of writing, it seems reasonable to assume that intolerant monolatry and the explicit demand to worship Yahweh exclusively are late ideas that first appeared during the Exile. Yahweh had already been in a dominant position prior to the Exile, but His worship had not been exclusive in the sense that the other gods had been prohibited. At least, there is no evidence that this was demanded. The only exclusivity that there may have been in Israel’s religion pertains to Yahweh’s primacy, but this should be distinguished from the nomistic all out attack on all other gods. The background of the nomistic intolerance is the exilic situation in which Israel’s old religion and society had collapsed and the Israelites whole existence as a people was threatened. To protect the Israelites’ identity, the nomists wanted to make a clear separation between the Israelites and the other nations. Intolerance of other gods was an essential part of their program to save Israel’s identity. In this sense, it was also a vision for the future. The nomistic theology was particularly applicable in the new state they were planning in the land after the Exile. It would have been a homogeneous Yahweh-alone state that did not tolerate worshippers of other gods and was based on the strict observance of Moses’ law. One does not have to assume outer influence on the birth and development of intolerant monolatry in Israel. It is an internal development that began during the Exile.
Kinneret II. Results of the Excavations at Tell el-ʽOrēme, 1994–2008: Vol. 1. The Bronze Age, Iron Age II, Post-Iron Age Periods, and Other Studies. Pakkala, J. & Zwickel, W. (eds.). Münster: Zaphon Verlag, p. 845-852 (Ägypten und Altes Testament; vol. 120)., 2024
Kinneret II. Results of the Excavations at Tell el-ʽOrēme, 1994–2008: Vol. 1. The Bronze Age, Iron Age II, Post-Iron Age Periods, and Other Studies. Münster: Zaphon Verlag, p. 21-32 (Ägypten und Altes Testament; vol. 120)., 2024
Introduction to the excavations at Tel Kinrot / Tell el-ʽOrēme.
Kinneret II. Results of the Excavations at Tell el-ʽOrēme, 1994–2008: Vol. 1. The Bronze Age, Iron Age II, Post-Iron Age Periods, and Other Studies. Pakkala, J. & Zwickel, W. (eds.). Münster: Zaphon Verlag, p. 551-554 (Ägypten und Altes Testament; vol. 120)., 2024
Kinneret II. Results of the Excavations at Tell el-ʽOrēme, 1994–2008: Vol. 1. The Bronze Age, Iron Age II, Post-Iron Age Periods, and Other Studies. Pakkala, J. & Zwickel, W. (eds.). Münster: Zaphon Verlag, p. 1013-1034 (Ägypten und Altes Testament; vol. 120)., 2024
Kinneret II. Results of the Excavations at Tell el-ʽOrēme, 1994–2008: Vol. 1. The Bronze Age, Iron Age II, Post-Iron Age Periods, and Other Studies. Pakkala, J. & Zwickel, W. (eds.). Münster: Zaphon Verlag, p. 33-44., 2024
Kinneret II. Results of the Excavations at Tell el-ʽOrēme, 1994–2008: Vol. 1. The Bronze Age, Iron Age II, Post-Iron Age Periods, and Other Studies. Pakkala, J. & Zwickel, W. (eds.). Münster: Zaphon Verlag, Vol. 120. p. 155-160 (Ägypten und Altes Testament; vol. 120)., 2024
Pakkala, J., 2024, Kinneret II. Results of the Excavations at Tell el-ʽOrēme, 1994–2008: Vol. 1. The Bronze Age, Iron Age II, Post-Iron Age Periods, and Other Studies. Pakkala, J. & Zwickel, W. (eds.). Münster: Zaphon Verlag, p. 369-433 (Ägypten und Altes Testament; vol. 120)., 2024
This paper reviews Dieter Böhler’s theory about the conception of Jerusalem in MT Ezra-Nehemiah a... more This paper reviews Dieter Böhler’s theory about the conception of Jerusalem in MT Ezra-Nehemiah and 1 Esdras. According to Böhler, 1 Esdras preserves earlier versions in variants dealing with the rebuilding and settlement of Jerusalem, while the MT was revised to accommodate Ezra (and Neh 8) to the Nehemiah story. This paper argues that Böhler’s theory is highly unlikely. It is based on things lacking in the MT, while there is little positive evidence for the theory in the MT variants. The theory
also neglects many passages that contradict the conception of an unsettled and unbuilt Jerusalem before Nehemiah. Textual variants used in favor of the theory are often controversial, heavily edited, and/or the result of textual corruption. In none of the cases does 1 Esdras unambiguously preserve the original reading. A conceptional connection between the MT variants remains unclear or is based on the variants in 1 Esdras. The 1 Esdras variants are connected by Jerusalem, its physical spaces, and temple gates. This may be an attempt to highlight the accomplishments of the Davidic Zerubbabel, which fits well with the anti-Hasmonean stand of 1 Esdras. Nehemiah and his accomplishments (such as references to the wall) were omitted because he was a non-Davidic leader whose memory 1 Esdras sought to eradicate. Download: http://jbtc.org/v28/TC-2023_Pakkala.pdf
Editorial Techniques in the Hebrew Bible: Toward a Refined Literary Criticism presents and applie... more Editorial Techniques in the Hebrew Bible: Toward a Refined Literary Criticism presents and applies a model for understanding and reconstructing the diachronic development of the Hebrew Bible through historical criticism (or the historical-critical method). Reinhard Müller and Juha Pakkala refine the methodologies of literary and redaction criticism through a systematic investigation of the evidence of additions, omissions, replacements, and transpositions that are documented by divergent ancient textual traditions. At stake is not only historical criticism but also the Hebrew Bible as a historical source, for historical criticism has been and continues to be the only method to unwind those scribal changes that left no traces in textual variants.
Documented evidence has shown that the Hebrew Bible was edited by successive scribes for centurie... more Documented evidence has shown that the Hebrew Bible was edited by successive scribes for centuries, and the impact of editing on the resulting text has proven to be crucial. A better understanding of any issue in the Hebrew Bible and ancient Israel requires a deep understanding of the editorial processes. As a consequence, the editorial processes of the Hebrew Bible have come to the fore in the most recent scholarly debates. Nevertheless, editorial processes in the Hebrew Bible are still poorly understood and a methodological overview is lacking. It is apparent that collaboration between scholars of different fields is needed, and a methodological discussion that takes into account all the editorial techniques witnessed by documented evidence in the Hebrew scriptures and the rest of the ancient Near East is required. This book is a step in this direction. Contributions in this volume by leading scholars approach the issue from various perspectives, including methodology, textual criticism, redaction criticism, Dead Sea Scrolls, Assyriology, and Egyptology.
Texts from Ancient Levant. A collection of Finnish translations of most major Northwest-Semitic i... more Texts from Ancient Levant. A collection of Finnish translations of most major Northwest-Semitic inscriptions from the Iron Age related to the Hebrew Bible.
Tekstejä rautakauden Levantista tarjoaa ainutlaatuisen ikkunan muinaisen Israelin ja sen lähialueiden maailmaan rautakaudella (n. 1200–550 eaa.). Käännöskokoelman myötä lukijalla on ensi kertaa mahdollisuus päästä tutustumaan suomen kielellä kaikkiin merkittäviin luoteisseemiläisiin piirtokirjoituksiin Israelin kuningasajalta. Mukana on myös muutamia papyrustekstejä. Tekstit eivät ainoastaan täydennä Heprealaisen Raamatun antamaa kuvaa ajan kulttuurista, uskonnosta ja historiasta, vaan ne kuvaavat usein tapahtumia toisenlaisesta näkökulmasta. Historiallisina lähteinä tekstilöydöt ovatkin usein lähempänä tapahtumia kuin vuosisatoja myöhemmin kirjoitetut Raamatun tekstit.
Hepreankielisten tekstien lisäksi kokoelmassa on mukana tärkeimmät foinikiaksi, arameaksi, moabiksi, ammoniksi ja edomiksi kirjoitetut tekstit, jotka valottavat rautakautista kulttuuria. Mukana on tekstejä elämän eri alueilta: sotakirjeenvaihtoa, monumentaalipiirtokirjoituksia, hallinnollisia dokumentteja, sopimustekstejä, hautapiirtokirjoituksia, avunpyyntöjä, rukouksia, loitsu ja kalenteri. Tekstit antavat siten monipuolisen kuvan muinaisen Lähi-idän ja erityisesti Levantin maailmasta.
Introduction to Biblical Hebrew (in Finnish)
Ihan täyttä hepreaa on uusi Raamatun heprean peru... more Introduction to Biblical Hebrew (in Finnish)
Ihan täyttä hepreaa on uusi Raamatun heprean perusoppikirja, joka tarjoaa opiskelijalle sellaisen kielen osaamisen perustason, jolla hän voi lukea Heprealaista Raamattua sanakirjan avulla.
Ihan täyttä hepreaa johdattaa lukijan Raamatun heprean perusteisiin. Kirjassa käsitellään keskeiset kielioppiasiat, joiden oppimista harjoitukset tukevat. Tärkein sanasto kertautuu tehtävissä, niin että se on helppo omaksua. Harjoitukset on testattu opetustilanteissa Helsingin yliopistossa. Raamatun teksteistä poimitut esimerkit on valikoitu tukemaan perusteiden oppimista. Perustaitojen myötä karttuu kyky käyttää myös muita heprean apuneuvoja kuten kielioppeja ja sanakirjoja.
The articles in this volume investigate changes in texts that became to be regarded as holy and u... more The articles in this volume investigate changes in texts that became to be regarded as holy and unchangeable in Judaism and Christianity. The volume seeks to draw attention to the “empirical” evidence from Qumran, the Septuagint as well as from passages in the Hebrew Scriptures that have been shaped by the use of other texts. The contributions are divided into three main sections: The first section deals with methodological questions concerning textual changes. The second section consists of concrete examples from the Hebrew Bible, Qumran and Septuagint on how the texts were changed, corrected, edited and interpreted. The contributions of the third section will investigate the general influence and impact of Deuteronomistic ideology and phraseology on later texts.
Editorial modification within the Hebrew Bible was the rule rather than the exception, and signs ... more Editorial modification within the Hebrew Bible was the rule rather than the exception, and signs of editing can be found throughout its texts. The editing has been so substantial and frequent that scholars should not neglect editorial processes as irrelevant. This book features illustrative examples of short passages from different parts of the Hebrew Bible—in their original languages (Hebrew and Greek) and English translation—that provide insight into these editing processes. The book contributes to refining the exegetical method of literary and redaction criticism, and its results have important consequences for the future use of the Hebrew Bible in historical and theological studies.
"The book of Samuel tells the story of the origins of kingship in Israel in what seems to be an a... more "The book of Samuel tells the story of the origins of kingship in Israel in what seems to be an artistically structured, flowing narrative. Yet it is also marked by an inconsistent outlook, divergent styles, and breaks in the narrative. According to Noth’s Deuteronomistic History hypothesis, the Deuteronomistic historian constructed the narrative by piecing together early sources and generally refrained from commenting in his own voice. Recent studies have called into question the extent of Samuel’s sources and their redaction history, as well as the textual growth of the book as a whole. The essays in this book, representing the latest scholarship on this subject, reexamine whether the book of Samuel was ever part of a Deuteronomistic History. The contributors are A. Graeme Auld, Hannes Bezzel, Philip R.
Davies, Walter Dietrich, Cynthia Edenburg, Jeremy M. Hutton, Jürg Hutzli, Ernst Axel Knauf, Reinhard Müller, Richard D. Nelson, Christophe Nihan, K. L. Noll, Juha Pakkala, and Jacques Vermeylen."
The book investigates omissions in the textual transmission of the Hebrew scriptures. Literary cr... more The book investigates omissions in the textual transmission of the Hebrew scriptures. Literary criticism (Literarkritik) commonly assumes that later editors only expanded the older text; omissions would not have taken place. This axiom is implied in analyses and introductions to the methodology. The book investigates the validity of the axiom. After a review of literature, books of methodology, and past research, texts from different parts of the Hebrew Bible are discussed with this aim in view. The investigated texts consist of examples which preserve documented evidence about editorial changes. Passages with variant editions are compared in order to understand omissions as an editorial technique. The comparison of variant witnesses includes, for example, passages where the Greek and Hebrew versions differ and cases where parallel passages differ (e.g., Chronicles in relation to Kings, the Temple Scroll in relation the Pentateuch). Example texts have been taken from the Pentateuch, Samuel, Kings, Ezra-Nehemiah, Esther, Jubilees, etc.
The investigation shows that omissions took place in part of the transmission of the Hebrew scriptures. Although omissions were clearly less common than additions, the conclusion challenges the axiom of literary criticism. Rejecting the conventional implementation of the methodology, the book provides a new model for understanding the transmission of the Hebrew scriptures that integrates omissions as a possible editorial technique.
This monograph investigates the literary development of Ezra 7-10 and Neh 8. With a detailed lite... more This monograph investigates the literary development of Ezra 7-10 and Neh 8. With a detailed literary critical analysis the investigation shows that the text was produced in several successive editorial phases for at least two centuries. The final text cannot be used for historical purposes. The oldest text emerged as a short narrative, entirely written in the third person. It describes how a Torah scribe (Schriftgelehrter) called Ezra came from Babylon to Jerusalem to reinstate the written Torah. In the later editorial phases, Ezra's role was transformed from a scribe to a priest who brought cultic vessels to the Temple. The editorial development reveals that the text was originally influenced by Deuteronomy and the (Deutero)nomistic theology. Later, it came under priestly and Levitical influence.
Publications of the Finnish Exegetical Society 76, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: Helsinki/Göttingen, 1999., 1999
The task of this investigation was to examine intolerant monolatry in Israel’s religion. What was... more The task of this investigation was to examine intolerant monolatry in Israel’s religion. What was the background and historical context of this phenomenon? Where did it come from? A fundamental assumption in my approach was that there were two kinds of monolatry in the Deuteronomistic History (DH), intolerant and tolerant. This distinction proved to be a fruitful approach. The literary criticism demonstrated that most intolerance passages are later additions to their contexts. Furthermore, redaction-critical considerations suggested that most of these additions derive from the nomistic editors. These exilic writers were the first ones in the DH who attacked the other gods. The nomistic contribution to the intolerance of the DH is considerable, as only a small number of the intolerance passages are other than nomistic. Even these post-nomistic additions are clearly dependent on or influenced by the nomistic intolerance. The older layers of the DH, Deut and Exod 20-23; 34 did not attack the other gods. This conclusion is especially important for Deut 13 and Deut 17:2-7, which are usually thought to be among the earliest passages in the DH that prohibited the worship of the other gods. They appeared to be nomistic, possibly even late-nomistic. A similar conclusion was reached in the analyzed passages of Exodus. The intolerance laws of Exodus are dependent on the nomists of the DH. Intolerant monolatry is a late idea in the DH. It is a revolutionary development, the progression of which we may see inside the DH. This conclusion has considerable repercussions on the way we perceive the development of intolerance in Israel’s religion. Assuming that any development inside the OT’s most important historical source reflects the main developments and currents in Israel’s history and religion during the time of writing, it seems reasonable to assume that intolerant monolatry and the explicit demand to worship Yahweh exclusively are late ideas that first appeared during the Exile. Yahweh had already been in a dominant position prior to the Exile, but His worship had not been exclusive in the sense that the other gods had been prohibited. At least, there is no evidence that this was demanded. The only exclusivity that there may have been in Israel’s religion pertains to Yahweh’s primacy, but this should be distinguished from the nomistic all out attack on all other gods. The background of the nomistic intolerance is the exilic situation in which Israel’s old religion and society had collapsed and the Israelites whole existence as a people was threatened. To protect the Israelites’ identity, the nomists wanted to make a clear separation between the Israelites and the other nations. Intolerance of other gods was an essential part of their program to save Israel’s identity. In this sense, it was also a vision for the future. The nomistic theology was particularly applicable in the new state they were planning in the land after the Exile. It would have been a homogeneous Yahweh-alone state that did not tolerate worshippers of other gods and was based on the strict observance of Moses’ law. One does not have to assume outer influence on the birth and development of intolerant monolatry in Israel. It is an internal development that began during the Exile.
Kinneret II. Results of the Excavations at Tell el-ʽOrēme, 1994–2008: Vol. 1. The Bronze Age, Iron Age II, Post-Iron Age Periods, and Other Studies. Pakkala, J. & Zwickel, W. (eds.). Münster: Zaphon Verlag, p. 845-852 (Ägypten und Altes Testament; vol. 120)., 2024
Kinneret II. Results of the Excavations at Tell el-ʽOrēme, 1994–2008: Vol. 1. The Bronze Age, Iron Age II, Post-Iron Age Periods, and Other Studies. Münster: Zaphon Verlag, p. 21-32 (Ägypten und Altes Testament; vol. 120)., 2024
Introduction to the excavations at Tel Kinrot / Tell el-ʽOrēme.
Kinneret II. Results of the Excavations at Tell el-ʽOrēme, 1994–2008: Vol. 1. The Bronze Age, Iron Age II, Post-Iron Age Periods, and Other Studies. Pakkala, J. & Zwickel, W. (eds.). Münster: Zaphon Verlag, p. 551-554 (Ägypten und Altes Testament; vol. 120)., 2024
Kinneret II. Results of the Excavations at Tell el-ʽOrēme, 1994–2008: Vol. 1. The Bronze Age, Iron Age II, Post-Iron Age Periods, and Other Studies. Pakkala, J. & Zwickel, W. (eds.). Münster: Zaphon Verlag, p. 1013-1034 (Ägypten und Altes Testament; vol. 120)., 2024
Kinneret II. Results of the Excavations at Tell el-ʽOrēme, 1994–2008: Vol. 1. The Bronze Age, Iron Age II, Post-Iron Age Periods, and Other Studies. Pakkala, J. & Zwickel, W. (eds.). Münster: Zaphon Verlag, p. 33-44., 2024
Kinneret II. Results of the Excavations at Tell el-ʽOrēme, 1994–2008: Vol. 1. The Bronze Age, Iron Age II, Post-Iron Age Periods, and Other Studies. Pakkala, J. & Zwickel, W. (eds.). Münster: Zaphon Verlag, Vol. 120. p. 155-160 (Ägypten und Altes Testament; vol. 120)., 2024
Pakkala, J., 2024, Kinneret II. Results of the Excavations at Tell el-ʽOrēme, 1994–2008: Vol. 1. The Bronze Age, Iron Age II, Post-Iron Age Periods, and Other Studies. Pakkala, J. & Zwickel, W. (eds.). Münster: Zaphon Verlag, p. 369-433 (Ägypten und Altes Testament; vol. 120)., 2024
This paper reviews Dieter Böhler’s theory about the conception of Jerusalem in MT Ezra-Nehemiah a... more This paper reviews Dieter Böhler’s theory about the conception of Jerusalem in MT Ezra-Nehemiah and 1 Esdras. According to Böhler, 1 Esdras preserves earlier versions in variants dealing with the rebuilding and settlement of Jerusalem, while the MT was revised to accommodate Ezra (and Neh 8) to the Nehemiah story. This paper argues that Böhler’s theory is highly unlikely. It is based on things lacking in the MT, while there is little positive evidence for the theory in the MT variants. The theory
also neglects many passages that contradict the conception of an unsettled and unbuilt Jerusalem before Nehemiah. Textual variants used in favor of the theory are often controversial, heavily edited, and/or the result of textual corruption. In none of the cases does 1 Esdras unambiguously preserve the original reading. A conceptional connection between the MT variants remains unclear or is based on the variants in 1 Esdras. The 1 Esdras variants are connected by Jerusalem, its physical spaces, and temple gates. This may be an attempt to highlight the accomplishments of the Davidic Zerubbabel, which fits well with the anti-Hasmonean stand of 1 Esdras. Nehemiah and his accomplishments (such as references to the wall) were omitted because he was a non-Davidic leader whose memory 1 Esdras sought to eradicate. Download: http://jbtc.org/v28/TC-2023_Pakkala.pdf
This paper investigates the reception and use of the pentateuchal festival laws in the book of Ez... more This paper investigates the reception and use of the pentateuchal festival laws in the book of Ezra and Nehemiah 8. A comparison between the pentateuchal laws and the passages in Ezra-Nehemiah provides significant information about the use of the Pentateuch in the contexts where Ezra-Nehemiah was written. The comparison shows that the pentateuchal laws used by the author(s) of Ezra-Nehemiah may differ considerably from the MT, LXX and SP versions. This is particularly evident in Neh 8:13-18, which seems to refer to details concerning the celebration of the Sukkoth that are not preserved in any of the known versions of the Pentateuch. The heavy editing in Ezra 6:19-22 implies that there were varying positions on who should be included in the celebration of the Passover.
Astarte, Baal and Asherah are frequently criticized in the so-called Deuteronomistic History. Alt... more Astarte, Baal and Asherah are frequently criticized in the so-called Deuteronomistic History. Although they were all well known divinities in the Ancient Near East, most Biblical authors seem to have lost contact with their real cults. This is particularly evident when we look at the youngest references to them. Whereas the earlier authors still prefer the singular, suggesting some knowledge of the ancient gods, the later authors use the plural, such as Ashtarot. They had become mere idols. One can in fact see a clear development from the singular to plural, and it can be used for dating the references. For example, this can be used to argue that the authors or editors who criticized these divinities in 1–2Kings different from the ones who criticized these divinities in the books Joshua through 2Samuel, which undermines the unity of the Deuteronomistic History. At any rate, it is likely that all references to Astarte, Baal and Asherah derive from a situation postdating 586 BCE.
Literary criticism (Literarkritik; source criticism) commonly assumes that editors/redactors only... more Literary criticism (Literarkritik; source criticism) commonly assumes that editors/redactors only made additions to the biblical texts. Because of its holiness, parts of the older text would not have been omitted in the transmission. Literary critical analyses are dependent on this axiom, as they seek to reconstruct a succession of textual layers; the scholar would be able to reach the preserved older layer after the later additions are identified. Many literary critical conclusions are dependent on the validity of the axiom that nothing was omitted. The axiom is partially substantiated by documented evidence. A review of variant versions of the same passage in the Hebrew scriptures reveals that some editors did preserve the older text very faithfully and only made additions (e.g., the MT of Jeremiah vs. the older LXX version; the Samaritan Pentateuch vs. the MT). However, these examples only provide a limited picture of the transmission. Documented evidence from variant editions and parallel passages show that omissions also took place in the transmission of the Hebrew scriptures. Although not as common as additions, the existence of omissions challenges the axiom on which much of literary criticism has been built. While it would be hazardous to abandon literary criticism, the future challenge is to refine the methodology so that it corresponds better with documented evidence. Literary or redaction criticism (germ. Literarkritik) seeks to reconstruct the literary history of biblical texts when manuscript evidence for the history is lacking. Especially common in continental European scholarship, it has been one of the most prolific methods in biblical studies. According to this method, one should peel off the texts, layer by layer, in order to gain access to the earlier layers that lie buried under the later expansions. Doing so, one would gain information about the earlier stages in the history of the text and thereby use them as historical sources for the earlier periods. Analyses using this method have regularly concluded that most texts in the Hebrew Bible are the result of successive redactions; in some cases the texts would consist of ten or more redactional layers. One of the axioms of literary criticism has been that the later editors or redactors only made expansions. The texts would have been too holy or authoritative for
On the basis of empirical models conventional biblical (source and redaction) criticism has been ... more On the basis of empirical models conventional biblical (source and redaction) criticism has been challenged by many scholars. Some of their observations and criticism of source and redaction critical reconstructions are justified, and the most extreme reconstructions are too hypothetical. On the other hand, documented evidence has shown that source and redaction criticism have a realistic understanding of how the Hebrew Bible developed. A rejection of these methods, as implied by some critics, is an impasse: Without distinguishing between different layers of the text, much of the information in the Hebrew Bible would be unusable for historical purposes. Since conventional historical-critical methods have, in part, neglected empirical models, a refinement of the methods on the basis of these models is needed.
Apart from some pre-exilic sources, Deuteronomy as a composition is post-monarchic in origin. The... more Apart from some pre-exilic sources, Deuteronomy as a composition is post-monarchic in origin. The book was very successful in the templeless, stateless, and kingless times, because it was created in a context without these institutions, which also allowed entirely new ways of thinking. In this paper I will present the main arguments in favor of a post-monarchic Deuteronomy, main counterarguments against it, as well as main alternative theories and their weaknesses.
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Nevertheless, editorial processes in the Hebrew Bible are still poorly understood and a methodological overview is lacking. It is apparent that collaboration between scholars of different fields is needed, and a methodological discussion that takes into account all the editorial techniques witnessed by documented evidence in the Hebrew scriptures and the rest of the ancient Near East is required. This book is a step in this direction. Contributions in this volume by leading scholars approach the issue from various perspectives, including methodology, textual criticism, redaction criticism, Dead Sea Scrolls, Assyriology, and Egyptology.
See, http://www.peeters-leuven.be/boekoverz.asp?nr=10191
Tekstejä rautakauden Levantista tarjoaa ainutlaatuisen ikkunan muinaisen Israelin ja sen lähialueiden maailmaan rautakaudella (n. 1200–550 eaa.). Käännöskokoelman myötä lukijalla on ensi kertaa mahdollisuus päästä tutustumaan suomen kielellä kaikkiin merkittäviin luoteisseemiläisiin piirtokirjoituksiin Israelin kuningasajalta. Mukana on myös muutamia papyrustekstejä. Tekstit eivät ainoastaan täydennä Heprealaisen Raamatun antamaa kuvaa ajan kulttuurista, uskonnosta ja historiasta, vaan ne kuvaavat usein tapahtumia toisenlaisesta näkökulmasta. Historiallisina lähteinä tekstilöydöt ovatkin usein lähempänä tapahtumia kuin vuosisatoja myöhemmin kirjoitetut Raamatun tekstit.
Hepreankielisten tekstien lisäksi kokoelmassa on mukana tärkeimmät foinikiaksi, arameaksi, moabiksi, ammoniksi ja edomiksi kirjoitetut tekstit, jotka valottavat rautakautista kulttuuria. Mukana on tekstejä elämän eri alueilta: sotakirjeenvaihtoa, monumentaalipiirtokirjoituksia, hallinnollisia dokumentteja, sopimustekstejä, hautapiirtokirjoituksia, avunpyyntöjä, rukouksia, loitsu ja kalenteri. Tekstit antavat siten monipuolisen kuvan muinaisen Lähi-idän ja erityisesti Levantin maailmasta.
Ihan täyttä hepreaa on uusi Raamatun heprean perusoppikirja, joka tarjoaa opiskelijalle sellaisen kielen osaamisen perustason, jolla hän voi lukea Heprealaista Raamattua sanakirjan avulla.
Ihan täyttä hepreaa johdattaa lukijan Raamatun heprean perusteisiin. Kirjassa käsitellään keskeiset kielioppiasiat, joiden oppimista harjoitukset tukevat. Tärkein sanasto kertautuu tehtävissä, niin että se on helppo omaksua. Harjoitukset on testattu opetustilanteissa Helsingin yliopistossa. Raamatun teksteistä poimitut esimerkit on valikoitu tukemaan perusteiden oppimista. Perustaitojen myötä karttuu kyky käyttää myös muita heprean apuneuvoja kuten kielioppeja ja sanakirjoja.
Davies, Walter Dietrich, Cynthia Edenburg, Jeremy M. Hutton, Jürg Hutzli, Ernst Axel Knauf, Reinhard Müller, Richard D. Nelson, Christophe Nihan, K. L. Noll, Juha Pakkala, and Jacques Vermeylen."
The investigation shows that omissions took place in part of the transmission of the Hebrew scriptures. Although omissions were clearly less common than additions, the conclusion challenges the axiom of literary criticism. Rejecting the conventional implementation of the methodology, the book provides a new model for understanding the transmission of the Hebrew scriptures that integrates omissions as a possible editorial technique.
also neglects many passages that contradict the conception of an unsettled and unbuilt Jerusalem before Nehemiah. Textual variants used in favor of the theory are often controversial, heavily edited, and/or the result of textual corruption. In none of the cases does 1 Esdras unambiguously preserve the original reading. A conceptional connection between the MT variants remains unclear or is based on the variants in 1 Esdras. The 1 Esdras variants are connected by Jerusalem, its physical spaces, and temple gates. This may be an attempt to highlight the accomplishments of the Davidic Zerubbabel, which fits well with the anti-Hasmonean stand of 1 Esdras. Nehemiah and his accomplishments (such as references to the wall) were omitted because he was a non-Davidic leader whose memory 1 Esdras sought to eradicate. Download: http://jbtc.org/v28/TC-2023_Pakkala.pdf
Nevertheless, editorial processes in the Hebrew Bible are still poorly understood and a methodological overview is lacking. It is apparent that collaboration between scholars of different fields is needed, and a methodological discussion that takes into account all the editorial techniques witnessed by documented evidence in the Hebrew scriptures and the rest of the ancient Near East is required. This book is a step in this direction. Contributions in this volume by leading scholars approach the issue from various perspectives, including methodology, textual criticism, redaction criticism, Dead Sea Scrolls, Assyriology, and Egyptology.
See, http://www.peeters-leuven.be/boekoverz.asp?nr=10191
Tekstejä rautakauden Levantista tarjoaa ainutlaatuisen ikkunan muinaisen Israelin ja sen lähialueiden maailmaan rautakaudella (n. 1200–550 eaa.). Käännöskokoelman myötä lukijalla on ensi kertaa mahdollisuus päästä tutustumaan suomen kielellä kaikkiin merkittäviin luoteisseemiläisiin piirtokirjoituksiin Israelin kuningasajalta. Mukana on myös muutamia papyrustekstejä. Tekstit eivät ainoastaan täydennä Heprealaisen Raamatun antamaa kuvaa ajan kulttuurista, uskonnosta ja historiasta, vaan ne kuvaavat usein tapahtumia toisenlaisesta näkökulmasta. Historiallisina lähteinä tekstilöydöt ovatkin usein lähempänä tapahtumia kuin vuosisatoja myöhemmin kirjoitetut Raamatun tekstit.
Hepreankielisten tekstien lisäksi kokoelmassa on mukana tärkeimmät foinikiaksi, arameaksi, moabiksi, ammoniksi ja edomiksi kirjoitetut tekstit, jotka valottavat rautakautista kulttuuria. Mukana on tekstejä elämän eri alueilta: sotakirjeenvaihtoa, monumentaalipiirtokirjoituksia, hallinnollisia dokumentteja, sopimustekstejä, hautapiirtokirjoituksia, avunpyyntöjä, rukouksia, loitsu ja kalenteri. Tekstit antavat siten monipuolisen kuvan muinaisen Lähi-idän ja erityisesti Levantin maailmasta.
Ihan täyttä hepreaa on uusi Raamatun heprean perusoppikirja, joka tarjoaa opiskelijalle sellaisen kielen osaamisen perustason, jolla hän voi lukea Heprealaista Raamattua sanakirjan avulla.
Ihan täyttä hepreaa johdattaa lukijan Raamatun heprean perusteisiin. Kirjassa käsitellään keskeiset kielioppiasiat, joiden oppimista harjoitukset tukevat. Tärkein sanasto kertautuu tehtävissä, niin että se on helppo omaksua. Harjoitukset on testattu opetustilanteissa Helsingin yliopistossa. Raamatun teksteistä poimitut esimerkit on valikoitu tukemaan perusteiden oppimista. Perustaitojen myötä karttuu kyky käyttää myös muita heprean apuneuvoja kuten kielioppeja ja sanakirjoja.
Davies, Walter Dietrich, Cynthia Edenburg, Jeremy M. Hutton, Jürg Hutzli, Ernst Axel Knauf, Reinhard Müller, Richard D. Nelson, Christophe Nihan, K. L. Noll, Juha Pakkala, and Jacques Vermeylen."
The investigation shows that omissions took place in part of the transmission of the Hebrew scriptures. Although omissions were clearly less common than additions, the conclusion challenges the axiom of literary criticism. Rejecting the conventional implementation of the methodology, the book provides a new model for understanding the transmission of the Hebrew scriptures that integrates omissions as a possible editorial technique.
also neglects many passages that contradict the conception of an unsettled and unbuilt Jerusalem before Nehemiah. Textual variants used in favor of the theory are often controversial, heavily edited, and/or the result of textual corruption. In none of the cases does 1 Esdras unambiguously preserve the original reading. A conceptional connection between the MT variants remains unclear or is based on the variants in 1 Esdras. The 1 Esdras variants are connected by Jerusalem, its physical spaces, and temple gates. This may be an attempt to highlight the accomplishments of the Davidic Zerubbabel, which fits well with the anti-Hasmonean stand of 1 Esdras. Nehemiah and his accomplishments (such as references to the wall) were omitted because he was a non-Davidic leader whose memory 1 Esdras sought to eradicate. Download: http://jbtc.org/v28/TC-2023_Pakkala.pdf