History is omnipresent in this anthology on many levels. The are historical reasons why, for exam... more History is omnipresent in this anthology on many levels. The are historical reasons why, for example, Czechs are more secularized than some other nations in the region, or why Bulgarians are more oriented toward Russia. Furthermore, because the Pagan movements being studied often make reference to the pre-Christian past, there are many references to the historical figures, tribal kingdoms, and ancient mythologies of the nations featured in this volume. The modern Pagan discussion about how that past should be understood often becomes entangled in the discipline of history itself, as individual communities either attempt to mold their practice to match a mainstream academic understanding of history or critique that mainstream view and offer alternative interpretations. All of the countries represented here share a common historical experience of some form of twentieth-century communism. But even their experiences of communism were not the same, with some becoming part of the new communist reality during the First World War, while others were brought into the Soviet sphere only after the Second World War. Different nations suffered different hardships and traumas, such as the Holodomor (forced starvation) of Ukrainians 1932–3 or the mass deportations of ethnic Balts from their homelands in 1944–55. All of the countries experienced forms of dissent and revolt against the system, but their most intense expressions happened at different times and in different manners (the Hungarian Uprising of 1956, the Prague Spring of 1968, the Solidarity movement in Poland in the 1980s, and the Singing Revolution in the Baltic states in 1987–91).
The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements, 2016
In the twentieth century, all across Europe, new religious communities appeared which drew inspir... more In the twentieth century, all across Europe, new religious communities appeared which drew inspiration from historical Paganisms. The Wiccan tradition, first presented in the United Kingdom in the second half of the twentieth century by Gerald Gardner, has been one of the most influential and far-reaching. Well-known currents in the English-speaking world also include Druidry and Germanic Heathenism, as well as many others. Their entrance onto the religious scene has been met with various responses from the media and scholarship. This chapter addresses selected themes in the development of academic “Pagan Studies.” These include the definitional difficulties in describing a diverse field, the special methodological concerns and approaches which have arisen, and the increasing internationalization of study.
Conservatism and Memory Politics in Russia and Eastern Europe , 2021
As conservatism has increasingly become one of the catchwords of the political elite in Russia, t... more As conservatism has increasingly become one of the catchwords of the political elite in Russia, this political shift has also guided the memory politics of the Muslim community. In recent decades, conservative currents have proliferated also in the rhetoric of the major nationwide Russian muftiates. The analysis approaches the conservative rhetoric in the memory politics of Russian Muslims through three analytical lenses: conservatism as a value system that emphasizes such issues as religion, traditional gender roles and family values; as an emphasis on sovereignty and the nation; and as the idea of a paternalist state that is connected to the geopolitical interests of the Russian Federation. The conservatism of Russian Muslims is not directly borrowed from any sources. Rather, it is a unique phenomenon that combines elements from global, Russian and Islamic conservative thinking. The chapter understands conservatism both as a meaning making discourse and as a privileged signifier over which struggles are weighed. Russian Islamic conservatism reflects the Russian discussions about the topic and the hegemonic interpretations, but Muslims also actively participate in the negotiations over this tradition.
Two trends increasingly guiding the governance of Islam in Russia
are political authoritarianisat... more Two trends increasingly guiding the governance of Islam in Russia are political authoritarianisation and the global securitisation of Islam. Given that suspicions of loyalty so often configure in public discussions about Islam, Muslim leaders are compelled to continuously emphasise their patriotism. This article analyses recent mediated debates about Islam, in which the discursive boundary between ‘radical, non-traditional’ and ‘moderate, traditional’ Islam are being negotiated. The author argues that in the 2000s, the pressure to display loyalty has narrowed the scope of what is considered acceptable behaviour for Muslim leaders. Yet at the same time, these Muslim leaders cleverly adopt arguments and popular catchwords from the rhetoric of the political elite in order to emphasise the role of Islam in Russian society and tradition. In doing so, they seek to influence public discourse about Russian identity and defend the position of Muslims in the country.
Since the end of the 19th century, pagan ideas have inspired some representatives of nationalist,... more Since the end of the 19th century, pagan ideas have inspired some representatives of nationalist, conservative, and far right political ideologies. The idea of a native tradition connected to land and ancestry, as well as the image of organic, hierarchical societies with warrior values, has fascinated conservative thinkers. Paganism as the suppressed other has also served as a symbol for various subversive ideologies. However, the use of pagan symbols, mythology, and imagery in political movements is often superficial. Therefore, it is crucial to distinguish between different forms of paganism. While some appear more unambiguously religious, others can be better described as political, cultural, or philosophical paganism. Having said that, neither contemporary pagan religious movements nor pagan-inspired politics can be understood separately from each other. Ideas, concepts, and individuals move between the two, and they are both shaped by changes in the surrounding society. In the early 21st century, the mainstream pagan religious organizations of many European countries have adopted a generally apolitical and anti-racist stance. However, the rise of xenophobia and far right parties provides fertile ground for the rise of illiberal and exclusivist forms of paganism as well.
Transnational Islam is increasingly presented in the Russian political rhetoric as a security thr... more Transnational Islam is increasingly presented in the Russian political rhetoric as a security threat. Therefore, Russian politicians and authorities attempt to support indigenous or national forms of Islam. Similar policies are implemented in several western European countries. Yet they tend to disregard the heterogeneity of the Muslim community, they create exclusions and they are often conceived as imposing outside evaluations and interpretations on Islam. This contribution analyses initiatives intended to develop a national Islam in post-Soviet Russia. While the aims, methods and problems in different countries are often quite similar, the values and norms underlying these initiatives vary and reflect the societies from which they emerge. This contribution argues that since the 1990s, the changes in the political line of the Kremlin have impacted the project for a ‘national’ Islam by placing less emphasis on liberal values and more emphasis on adherence to loyalism and political conservatism.
Through the intensification of migration, the number of Muslims has multiplied in ethnically Russ... more Through the intensification of migration, the number of Muslims has multiplied in ethnically Russian areas, including St. Petersburg. Within the heterogeneous Muslim community of the city, countless new communities and initiatives have emerged, but they increasingly face suspicions and restrictions from the authorities. These difficulties reflect the general political urge to exercise more control over religious activity in Russia. Nevertheless, discussions about the need to police Islamic activity contain arguments—similar to those in Western Europe—about the alleged incompatibility of Islam and modern secular societies. This article surveys the development and challenges of new Muslim communities in St. Petersburg in the 2010s. It is argued that the diversification of religiosity is an expected outcome of the pluralization of modern societies. Paradoxically, the restrictive politics that are based on the supposed illiberal, anti-modern nature of Islam promotes religious monopolies and thus a very traditional understanding of religiosity.
The discussion about the integration of migrants in Russia began relatively late, and it was only... more The discussion about the integration of migrants in Russia began relatively late, and it was only a few years ago that the first steps in creating concrete policies were implemented. In public discussions, as well as in policy documents, the emphasis is usually on the cultural integration of migrants, while their economic, social and political engagement is omitted. In conclusion, social problems, including the fact that many migrants are compelled to function in the domain of the grey economy, are explained in terms of their cultural illiteracy rather than structural reasons. All the more often, the construction of cultural otherness is made in the framework of religiosity, Islam in particular. This tendency is not unique to Russia; a similar religionization of migrants and the migration issue had already taken place earlier in Western Europe. This chapter analyses Russian debates on the role of religion in the integration of Muslim migrants in Russia within the political elite, the media and Muslim organizations. In addition to cultural discourse, another feature of the presentations of Islamic identity of migrants as a potential social problem is linked to the securitization of the migration issue. The threat of radical Islam, spreading among the migrants and spread by them, is exaggerated in the media. Because of this fear, the promotion of ‘traditional Islam’ by official Islamic organizations is preferred over informal networks of Muslims. However, due to the scarcity of resources, as well as occasional inadequate abilities, the official Islamic organizations are not always able to meet these demands. Suspicions concerning grass-roots, unofficial networks of Muslims correspond to the common tendency in the discussions on integration to see migrants as objects, not as active agents.
This essay examines two recent Russian public debates related to Islam: the building of new mosqu... more This essay examines two recent Russian public debates related to Islam: the building of new mosques in Moscow and the terrorist action against Charlie Hebdo. It is argued that these cases exemplify two contradictory attitudes towards Islamic religiosity: a strong protection of ‘traditional religions’, but also tightening control and the wish to keep non-Orthodox religiosity outside the public space. The opposition to new mosques reveals an attitude towards Islam as something alien, but the protection of religious sensitivities, including Islamic ones, finds much support. These two examples reflect the simultaneous projects of the desecularisation and secularisation of Russian society.
Nationalism has been one of the most hotly debated issues concerning Russian Paganism, both withi... more Nationalism has been one of the most hotly debated issues concerning Russian Paganism, both within the movement and in public and scholarly debates about it. This article critically examines the usage of the concept in scholarly research. After considering Russian Pagan ...
History is omnipresent in this anthology on many levels. The are historical reasons why, for exam... more History is omnipresent in this anthology on many levels. The are historical reasons why, for example, Czechs are more secularized than some other nations in the region, or why Bulgarians are more oriented toward Russia. Furthermore, because the Pagan movements being studied often make reference to the pre-Christian past, there are many references to the historical figures, tribal kingdoms, and ancient mythologies of the nations featured in this volume. The modern Pagan discussion about how that past should be understood often becomes entangled in the discipline of history itself, as individual communities either attempt to mold their practice to match a mainstream academic understanding of history or critique that mainstream view and offer alternative interpretations. All of the countries represented here share a common historical experience of some form of twentieth-century communism. But even their experiences of communism were not the same, with some becoming part of the new communist reality during the First World War, while others were brought into the Soviet sphere only after the Second World War. Different nations suffered different hardships and traumas, such as the Holodomor (forced starvation) of Ukrainians 1932–3 or the mass deportations of ethnic Balts from their homelands in 1944–55. All of the countries experienced forms of dissent and revolt against the system, but their most intense expressions happened at different times and in different manners (the Hungarian Uprising of 1956, the Prague Spring of 1968, the Solidarity movement in Poland in the 1980s, and the Singing Revolution in the Baltic states in 1987–91).
The Oxford Handbook of New Religious Movements, 2016
In the twentieth century, all across Europe, new religious communities appeared which drew inspir... more In the twentieth century, all across Europe, new religious communities appeared which drew inspiration from historical Paganisms. The Wiccan tradition, first presented in the United Kingdom in the second half of the twentieth century by Gerald Gardner, has been one of the most influential and far-reaching. Well-known currents in the English-speaking world also include Druidry and Germanic Heathenism, as well as many others. Their entrance onto the religious scene has been met with various responses from the media and scholarship. This chapter addresses selected themes in the development of academic “Pagan Studies.” These include the definitional difficulties in describing a diverse field, the special methodological concerns and approaches which have arisen, and the increasing internationalization of study.
Conservatism and Memory Politics in Russia and Eastern Europe , 2021
As conservatism has increasingly become one of the catchwords of the political elite in Russia, t... more As conservatism has increasingly become one of the catchwords of the political elite in Russia, this political shift has also guided the memory politics of the Muslim community. In recent decades, conservative currents have proliferated also in the rhetoric of the major nationwide Russian muftiates. The analysis approaches the conservative rhetoric in the memory politics of Russian Muslims through three analytical lenses: conservatism as a value system that emphasizes such issues as religion, traditional gender roles and family values; as an emphasis on sovereignty and the nation; and as the idea of a paternalist state that is connected to the geopolitical interests of the Russian Federation. The conservatism of Russian Muslims is not directly borrowed from any sources. Rather, it is a unique phenomenon that combines elements from global, Russian and Islamic conservative thinking. The chapter understands conservatism both as a meaning making discourse and as a privileged signifier over which struggles are weighed. Russian Islamic conservatism reflects the Russian discussions about the topic and the hegemonic interpretations, but Muslims also actively participate in the negotiations over this tradition.
Two trends increasingly guiding the governance of Islam in Russia
are political authoritarianisat... more Two trends increasingly guiding the governance of Islam in Russia are political authoritarianisation and the global securitisation of Islam. Given that suspicions of loyalty so often configure in public discussions about Islam, Muslim leaders are compelled to continuously emphasise their patriotism. This article analyses recent mediated debates about Islam, in which the discursive boundary between ‘radical, non-traditional’ and ‘moderate, traditional’ Islam are being negotiated. The author argues that in the 2000s, the pressure to display loyalty has narrowed the scope of what is considered acceptable behaviour for Muslim leaders. Yet at the same time, these Muslim leaders cleverly adopt arguments and popular catchwords from the rhetoric of the political elite in order to emphasise the role of Islam in Russian society and tradition. In doing so, they seek to influence public discourse about Russian identity and defend the position of Muslims in the country.
Since the end of the 19th century, pagan ideas have inspired some representatives of nationalist,... more Since the end of the 19th century, pagan ideas have inspired some representatives of nationalist, conservative, and far right political ideologies. The idea of a native tradition connected to land and ancestry, as well as the image of organic, hierarchical societies with warrior values, has fascinated conservative thinkers. Paganism as the suppressed other has also served as a symbol for various subversive ideologies. However, the use of pagan symbols, mythology, and imagery in political movements is often superficial. Therefore, it is crucial to distinguish between different forms of paganism. While some appear more unambiguously religious, others can be better described as political, cultural, or philosophical paganism. Having said that, neither contemporary pagan religious movements nor pagan-inspired politics can be understood separately from each other. Ideas, concepts, and individuals move between the two, and they are both shaped by changes in the surrounding society. In the early 21st century, the mainstream pagan religious organizations of many European countries have adopted a generally apolitical and anti-racist stance. However, the rise of xenophobia and far right parties provides fertile ground for the rise of illiberal and exclusivist forms of paganism as well.
Transnational Islam is increasingly presented in the Russian political rhetoric as a security thr... more Transnational Islam is increasingly presented in the Russian political rhetoric as a security threat. Therefore, Russian politicians and authorities attempt to support indigenous or national forms of Islam. Similar policies are implemented in several western European countries. Yet they tend to disregard the heterogeneity of the Muslim community, they create exclusions and they are often conceived as imposing outside evaluations and interpretations on Islam. This contribution analyses initiatives intended to develop a national Islam in post-Soviet Russia. While the aims, methods and problems in different countries are often quite similar, the values and norms underlying these initiatives vary and reflect the societies from which they emerge. This contribution argues that since the 1990s, the changes in the political line of the Kremlin have impacted the project for a ‘national’ Islam by placing less emphasis on liberal values and more emphasis on adherence to loyalism and political conservatism.
Through the intensification of migration, the number of Muslims has multiplied in ethnically Russ... more Through the intensification of migration, the number of Muslims has multiplied in ethnically Russian areas, including St. Petersburg. Within the heterogeneous Muslim community of the city, countless new communities and initiatives have emerged, but they increasingly face suspicions and restrictions from the authorities. These difficulties reflect the general political urge to exercise more control over religious activity in Russia. Nevertheless, discussions about the need to police Islamic activity contain arguments—similar to those in Western Europe—about the alleged incompatibility of Islam and modern secular societies. This article surveys the development and challenges of new Muslim communities in St. Petersburg in the 2010s. It is argued that the diversification of religiosity is an expected outcome of the pluralization of modern societies. Paradoxically, the restrictive politics that are based on the supposed illiberal, anti-modern nature of Islam promotes religious monopolies and thus a very traditional understanding of religiosity.
The discussion about the integration of migrants in Russia began relatively late, and it was only... more The discussion about the integration of migrants in Russia began relatively late, and it was only a few years ago that the first steps in creating concrete policies were implemented. In public discussions, as well as in policy documents, the emphasis is usually on the cultural integration of migrants, while their economic, social and political engagement is omitted. In conclusion, social problems, including the fact that many migrants are compelled to function in the domain of the grey economy, are explained in terms of their cultural illiteracy rather than structural reasons. All the more often, the construction of cultural otherness is made in the framework of religiosity, Islam in particular. This tendency is not unique to Russia; a similar religionization of migrants and the migration issue had already taken place earlier in Western Europe. This chapter analyses Russian debates on the role of religion in the integration of Muslim migrants in Russia within the political elite, the media and Muslim organizations. In addition to cultural discourse, another feature of the presentations of Islamic identity of migrants as a potential social problem is linked to the securitization of the migration issue. The threat of radical Islam, spreading among the migrants and spread by them, is exaggerated in the media. Because of this fear, the promotion of ‘traditional Islam’ by official Islamic organizations is preferred over informal networks of Muslims. However, due to the scarcity of resources, as well as occasional inadequate abilities, the official Islamic organizations are not always able to meet these demands. Suspicions concerning grass-roots, unofficial networks of Muslims correspond to the common tendency in the discussions on integration to see migrants as objects, not as active agents.
This essay examines two recent Russian public debates related to Islam: the building of new mosqu... more This essay examines two recent Russian public debates related to Islam: the building of new mosques in Moscow and the terrorist action against Charlie Hebdo. It is argued that these cases exemplify two contradictory attitudes towards Islamic religiosity: a strong protection of ‘traditional religions’, but also tightening control and the wish to keep non-Orthodox religiosity outside the public space. The opposition to new mosques reveals an attitude towards Islam as something alien, but the protection of religious sensitivities, including Islamic ones, finds much support. These two examples reflect the simultaneous projects of the desecularisation and secularisation of Russian society.
Nationalism has been one of the most hotly debated issues concerning Russian Paganism, both withi... more Nationalism has been one of the most hotly debated issues concerning Russian Paganism, both within the movement and in public and scholarly debates about it. This article critically examines the usage of the concept in scholarly research. After considering Russian Pagan ...
Russia has a very large pool of economic migrants, up to 25% of the workforce according to some e... more Russia has a very large pool of economic migrants, up to 25% of the workforce according to some estimates. Although many migrants, many from former Soviet countries which are now independent, entered Russia legally, they frequently face bureaucratic obstacles to legal employment and Russian citizenship, factors which have led to a very large “shadow economy”. This book presents a comprehensive examination of migrant labour in Russia. It describes the nature of migrant labour, explores the shadow economy and its unfortunate consequences, and discusses the rise of popular sentiment against migrants and the likely impact. The book also sets the Russian experiences of migrant labour in context, comparing the situation in Russia with that in other countries with significant migrant labour workforces.
Uploads
Papers by Kaarina Aitamurto
are political authoritarianisation and the global securitisation of
Islam. Given that suspicions of loyalty so often configure in public
discussions about Islam, Muslim leaders are compelled to
continuously emphasise their patriotism. This article analyses
recent mediated debates about Islam, in which the discursive
boundary between ‘radical, non-traditional’ and ‘moderate,
traditional’ Islam are being negotiated. The author argues that in
the 2000s, the pressure to display loyalty has narrowed the scope
of what is considered acceptable behaviour for Muslim leaders.
Yet at the same time, these Muslim leaders cleverly adopt
arguments and popular catchwords from the rhetoric of the
political elite in order to emphasise the role of Islam in Russian
society and tradition. In doing so, they seek to influence public
discourse about Russian identity and defend the position of
Muslims in the country.
ToC:
Sanna Turoma & Kaarina Aitamurto: Renegotiating Patriotic and Religious Identities in the Post-Soviet and Post-Secular Russia
Boris Knorre: The Сulture of War and Militarization within Political Orthodoxy in the Post-Soviet Region
Mikhail Suslov: Russian Orthodox Church in Search of the Cultural Canon
Irina Kotkina: We Will ROC You! Tannhäuser Opera Scandal and the Freedom of Artistic Expression in Putin’s Russia
Susan Ikonen: Revival of Soviet Rhetoric and Values? Reception of Leviathan in Light of Two Soviet “Cultural Scandals”
Andrey Makarychev: The War in Chechnya in Russian Cinematographic Representations: Bio-Political Patriotism in “Unsoereign” Times
Tomi Huttunen & Jussi Lassila: Zakhar Prilepin, the National Bolshevik Movement and Catachrestic Politics
Elena Ostrovskaya: Religious Identity of Modern Orthodox and Hasidic Jewry in St. Petersburg
This chapter analyses Russian debates on the role of religion in the integration of Muslim migrants in Russia within the political elite, the media and Muslim organizations. In addition to cultural discourse, another feature of the presentations of Islamic identity of migrants as a potential social problem is linked to the securitization of the migration issue. The threat of radical Islam, spreading among the migrants and spread by them, is exaggerated in the media. Because of this fear, the promotion of ‘traditional Islam’ by official Islamic organizations is preferred over informal networks of Muslims. However, due to the scarcity of resources, as well as occasional inadequate abilities, the official Islamic organizations are not always able to meet these demands. Suspicions concerning grass-roots, unofficial networks of Muslims correspond to the common tendency in the discussions on integration to see migrants as objects, not as active agents.
are political authoritarianisation and the global securitisation of
Islam. Given that suspicions of loyalty so often configure in public
discussions about Islam, Muslim leaders are compelled to
continuously emphasise their patriotism. This article analyses
recent mediated debates about Islam, in which the discursive
boundary between ‘radical, non-traditional’ and ‘moderate,
traditional’ Islam are being negotiated. The author argues that in
the 2000s, the pressure to display loyalty has narrowed the scope
of what is considered acceptable behaviour for Muslim leaders.
Yet at the same time, these Muslim leaders cleverly adopt
arguments and popular catchwords from the rhetoric of the
political elite in order to emphasise the role of Islam in Russian
society and tradition. In doing so, they seek to influence public
discourse about Russian identity and defend the position of
Muslims in the country.
ToC:
Sanna Turoma & Kaarina Aitamurto: Renegotiating Patriotic and Religious Identities in the Post-Soviet and Post-Secular Russia
Boris Knorre: The Сulture of War and Militarization within Political Orthodoxy in the Post-Soviet Region
Mikhail Suslov: Russian Orthodox Church in Search of the Cultural Canon
Irina Kotkina: We Will ROC You! Tannhäuser Opera Scandal and the Freedom of Artistic Expression in Putin’s Russia
Susan Ikonen: Revival of Soviet Rhetoric and Values? Reception of Leviathan in Light of Two Soviet “Cultural Scandals”
Andrey Makarychev: The War in Chechnya in Russian Cinematographic Representations: Bio-Political Patriotism in “Unsoereign” Times
Tomi Huttunen & Jussi Lassila: Zakhar Prilepin, the National Bolshevik Movement and Catachrestic Politics
Elena Ostrovskaya: Religious Identity of Modern Orthodox and Hasidic Jewry in St. Petersburg
This chapter analyses Russian debates on the role of religion in the integration of Muslim migrants in Russia within the political elite, the media and Muslim organizations. In addition to cultural discourse, another feature of the presentations of Islamic identity of migrants as a potential social problem is linked to the securitization of the migration issue. The threat of radical Islam, spreading among the migrants and spread by them, is exaggerated in the media. Because of this fear, the promotion of ‘traditional Islam’ by official Islamic organizations is preferred over informal networks of Muslims. However, due to the scarcity of resources, as well as occasional inadequate abilities, the official Islamic organizations are not always able to meet these demands. Suspicions concerning grass-roots, unofficial networks of Muslims correspond to the common tendency in the discussions on integration to see migrants as objects, not as active agents.