ВUКНАRА OASIS AND ITS NEIGHBOURS IN ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL TIMES. TRANSACТIONS OF ТНЕ STATE HERМITAGE МUSEUM, LXXV, 2015
The article presents the results of archaeological studies of the citadel at Paikend, an ancient ... more The article presents the results of archaeological studies of the citadel at Paikend, an ancient city in the south of the Bukhara Oasis (now Uzbekistan). Excavations have revealed a new complex consisting of dozens of rooms of similar size connected by a common corridor (the so-called "corridor-comb-shaped layout"). Judging by the finds, the rooms adjacent to the fortress walls were intended for the citadel's garrison. Coins and pottery found there allow dating the construction of the building to the second half of the 3rd century AD, when major construction work was also carried out in other areas of the Paikend citadel. The author suggests that the fortress owed its expansion and reinforcement to the political expansion of the Sasanian Empire to the Bukhara Oasis under Shapur I, while the barracks were abandoned because of the counter-movement of the tribes known as the Chionites in the mid-4th century.
Takht-i Sangin as an example of the synthesis of the civilizations of East and West, 2023
The Temple of Paikend (Western Sogd) and the Temple of Oxus (Northern Bactria)
This paper present... more The Temple of Paikend (Western Sogd) and the Temple of Oxus (Northern Bactria) This paper presents the results of recent archaeological excavations at the citadel of Paikend, an ancient city in the south of the Bukhara Oasis (modern Uzbekistan). The Fire Temple was the earliest structure here, surrounded by fortified walls in the first half of the 3rd century BCE. The author hypothesises that Paikend and Takht-i Sangin were built under Antiochus I Soter, when he was co-ruler in the east of the Seleucid Empire. The construction of temples on its frontiers (at Kanka on the Syr Darya and possibly at Erkurgan on the lower Kashkadarya) had a sacred significance in marking the limits of the eastern provinces. In the 2nd–1st centuries BCE, the Hellenistic fortress of Paikend was reconstructed after the conquest of the Central Asian oases by nomads. At this time, many weapons and military equipment were placed in sacrificial pits - bothroi and the special clay box - favissa on the periphery of the Paikend temple. They were offerings to the sanctuary. The similar Greek practice also existed at the Oxus temple. It coincided in some respects with Eurasian nomadic rituals. The types of weapons were also similar. The details of the layout of the Paikend temple of the 3rd–4th centuries CE and the finds confirm its proposed Zoroastrian nature. They find parallels in Iranian cult architecture as well as in the Oxus temple. At the same time, the cult practices of Central Asia had some specific features. В данной статье представлены результаты недавних археологических раскопок цитадели Пайкенда, древнего города на юге Бухарского оазиса (Узбекистан). Самым ранним сооружением здесь был храм огня, окруженный крепостными стенами в первой половине III века до н.э. Автор предполагает, что Пайкенд и Тахт-и-Сангин были построены при Антиохе I Сотере, когда он был соправителем на востоке империи Селевкидов. Возведение храмов по ее границам (также на Канке на Сырдарье и, возможно, в Еркургане на нижней Кашкадарье) имело сакральное значение, обозначая пределы восточных провинций. Во II–I вв. до н.э. эллинистическая крепость Пайкенда была восстановлена после завоевания кочевниками оазисов Центральной Азии. В это время в жертвенных ямах - ботросах и специальном глиняном ящике - фависсе, на периферии храма Пайкенда, помещалось много оружия и военного снаряжения. Это были подношения святилищу. Схожая с греческой практика существовала и в храме Окса. В некоторых отношениях она совпадала с ритуалами евразийских кочевников. Схожими были и типы оружия. Детали планировки храма Пайкенд III–IV вв. н.э. и находки подтверждают его зороастрийский характер. Они находят параллели в иранской культовой архитектуре, а также в храме Окса. В то же время культовая практика Центральной Азии имела некоторые специфические черты.
В 2023 году в центре "Эрмитаж-Казань", подразделении музея-заповедника "Казанский Кремль", открыл... more В 2023 году в центре "Эрмитаж-Казань", подразделении музея-заповедника "Казанский Кремль", открылась выставка "Александр Македонский. Путь на Восток". Это небольшая часть каталога, посвященного древностям с эллинистическими влияниями из Средней Азии и соседних стран, хранящихся в коллекции Государственного Эрмитажа. In 2023, the Hermitage-Kazan Centre, a subdivision of the Kazan Kremlin Museum Reserve, hosted the exhibition "Alexander the Great. The Way to the East". This is a small part of a catalogue devoted to antiquities with Hellenistic influences and reminiscences from Central Asia and neighbouring countries in the collection of the State Hermitage Museum..
Archaeological researches in Uzbekistan, season 2022. Volume 15. Samarqand, 2023
C 1981 Бухарская археологическая экспедиция ведет раскопки на городище Пайкенд в Узбекистане. В н... more C 1981 Бухарская археологическая экспедиция ведет раскопки на городище Пайкенд в Узбекистане. В настоящее время основные исследования сосредоточены на цитадели и прилегающей к ней площадке. Изучается фортификация крепости, где выявлены материалы начиная с последней трети IV в. до н.э. Найдено оружие первых вв. до – первых вв. н.э., которое находит аналогии в комплексах вооружения кочевников Средней Азии и Евразийской степи в целом. Выявлены свидетельства местной металлообработки. Обнаружен большой зал (или частично перекрытый двор), примыкающий к храму огня в V в. н.э. и ранее. Это подтверждает гипотезу о том, что вся восточная часть цитадели использовалась для проведения культовых церемоний, а западная – для проживания храмовой обслуги. Из интересных находок следует отметить монету бухарского царя Мавака, остраконы с фрагментами согдийских надписей тушью, дирхам сельджукского султана Санджара. На «Площадке перед цитаделью» квартальная застройка VI-VII вв. н.э. включала большое домовладение с колонным залом, а также двухкомнатные жилые секции рядовых жителей Пайкенда.
Excavations at Paikend in 2021-22
In 2021-22, the Bukhara Archaeological Expedition of the State Hermitage and the Institute of Archaeology of Samarkand, with the participation of specialists from the Bukhara Museum Reserve, continued to study the ancient history of the Paikend site.
The important task is to identify the first fortifications in the northern part of the citadel (Fig. 1). Pits containing pottery from the end of the 4th century BCE (Fig. 19) were discovered under the north-western corner of the fortress (Figs. 2,3). Cultural layers with pottery (fig. 20) and iron weapons (fig. 24: 3-6,12) of the turn of an epoch were found under the "archers' corridor" of the 3rd-4th century CE.
Tower no. 3 of this period was completely excavated in the central part of the northern façade of the citadel (Fig. 5). It had a vaulted passage to the "archers' corridor" (fig. 6). Under the tower, part of the 1st century BC room which had a certain vault construction inside has been discovered (Fig. 7). Iron weapons were also found here (Fig. 24: 1,2,7-11).
To the east, a single-chambered furnace of the same period, apparently associated with iron production, was discovered (Figs 8, 9). The head of the terracotta figurine (fig. 25) and a bronze bell with a dragon's head (?) (fig. 26) also came from here.
An important result of the new excavations was the discovery of the "Great Hall" under the courtyard of the early medieval "Palace" in the eastern part of the citadel (Figs 10, 11). The hall was apparently part of the Fire Temple complex (3rd century BCE - 7th century CE), which sanctuaries and courtyard were located to the north. To the south the hall was connected to the room, perhaps for the storage of temple offerings (Fig. 12). The length of the hall is 13.7 m. Monumental adobe benches (sufas) were attached to the walls and on the north side there was a monumental staircase 3.4 m wide (Fig. 11). The coin of King Mavak found on the sufa allows us to date the last renovation of the hall to the 5th century CE. (Fig. 28:1). The discovery of such a monumental structure supports our conclusion that at least the eastern sector of the Paikend citadel was occupied by the Temple of Fire. As Biruni noted, Zoroastrian priests called Magi from all over the Bukhara oasis gathered there on certain holidays.
In the western sector, a new excavation has revealed a residential building with a courtyard. Based on the ceramic complex (Fig. 23) and the dirham of the Seljuk sultan Sanjar (Fig. 28: 4), these buildings date from the 12th century. The part of the Fire Temple was discovered underneath. It included a corridor of 11x4.15 m with sufas and a courtyard of 7.5x12 m with an aivan and a well. The dating to the 7th-early 8th century B.C. is confirmed by ceramic finds (fig. 22) and fragments of ostracons with Sogdian inscriptions in ink (fig. 27).
To the north of the fortress, the expedition continues to study the "site in front of the citadel", where quarter buildings of the 6th-7th centuries AD have been identified (Figs. 16-18). The house with columns was opened along the main road. From the north, along the "A" road, two small two-roomed dwellings were attached to it. Lanes "B" and "C" were closed with gates to prevent direct access to the "rich" household and the main street running along the fortress wall of the Paikend citadel.
Jewellery and Material Culture / Ювелирное искусство и материальная культура. Issue 7, 2023
The Bukhara expedition of the State Hermitage Museum and the Institute of Archaeology of the Acad... more The Bukhara expedition of the State Hermitage Museum and the Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan since 1981 has been excavating at the Paikend settlement, which is located on the lands of the ancient Western (Bukhara) Sogd. One of the most significant results was the discovery of the Fire temple on the citadel, founded in the Hellenistic period. In 2016-17 special pits (βόθροι) were excavated in the bypass corridor, apparently of the temple courtyard. They were filled with weapons and ammunition items of the first centuries BCE – first centuries CE. A hollow plaque of cast gold with a relief of a curled-up eagle-headed griffin was the most noteworthy item from this complex. Taking into account the construction of the piece, the military nature of other finds and analogies, it is concluded that it was as part of a special type of dagger scabbard with side projections (or lobed sheaths). Scabbard of such design was an innovation of Pazyryk culture warrior-riders (Altai region, 6th-3rd centuries BCE) and then widespread in the steppes from China to the northern Black Sea region. As evidenced by archaeological data and images on Bosporan and Western Asia reliefs, such scabbards were attached to the hip. Plaques similar to the Paikend's were probably used to tighten straps and additionally to decorate the scabbard. Similar artifacts were excavated in situ in rich burials of Tillya Tepe (Bactria), Dachi (on the lower reaches of the Don River) and Isakovka (West Siberian plain). A griffin from Paikend is most similar to the ones that decorated the scabbard from Tillya Tepe. Generally, griffin images were popular among nomads who took power away from Hellenistic rulers of Central Asia and are known in the lands of Sogdiana, Bactria, Parthia and Khorezm. Бухарская экспедиция Государственного Эрмитажа и Института археологии Академии наук Республики Узбекистан с 1981 года ведет раскопки на городище Пайкенд, расположенном на землях древнего Западного (Бухарского) Согда. Одним из самых значительных результатов стало обнаружение храма Огня на цитадели, основанного в эллинистический период. В 2016-17 годах в обходном коридоре, видимо, внутреннего двора храма, были раскопаны специальные ямы (ботросы). Они были заполнены предметами оружия и амуниции первых веков до нашей эры – первых веков нашей эры. Наиболее примечательным предметом из этого комплекса была полая бляшка из литого золота с рельефным изображением свернувшегося орлиноголового грифона. Учитывая конструкцию изделия, воинский характер других находок и аналогии, сделан вывод, что она являлась частью особого типа ножен кинжала с боковыми выступами (или дольчатых ножен). Ножны такой конструкции были новшеством воинов-всадников пазырыкской культуры (Алтайский край, VI-III вв. до н.э.) и затем широко распространились в степях от Китая до Северного Причерноморья. Как свидетельствуют археологические данные и изображения на рельефах Боспора и Передней Азии, такие ножны крепились к бедру. Бляшки, подобные пайкендской, вероятно, использовались для затягивания ремней и дополнительно украшали ножны. Подобные артефакты были раскопаны in situ в богатых погребениях Тилля-тепе (Бактрия), Дачи (в нижнем течении реки Дон) и Исаковки (Западная Сибирь). Грифон из Пайкенда наиболее похож на тех, что украшали ножны из Тилля-тепе. В целом, изображения грифонов были популярны среди кочевников, отнявших власть у эллинистических правителей Центральной Азии, и известны в землях Согдианы, Бактрии, Парфии и Хорезма.
This paper focuses on coroplastics of ancient Sogdiana – the historical cultural region which occ... more This paper focuses on coroplastics of ancient Sogdiana – the historical cultural region which occupied in antiquity the central areas of Central Asia, the valleys of the Zeravshan and Kashkadarya (Qashqadaryo) rivers. The first examples of terracottas, produced locally with the use of evidently imported matrices, were represented by discs depicting in high relief the heads of the Gorgon Medusa on Megara bowls and Silenus on situlae. The permanent local production of full-figure terracotta statuettes in Sogdiana begins, as it seems, closer to the middle of the 2nd century BC. At the early stage, the Sogdian school of coroplastics resembled the Margiana’s school which was greatly influenced by Near-East centres. Similar trends were present in the coroplastics of Northern India which, like Mesopotamia, Margiana and partly Bactria, in the 1st century BC were under the political influence of the Parthian state. The earlier group of terracottas in Sogdiana, and generally in Central Asia, is represented by female naked figurines of the Mother Goddess, sometimes with a child in hands. About at the turn of this era, statuettes of women in local clothes with certain elements resembling Greek examples become widely distributed. For the attribution of the divinities such as Nana, Anahita, Atargatis-Athena, of importance are the headdresses and attributes of the figurines. Of wide distribution are statuettes of musicians: in Central Sogdiana it is men, in Southern Sogdiana – women playing lutes, flutes of two types, harps or drums. Frequently also modeled figurines of riders-primitives are found which became widespread in the oases of the region with the advent of nomadic tribes (Sakae, Yuezhi). After the turn of this era, male statuettes appear wearing caftans and pointed kuloh caps, occasionally with a dagger, evidently representations of Mithras. In the 3rd–4th century, in the coroplastics of Sogdiana, individualized images became widespread reflecting the increase of realistic trends in the art of the Hellenized regions of the East in the 1st–2nd century (Faiyum portraits, steles from Palmira, Gandhara art). A large series of the late ancient, as well as early mediaeval coroplastics of Sogdiana is constituted by representations originated from the portrait of Alexander of Macedon; also anthropomorphic imprints appear as imitations of the Roman ceramics and glass.
Ancient and Medieval Cultures of Central Asia (the Formation, Development and Interaction of Urbanized and Cattle-Breeding Societies) , 2020
Excavations of the town site of Paikend conducted by the Bukharan Expedition of the State Hermita... more Excavations of the town site of Paikend conducted by the Bukharan Expedition of the State Hermitage (Saint Petersburg) and of the Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan in 2016-2019 gave new interesting archaeological remains of the 2nd c. BC – 2nd c. AD. Available data suggest that the entire eastern part of the Citadel of Paikend was for Fire temple. A plan of it resembles the layout of the Oxus Temple in Antique Bactria (excavations by B. Litvinskii, I. Pichikian) in some respects. Moreover much finds from pits-bothroi and mudbrick boxes-favissae of the both structures are similar as well. There were arms and equipment of the Kangju period in Bukhara oasis and the Yuezhi-Kushan period in Bactria respectively. They are fragments of swords, daggers, spear tips and arrow heads, armor plates, bone plaques from bows and gorytos, and numerous details of ammunition (rivets, nails, plaques, onlays, buttons, buckles, etc. from bone, shell, copper, iron, and turquoise). Some of the most remarkable things are the gold plaques (probably from scabbard) with the coiled griffin image in Paikend and with procession of panthers in Takht-i Sangin. Archaeological complexes are supplemented by materials from kurgans of Bactria (excavations by A. Mandelstam) and Western Sogd (O. Obelchenko). Weapons of the both areas are similar to the Sarmatian ones, but numerous eastern elements (Xiongnu and from Chine) are evident. So, the Sogdian-Bactrian complex of weapons of the 2 c. BCE – 1st c. CE, which was singled out by N. Gorbunova in 2000, in our opinion, really had "East Sarmatian" origin. It could get to Central Asia with nomads from the border of the Han state, as A. Mandelstam believed.
Archaeological Research in Uzbekistan, Season 2010-2011, 2012
In the years 2010-2011 the Bukhara Archaeological expedition continued excavating the site of Pay... more In the years 2010-2011 the Bukhara Archaeological expedition continued excavating the site of Paykand. Excavations were carried out in all the sectors which had been initiated in the Citadel, Shahristan I, Southern Suburb. The study of the constructions was continued in the south-western section of the Citadel. Here, along the southern and western fortification walls, the structure dating back to the end of the 3rd – 4th century AD was examined. Its layout followed a comb-like pattern. 12 chambers connected by arch passageways were uncovered; they were leading to the bypass corridor parallel to the fortification wall. The rooms, most of them surrounded by adobe suffa benches along the perimeter (fig. 2a, 4b-right, 5a), were approximately of the same size (4.5 x 3.5 m). Two of them were storages (fig. 3a, 4b-left). The southern walls of the rooms, forming the fortification wall proper were pierced by rectangular embrasures (fig. 2a, 3). The height of the ceiling in the rooms was 2.7-2.8 m and the height of the arch leading to the corridor was 2.1-2.3 m. In room 11, the debris on the floor contained plaster from the ceiling as well as fragments of hums (large vessels) which originally had been placed on the second floor (fig. 2b). In room 15 there were two doors (fig. 4b): because after an abandonment of the complex it was used again 50 years after. According to certain details this structure can be considered to serve as garrison barracks. On the basis of the analogies in construction techniques and the archaeological materials found in the course of earlier excavations in the north and south-east, we can state that at that time the whole perimeter of the Citadel was reinforced, making it a high-class fortress. From our point of view, there was a three-level defense system: the embrasures, the parapet of the battle platform above the living premises and the parapet above the corridor. The wall stood on a massive (4.75 m wide) mud-brick platform, which provided reliable defense from battering rams (fig. 3b, 3, 4a, 5b). Archaeological findings indicate the spread of the elements of Kushano-Sasanid complex in Paykand in the 3rd – 4th century AD. Its bright evidence is the local circulation of copper imitations of Kushan coins and Kushano-Sasanian coins (fig. 7, 1-5), which is associated with including Western Sogd to the sphere of political control of Sassanid Iran. In this case, could the considerable construction activity in Paykand Citadel in the 3rd century AD be explained by the activity of the Sasanids in the east, for the latter undoubtedly needed strongholds on new territories? We believe that the further study of the early layers in Paykand would help us to shed light on this question. A silver imitation of an Euthydemus tetradrachm with the legend MR’Y was found in the sand filling of room 7 (fig. 7, 7). Judging from their weight, such coins served for large trading operations and as a store of value. As hand-made pottery assemblage from the barracks (fig. 6) shown the migration of semi-nomadic groups began from the Syr-darya region in to Western Sogdiana already in the third century CE. as well. In the south west part of the citadel, near to the barracks, we continued to study the mid 10th century colonnade mosque. Stratigraphic research of the subterranean constructions took place on the area of 120 square meters. It was observed that a trench was dug for the building of the foundations of the column bases of the mosque (fig. 8). In the residential quarter of Shahristân 1 the study of the area of house 8 in the lower construction horizon showed that three rooms formed a separate living block (fig. 9) with a hallway, a storage room, small corridor and a bedroom. Suffa couches line the sides of the room. In the centre of the room there was a low podium with a fireplace where the trace of a metal lattice was preserved in the ashes. In the east of the Southern Suburb, research was continued on the lower (southern) group of rooms. In the upper construction horizon the main complex included a big hall (6.5x6.6m) and three ancillary rooms (fig. 10). In the centre of the hall there stood a rectangular sandal (fireplace). Smoke would escape through a hatch in the roof: there were four holes from ceiling pillars around the fireplace. The Mihrab niche in the west wall of the hall preserved in situ ganj (alabaster) panels framing it (fig. 11). Remains of another big panel were found fallen and lying on the floor. The panel was decorated with carved geometric and floral design combined with red and blue painting. The two – large-scale and small-scale – carving styles used for decorating the mihrab might be applied at two different times. So here was a small winter local mosque complex which could be dated of the end of the 10th century – first third of the 11th century. Judging by the unfired pitchers found in one of the ancillary rooms, the complex could have been a mosque for the community of potters. Restoration works were carried out at one of the fortification tower of Shahristân 2 and the minaret on the citadel (fig. 12). In 2011, in connection with the 30 year anniversary of the Bukhara Archeological Expedition, the permanent galleries of the Paykand Museum (opened in 2002) were renovated. On the 22nd-23rd August 2011, an international scientific conference on ‘The History and Culture of the Bukhara Oasis in the Antiquity and the Middle Ages’ took place in Bukhara and Paykand with the active participation of the Bukhara State Architecture and Art Museum (director R.V. Almeev). The conference was attended by academic scholars from France, Germany, the Netherlands, Russia, the USA and Uzbekistan.
Archaeological Research in Uzbekistan, Season 2012, 2013
In 2012 the Bukhara Archaeological Expedition of the State Hermitage Museum and the Archaeologica... more In 2012 the Bukhara Archaeological Expedition of the State Hermitage Museum and the Archaeological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan carried out excavations on the Paykand site, focusing on four facilities: the Citadel, the Area in front of the Citadel, Shahristân 1 and the Southern Suburb. In the south western part of the Citadel we continued to carry out research the garrison barracks adjoining on the fortification wall and dating back to the 3rd-4th centuries AD. It is made up of standard size sections which lead onto a main corridor. Two rooms (№№ 11, 15) near the western wall were excavated till the foundation platform (fig. 1). In the chambers there were vertical incisions made by sharp instruments in the plaster of the walls of the passage which probably marked to count days (of duty?). Sufa-benches were also found in the corridor. In the opposite wall of the corridor, there were three passages leading inside the Citadel. On the floor we found a fragment of a dining taghora dish with a twisted handle – yet another element of a Kushan-Sassanian complex in the Bukhara oasis. In the south west part of the citadel, near to the barracks, research of a mosque with colonnade of the mid 10th century was continued . The treasure (15 silver coins, imitations of Sassanian drachmas from the time of Shah Varakhran V) was discovered in the foundation of the mosque. It fell into the filling of more ancient layers. Some of the coins seemed to have been issued under the King of Bukhara Khunak (end of the 7th- beginning of the 8th century). We found a structure beneath the foundation of the 10th century which was probably an earlier mosque (fig. 2). It differs from the more recent mosque’s plan, and was characterized by a courtyard surrounded by a gallery. The mosque can be dated by the Abbasid coins (end of 8th-9th century). On the floor two ceramic ostraca fragments were found, upon which the names ‘Ahmad’ and ‘Abu-Rahman’ were marked with ink. In the north eastern part of the citadel we uncovered a part of the earliest fortification wall, which would have defenced the Zoroastrian fire temple. The wall from square adobes had embrasures, and in the base of it a platform was built from ‘plano-convex’ adobes (fig. 3). In the adjoining room there were found cylinder-conical large vessels, similar to the Achaemenid’s time one. But there were table pottery as well (fig. 4). These specimens spread to the Central Asia under the influence of the Greek pottery tradition appeared after the expeditions of Alexander the Great. Thus, findings confirmed that the Paykand citadel was founded at the end of the 4th century BC. In the archer's corridor of the north western corner of the citadel, at least 10 floor coatings were recorded (the top ones belonging to the 4th century AD). The wall reaching 6.5 m is well preserved. A passage leading inside the Citadel was found. In the 8th horizon we found such evidence of local metal-working as iron slag. Iron weapons, some intact, others in pieces, were found on the lowest floor: a sword, daggers, a knife and a three-bladed arrowhead (fig. 5). They are similar to the weapons of the Sarmatian tribes and ones of the burial mounds in southern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, from the end of the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD, which associated with Yuetji-Tokhar tribes in Bactria. New excavation on the Area to the north of the Citadel found no less than three large construction phases (fig. 6). A part of a room dating to earlier than the Middle Ages was traced in the lower phase. One of the interesting finds was a khumcha (water vessel), with an inscription in Sogdian script (6th-7th centuries AD) reading βγyβntk (Vagivande) (fig. 7). Two rooms and the adjacent street of the 9th – 10th (?) centuries belonged to the medium phase. At the upper phase (the beginning of the 12th century AD) this area was used for glass manufacture: furnaces, hearths and pits were found here. The ‘West Street’ which was 1.5-2 m width and separated Citadel and Shahristân I was stratigraphically explored. There were 18 horizons. Burnt brick pavements were built along both sides of the street (fig. 8); they were also used as street shops’ sufa-benches. In the upper layers of the street, a large quantity of devices for furnace was found that would have been used for firing ceramics. The condition of the street was taken care over by adding solids on its surfaces periodically. But this was a new tradition: the two lower layers, in which early medieval material was identified, were filled with organic waste. Traces of a big fire that involved the adjacent buildings are clearly distinguishable in the upper of them. Research of House 1 was resumed in the eastern part of the residential area of Shahristân 1 (fig. 10). Here two planning units were allocated. A large hall of about 42 square m. has been completely excavated in the western block. The passage from the hall to the west led to a narrow corridor, from which one could access to a small room that was set out in the standard way for Early Medieval Paykand: with sufa-bench on all four sides and a podium in the centre. On the basis of finds (coins of King Asbar) the lower construction horizon can be dated by the 6th century AD. In the western part of Shahristân 1 a new building complex from four rooms was studied under medieval structures (fig. 9). The canteen with hearth was situated near entrance. The room for drinking and gambling had sufa-benches with three dug-in large size khum-vessels. Many coins and interesting things were found here: a bronze cup, a small stone cross, a lid for a specially made copper vessel, dice bones etc. The adjacent lounge had more than two meters wide sufa-bench. Сopper coins are from Bukhara oasis, one, probably Chinese coin reading “kai yuan tong bao” and fels issued between 130 and 136 H. on behalf of Abu Muslim. Thus, Sogdian coins continued to be used in the middle of the 8th century AD during Arab rule. So it can be assumed that the investigated complex could be a Sogdian tavern or even small hotel where one could drink wine, entertain oneself playing games and have a rest as well. Thus 50 years on, after the Arab conquest of the Central Asia, the old Sogdian traditions were still preserved. In the east of the Southern Suburb of Paikend a small bathhouse was discovered in the second stratigraphic horizon, under the local winter mosque (fig. 11). Here there were two rooms, divided into cubicles containing burnt bricks bathtubs, fireplaces for heating water and sufa-benches. One of the rooms had wall niches, covered by stucco plaster and painted red. The bathhouse can date back to the 10th century.
Archaeological Research in Uzbekistan, Season 2012, 2013
The article covers the results of investigations on the citadel of an antique site in the upper r... more The article covers the results of investigations on the citadel of an antique site in the upper reaches of Kashkadarya river, in Eastern part of Southern Sogdiana - Kesh (Uzbekistan).
The site called Paikend is located on the southwestern border of the Bukhara oasis (Western Sogd)... more The site called Paikend is located on the southwestern border of the Bukhara oasis (Western Sogd). This old city was a key transit point of Central Asia on the routes of the Great Silk Road. Historical sources tell about merchants of Paikend (Paykand, Baykand, Pa-ti-yan) who were making a fortune due to intermediary trade between China and Near East. Mercery was the best seller but as new data showed Paikend had deal in furs as well. This paper focuses on one of the phenomena related to this traffic – the construction of hotels (caravanserais and others). One of them (X–XI cc.) was archaeologically investigated in the suburbs of Paikend in the beginning of the 80s by Jamaliddin К. Mirzaakhmedov, who was one of the founders of Uzbek-Russian Bukhara Expedition. New archaeological excavations (the 2000s) let us assume the existence of the small hotels (and taverns) for the foreign merchants inside of the city at least from the second half of the 8th c. AD.
Since ancient times, Bukhara oasis was under significant influence of two great historical- cultu... more Since ancient times, Bukhara oasis was under significant influence of two great historical- cultural provinces of the Central Asian region, which were Margiana (North Khorasan) and Khorezm (Chorasmia). Due to its location on the southern border of the oasis, Paikend was a key point in transmission of this impact from the ancient times till Middle Ages. The most important routes which linked China (via Eastern Turkestan, Chach and Samarkand Sogd) and Iran, as well as Eastern Europe (via Chorasmia and Bactria-Tokharistan) and India converged here. Findings of new archaeological excavations in the 2010s are eloquent evidence of grand-scale construction activities which were carried out on the citadel of Paikend in the second half of the 3rd - 4th cc. AD. Some details of the fire temple’s architecture and mural paintings in the site have parallels in the Iranian art of this time. A significant transformation of the material complex which finds numerous similarities in Kushano-Sasanian antiquities is evident in that time as well. Obviously, this was due to the great influence of Sasanian Empire. Authors have a theory that the events were launched by seizure of the Bukhara oasis by the troops of Shapur I. One important consequence of this impact was the acceleration of urbanization processes in throughout Western Sogdiana.
ВUКНАRА OASIS AND ITS NEIGHBOURS IN ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL TIMES. TRANSACТIONS OF ТНЕ STATE HERМITAGE МUSEUM, LXXV, 2015
The article presents the results of archaeological studies of the citadel at Paikend, an ancient ... more The article presents the results of archaeological studies of the citadel at Paikend, an ancient city in the south of the Bukhara Oasis (now Uzbekistan). Excavations have revealed a new complex consisting of dozens of rooms of similar size connected by a common corridor (the so-called "corridor-comb-shaped layout"). Judging by the finds, the rooms adjacent to the fortress walls were intended for the citadel's garrison. Coins and pottery found there allow dating the construction of the building to the second half of the 3rd century AD, when major construction work was also carried out in other areas of the Paikend citadel. The author suggests that the fortress owed its expansion and reinforcement to the political expansion of the Sasanian Empire to the Bukhara Oasis under Shapur I, while the barracks were abandoned because of the counter-movement of the tribes known as the Chionites in the mid-4th century.
Takht-i Sangin as an example of the synthesis of the civilizations of East and West, 2023
The Temple of Paikend (Western Sogd) and the Temple of Oxus (Northern Bactria)
This paper present... more The Temple of Paikend (Western Sogd) and the Temple of Oxus (Northern Bactria) This paper presents the results of recent archaeological excavations at the citadel of Paikend, an ancient city in the south of the Bukhara Oasis (modern Uzbekistan). The Fire Temple was the earliest structure here, surrounded by fortified walls in the first half of the 3rd century BCE. The author hypothesises that Paikend and Takht-i Sangin were built under Antiochus I Soter, when he was co-ruler in the east of the Seleucid Empire. The construction of temples on its frontiers (at Kanka on the Syr Darya and possibly at Erkurgan on the lower Kashkadarya) had a sacred significance in marking the limits of the eastern provinces. In the 2nd–1st centuries BCE, the Hellenistic fortress of Paikend was reconstructed after the conquest of the Central Asian oases by nomads. At this time, many weapons and military equipment were placed in sacrificial pits - bothroi and the special clay box - favissa on the periphery of the Paikend temple. They were offerings to the sanctuary. The similar Greek practice also existed at the Oxus temple. It coincided in some respects with Eurasian nomadic rituals. The types of weapons were also similar. The details of the layout of the Paikend temple of the 3rd–4th centuries CE and the finds confirm its proposed Zoroastrian nature. They find parallels in Iranian cult architecture as well as in the Oxus temple. At the same time, the cult practices of Central Asia had some specific features. В данной статье представлены результаты недавних археологических раскопок цитадели Пайкенда, древнего города на юге Бухарского оазиса (Узбекистан). Самым ранним сооружением здесь был храм огня, окруженный крепостными стенами в первой половине III века до н.э. Автор предполагает, что Пайкенд и Тахт-и-Сангин были построены при Антиохе I Сотере, когда он был соправителем на востоке империи Селевкидов. Возведение храмов по ее границам (также на Канке на Сырдарье и, возможно, в Еркургане на нижней Кашкадарье) имело сакральное значение, обозначая пределы восточных провинций. Во II–I вв. до н.э. эллинистическая крепость Пайкенда была восстановлена после завоевания кочевниками оазисов Центральной Азии. В это время в жертвенных ямах - ботросах и специальном глиняном ящике - фависсе, на периферии храма Пайкенда, помещалось много оружия и военного снаряжения. Это были подношения святилищу. Схожая с греческой практика существовала и в храме Окса. В некоторых отношениях она совпадала с ритуалами евразийских кочевников. Схожими были и типы оружия. Детали планировки храма Пайкенд III–IV вв. н.э. и находки подтверждают его зороастрийский характер. Они находят параллели в иранской культовой архитектуре, а также в храме Окса. В то же время культовая практика Центральной Азии имела некоторые специфические черты.
В 2023 году в центре "Эрмитаж-Казань", подразделении музея-заповедника "Казанский Кремль", открыл... more В 2023 году в центре "Эрмитаж-Казань", подразделении музея-заповедника "Казанский Кремль", открылась выставка "Александр Македонский. Путь на Восток". Это небольшая часть каталога, посвященного древностям с эллинистическими влияниями из Средней Азии и соседних стран, хранящихся в коллекции Государственного Эрмитажа. In 2023, the Hermitage-Kazan Centre, a subdivision of the Kazan Kremlin Museum Reserve, hosted the exhibition "Alexander the Great. The Way to the East". This is a small part of a catalogue devoted to antiquities with Hellenistic influences and reminiscences from Central Asia and neighbouring countries in the collection of the State Hermitage Museum..
Archaeological researches in Uzbekistan, season 2022. Volume 15. Samarqand, 2023
C 1981 Бухарская археологическая экспедиция ведет раскопки на городище Пайкенд в Узбекистане. В н... more C 1981 Бухарская археологическая экспедиция ведет раскопки на городище Пайкенд в Узбекистане. В настоящее время основные исследования сосредоточены на цитадели и прилегающей к ней площадке. Изучается фортификация крепости, где выявлены материалы начиная с последней трети IV в. до н.э. Найдено оружие первых вв. до – первых вв. н.э., которое находит аналогии в комплексах вооружения кочевников Средней Азии и Евразийской степи в целом. Выявлены свидетельства местной металлообработки. Обнаружен большой зал (или частично перекрытый двор), примыкающий к храму огня в V в. н.э. и ранее. Это подтверждает гипотезу о том, что вся восточная часть цитадели использовалась для проведения культовых церемоний, а западная – для проживания храмовой обслуги. Из интересных находок следует отметить монету бухарского царя Мавака, остраконы с фрагментами согдийских надписей тушью, дирхам сельджукского султана Санджара. На «Площадке перед цитаделью» квартальная застройка VI-VII вв. н.э. включала большое домовладение с колонным залом, а также двухкомнатные жилые секции рядовых жителей Пайкенда.
Excavations at Paikend in 2021-22
In 2021-22, the Bukhara Archaeological Expedition of the State Hermitage and the Institute of Archaeology of Samarkand, with the participation of specialists from the Bukhara Museum Reserve, continued to study the ancient history of the Paikend site.
The important task is to identify the first fortifications in the northern part of the citadel (Fig. 1). Pits containing pottery from the end of the 4th century BCE (Fig. 19) were discovered under the north-western corner of the fortress (Figs. 2,3). Cultural layers with pottery (fig. 20) and iron weapons (fig. 24: 3-6,12) of the turn of an epoch were found under the "archers' corridor" of the 3rd-4th century CE.
Tower no. 3 of this period was completely excavated in the central part of the northern façade of the citadel (Fig. 5). It had a vaulted passage to the "archers' corridor" (fig. 6). Under the tower, part of the 1st century BC room which had a certain vault construction inside has been discovered (Fig. 7). Iron weapons were also found here (Fig. 24: 1,2,7-11).
To the east, a single-chambered furnace of the same period, apparently associated with iron production, was discovered (Figs 8, 9). The head of the terracotta figurine (fig. 25) and a bronze bell with a dragon's head (?) (fig. 26) also came from here.
An important result of the new excavations was the discovery of the "Great Hall" under the courtyard of the early medieval "Palace" in the eastern part of the citadel (Figs 10, 11). The hall was apparently part of the Fire Temple complex (3rd century BCE - 7th century CE), which sanctuaries and courtyard were located to the north. To the south the hall was connected to the room, perhaps for the storage of temple offerings (Fig. 12). The length of the hall is 13.7 m. Monumental adobe benches (sufas) were attached to the walls and on the north side there was a monumental staircase 3.4 m wide (Fig. 11). The coin of King Mavak found on the sufa allows us to date the last renovation of the hall to the 5th century CE. (Fig. 28:1). The discovery of such a monumental structure supports our conclusion that at least the eastern sector of the Paikend citadel was occupied by the Temple of Fire. As Biruni noted, Zoroastrian priests called Magi from all over the Bukhara oasis gathered there on certain holidays.
In the western sector, a new excavation has revealed a residential building with a courtyard. Based on the ceramic complex (Fig. 23) and the dirham of the Seljuk sultan Sanjar (Fig. 28: 4), these buildings date from the 12th century. The part of the Fire Temple was discovered underneath. It included a corridor of 11x4.15 m with sufas and a courtyard of 7.5x12 m with an aivan and a well. The dating to the 7th-early 8th century B.C. is confirmed by ceramic finds (fig. 22) and fragments of ostracons with Sogdian inscriptions in ink (fig. 27).
To the north of the fortress, the expedition continues to study the "site in front of the citadel", where quarter buildings of the 6th-7th centuries AD have been identified (Figs. 16-18). The house with columns was opened along the main road. From the north, along the "A" road, two small two-roomed dwellings were attached to it. Lanes "B" and "C" were closed with gates to prevent direct access to the "rich" household and the main street running along the fortress wall of the Paikend citadel.
Jewellery and Material Culture / Ювелирное искусство и материальная культура. Issue 7, 2023
The Bukhara expedition of the State Hermitage Museum and the Institute of Archaeology of the Acad... more The Bukhara expedition of the State Hermitage Museum and the Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan since 1981 has been excavating at the Paikend settlement, which is located on the lands of the ancient Western (Bukhara) Sogd. One of the most significant results was the discovery of the Fire temple on the citadel, founded in the Hellenistic period. In 2016-17 special pits (βόθροι) were excavated in the bypass corridor, apparently of the temple courtyard. They were filled with weapons and ammunition items of the first centuries BCE – first centuries CE. A hollow plaque of cast gold with a relief of a curled-up eagle-headed griffin was the most noteworthy item from this complex. Taking into account the construction of the piece, the military nature of other finds and analogies, it is concluded that it was as part of a special type of dagger scabbard with side projections (or lobed sheaths). Scabbard of such design was an innovation of Pazyryk culture warrior-riders (Altai region, 6th-3rd centuries BCE) and then widespread in the steppes from China to the northern Black Sea region. As evidenced by archaeological data and images on Bosporan and Western Asia reliefs, such scabbards were attached to the hip. Plaques similar to the Paikend's were probably used to tighten straps and additionally to decorate the scabbard. Similar artifacts were excavated in situ in rich burials of Tillya Tepe (Bactria), Dachi (on the lower reaches of the Don River) and Isakovka (West Siberian plain). A griffin from Paikend is most similar to the ones that decorated the scabbard from Tillya Tepe. Generally, griffin images were popular among nomads who took power away from Hellenistic rulers of Central Asia and are known in the lands of Sogdiana, Bactria, Parthia and Khorezm. Бухарская экспедиция Государственного Эрмитажа и Института археологии Академии наук Республики Узбекистан с 1981 года ведет раскопки на городище Пайкенд, расположенном на землях древнего Западного (Бухарского) Согда. Одним из самых значительных результатов стало обнаружение храма Огня на цитадели, основанного в эллинистический период. В 2016-17 годах в обходном коридоре, видимо, внутреннего двора храма, были раскопаны специальные ямы (ботросы). Они были заполнены предметами оружия и амуниции первых веков до нашей эры – первых веков нашей эры. Наиболее примечательным предметом из этого комплекса была полая бляшка из литого золота с рельефным изображением свернувшегося орлиноголового грифона. Учитывая конструкцию изделия, воинский характер других находок и аналогии, сделан вывод, что она являлась частью особого типа ножен кинжала с боковыми выступами (или дольчатых ножен). Ножны такой конструкции были новшеством воинов-всадников пазырыкской культуры (Алтайский край, VI-III вв. до н.э.) и затем широко распространились в степях от Китая до Северного Причерноморья. Как свидетельствуют археологические данные и изображения на рельефах Боспора и Передней Азии, такие ножны крепились к бедру. Бляшки, подобные пайкендской, вероятно, использовались для затягивания ремней и дополнительно украшали ножны. Подобные артефакты были раскопаны in situ в богатых погребениях Тилля-тепе (Бактрия), Дачи (в нижнем течении реки Дон) и Исаковки (Западная Сибирь). Грифон из Пайкенда наиболее похож на тех, что украшали ножны из Тилля-тепе. В целом, изображения грифонов были популярны среди кочевников, отнявших власть у эллинистических правителей Центральной Азии, и известны в землях Согдианы, Бактрии, Парфии и Хорезма.
This paper focuses on coroplastics of ancient Sogdiana – the historical cultural region which occ... more This paper focuses on coroplastics of ancient Sogdiana – the historical cultural region which occupied in antiquity the central areas of Central Asia, the valleys of the Zeravshan and Kashkadarya (Qashqadaryo) rivers. The first examples of terracottas, produced locally with the use of evidently imported matrices, were represented by discs depicting in high relief the heads of the Gorgon Medusa on Megara bowls and Silenus on situlae. The permanent local production of full-figure terracotta statuettes in Sogdiana begins, as it seems, closer to the middle of the 2nd century BC. At the early stage, the Sogdian school of coroplastics resembled the Margiana’s school which was greatly influenced by Near-East centres. Similar trends were present in the coroplastics of Northern India which, like Mesopotamia, Margiana and partly Bactria, in the 1st century BC were under the political influence of the Parthian state. The earlier group of terracottas in Sogdiana, and generally in Central Asia, is represented by female naked figurines of the Mother Goddess, sometimes with a child in hands. About at the turn of this era, statuettes of women in local clothes with certain elements resembling Greek examples become widely distributed. For the attribution of the divinities such as Nana, Anahita, Atargatis-Athena, of importance are the headdresses and attributes of the figurines. Of wide distribution are statuettes of musicians: in Central Sogdiana it is men, in Southern Sogdiana – women playing lutes, flutes of two types, harps or drums. Frequently also modeled figurines of riders-primitives are found which became widespread in the oases of the region with the advent of nomadic tribes (Sakae, Yuezhi). After the turn of this era, male statuettes appear wearing caftans and pointed kuloh caps, occasionally with a dagger, evidently representations of Mithras. In the 3rd–4th century, in the coroplastics of Sogdiana, individualized images became widespread reflecting the increase of realistic trends in the art of the Hellenized regions of the East in the 1st–2nd century (Faiyum portraits, steles from Palmira, Gandhara art). A large series of the late ancient, as well as early mediaeval coroplastics of Sogdiana is constituted by representations originated from the portrait of Alexander of Macedon; also anthropomorphic imprints appear as imitations of the Roman ceramics and glass.
Ancient and Medieval Cultures of Central Asia (the Formation, Development and Interaction of Urbanized and Cattle-Breeding Societies) , 2020
Excavations of the town site of Paikend conducted by the Bukharan Expedition of the State Hermita... more Excavations of the town site of Paikend conducted by the Bukharan Expedition of the State Hermitage (Saint Petersburg) and of the Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan in 2016-2019 gave new interesting archaeological remains of the 2nd c. BC – 2nd c. AD. Available data suggest that the entire eastern part of the Citadel of Paikend was for Fire temple. A plan of it resembles the layout of the Oxus Temple in Antique Bactria (excavations by B. Litvinskii, I. Pichikian) in some respects. Moreover much finds from pits-bothroi and mudbrick boxes-favissae of the both structures are similar as well. There were arms and equipment of the Kangju period in Bukhara oasis and the Yuezhi-Kushan period in Bactria respectively. They are fragments of swords, daggers, spear tips and arrow heads, armor plates, bone plaques from bows and gorytos, and numerous details of ammunition (rivets, nails, plaques, onlays, buttons, buckles, etc. from bone, shell, copper, iron, and turquoise). Some of the most remarkable things are the gold plaques (probably from scabbard) with the coiled griffin image in Paikend and with procession of panthers in Takht-i Sangin. Archaeological complexes are supplemented by materials from kurgans of Bactria (excavations by A. Mandelstam) and Western Sogd (O. Obelchenko). Weapons of the both areas are similar to the Sarmatian ones, but numerous eastern elements (Xiongnu and from Chine) are evident. So, the Sogdian-Bactrian complex of weapons of the 2 c. BCE – 1st c. CE, which was singled out by N. Gorbunova in 2000, in our opinion, really had "East Sarmatian" origin. It could get to Central Asia with nomads from the border of the Han state, as A. Mandelstam believed.
Archaeological Research in Uzbekistan, Season 2010-2011, 2012
In the years 2010-2011 the Bukhara Archaeological expedition continued excavating the site of Pay... more In the years 2010-2011 the Bukhara Archaeological expedition continued excavating the site of Paykand. Excavations were carried out in all the sectors which had been initiated in the Citadel, Shahristan I, Southern Suburb. The study of the constructions was continued in the south-western section of the Citadel. Here, along the southern and western fortification walls, the structure dating back to the end of the 3rd – 4th century AD was examined. Its layout followed a comb-like pattern. 12 chambers connected by arch passageways were uncovered; they were leading to the bypass corridor parallel to the fortification wall. The rooms, most of them surrounded by adobe suffa benches along the perimeter (fig. 2a, 4b-right, 5a), were approximately of the same size (4.5 x 3.5 m). Two of them were storages (fig. 3a, 4b-left). The southern walls of the rooms, forming the fortification wall proper were pierced by rectangular embrasures (fig. 2a, 3). The height of the ceiling in the rooms was 2.7-2.8 m and the height of the arch leading to the corridor was 2.1-2.3 m. In room 11, the debris on the floor contained plaster from the ceiling as well as fragments of hums (large vessels) which originally had been placed on the second floor (fig. 2b). In room 15 there were two doors (fig. 4b): because after an abandonment of the complex it was used again 50 years after. According to certain details this structure can be considered to serve as garrison barracks. On the basis of the analogies in construction techniques and the archaeological materials found in the course of earlier excavations in the north and south-east, we can state that at that time the whole perimeter of the Citadel was reinforced, making it a high-class fortress. From our point of view, there was a three-level defense system: the embrasures, the parapet of the battle platform above the living premises and the parapet above the corridor. The wall stood on a massive (4.75 m wide) mud-brick platform, which provided reliable defense from battering rams (fig. 3b, 3, 4a, 5b). Archaeological findings indicate the spread of the elements of Kushano-Sasanid complex in Paykand in the 3rd – 4th century AD. Its bright evidence is the local circulation of copper imitations of Kushan coins and Kushano-Sasanian coins (fig. 7, 1-5), which is associated with including Western Sogd to the sphere of political control of Sassanid Iran. In this case, could the considerable construction activity in Paykand Citadel in the 3rd century AD be explained by the activity of the Sasanids in the east, for the latter undoubtedly needed strongholds on new territories? We believe that the further study of the early layers in Paykand would help us to shed light on this question. A silver imitation of an Euthydemus tetradrachm with the legend MR’Y was found in the sand filling of room 7 (fig. 7, 7). Judging from their weight, such coins served for large trading operations and as a store of value. As hand-made pottery assemblage from the barracks (fig. 6) shown the migration of semi-nomadic groups began from the Syr-darya region in to Western Sogdiana already in the third century CE. as well. In the south west part of the citadel, near to the barracks, we continued to study the mid 10th century colonnade mosque. Stratigraphic research of the subterranean constructions took place on the area of 120 square meters. It was observed that a trench was dug for the building of the foundations of the column bases of the mosque (fig. 8). In the residential quarter of Shahristân 1 the study of the area of house 8 in the lower construction horizon showed that three rooms formed a separate living block (fig. 9) with a hallway, a storage room, small corridor and a bedroom. Suffa couches line the sides of the room. In the centre of the room there was a low podium with a fireplace where the trace of a metal lattice was preserved in the ashes. In the east of the Southern Suburb, research was continued on the lower (southern) group of rooms. In the upper construction horizon the main complex included a big hall (6.5x6.6m) and three ancillary rooms (fig. 10). In the centre of the hall there stood a rectangular sandal (fireplace). Smoke would escape through a hatch in the roof: there were four holes from ceiling pillars around the fireplace. The Mihrab niche in the west wall of the hall preserved in situ ganj (alabaster) panels framing it (fig. 11). Remains of another big panel were found fallen and lying on the floor. The panel was decorated with carved geometric and floral design combined with red and blue painting. The two – large-scale and small-scale – carving styles used for decorating the mihrab might be applied at two different times. So here was a small winter local mosque complex which could be dated of the end of the 10th century – first third of the 11th century. Judging by the unfired pitchers found in one of the ancillary rooms, the complex could have been a mosque for the community of potters. Restoration works were carried out at one of the fortification tower of Shahristân 2 and the minaret on the citadel (fig. 12). In 2011, in connection with the 30 year anniversary of the Bukhara Archeological Expedition, the permanent galleries of the Paykand Museum (opened in 2002) were renovated. On the 22nd-23rd August 2011, an international scientific conference on ‘The History and Culture of the Bukhara Oasis in the Antiquity and the Middle Ages’ took place in Bukhara and Paykand with the active participation of the Bukhara State Architecture and Art Museum (director R.V. Almeev). The conference was attended by academic scholars from France, Germany, the Netherlands, Russia, the USA and Uzbekistan.
Archaeological Research in Uzbekistan, Season 2012, 2013
In 2012 the Bukhara Archaeological Expedition of the State Hermitage Museum and the Archaeologica... more In 2012 the Bukhara Archaeological Expedition of the State Hermitage Museum and the Archaeological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan carried out excavations on the Paykand site, focusing on four facilities: the Citadel, the Area in front of the Citadel, Shahristân 1 and the Southern Suburb. In the south western part of the Citadel we continued to carry out research the garrison barracks adjoining on the fortification wall and dating back to the 3rd-4th centuries AD. It is made up of standard size sections which lead onto a main corridor. Two rooms (№№ 11, 15) near the western wall were excavated till the foundation platform (fig. 1). In the chambers there were vertical incisions made by sharp instruments in the plaster of the walls of the passage which probably marked to count days (of duty?). Sufa-benches were also found in the corridor. In the opposite wall of the corridor, there were three passages leading inside the Citadel. On the floor we found a fragment of a dining taghora dish with a twisted handle – yet another element of a Kushan-Sassanian complex in the Bukhara oasis. In the south west part of the citadel, near to the barracks, research of a mosque with colonnade of the mid 10th century was continued . The treasure (15 silver coins, imitations of Sassanian drachmas from the time of Shah Varakhran V) was discovered in the foundation of the mosque. It fell into the filling of more ancient layers. Some of the coins seemed to have been issued under the King of Bukhara Khunak (end of the 7th- beginning of the 8th century). We found a structure beneath the foundation of the 10th century which was probably an earlier mosque (fig. 2). It differs from the more recent mosque’s plan, and was characterized by a courtyard surrounded by a gallery. The mosque can be dated by the Abbasid coins (end of 8th-9th century). On the floor two ceramic ostraca fragments were found, upon which the names ‘Ahmad’ and ‘Abu-Rahman’ were marked with ink. In the north eastern part of the citadel we uncovered a part of the earliest fortification wall, which would have defenced the Zoroastrian fire temple. The wall from square adobes had embrasures, and in the base of it a platform was built from ‘plano-convex’ adobes (fig. 3). In the adjoining room there were found cylinder-conical large vessels, similar to the Achaemenid’s time one. But there were table pottery as well (fig. 4). These specimens spread to the Central Asia under the influence of the Greek pottery tradition appeared after the expeditions of Alexander the Great. Thus, findings confirmed that the Paykand citadel was founded at the end of the 4th century BC. In the archer's corridor of the north western corner of the citadel, at least 10 floor coatings were recorded (the top ones belonging to the 4th century AD). The wall reaching 6.5 m is well preserved. A passage leading inside the Citadel was found. In the 8th horizon we found such evidence of local metal-working as iron slag. Iron weapons, some intact, others in pieces, were found on the lowest floor: a sword, daggers, a knife and a three-bladed arrowhead (fig. 5). They are similar to the weapons of the Sarmatian tribes and ones of the burial mounds in southern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, from the end of the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD, which associated with Yuetji-Tokhar tribes in Bactria. New excavation on the Area to the north of the Citadel found no less than three large construction phases (fig. 6). A part of a room dating to earlier than the Middle Ages was traced in the lower phase. One of the interesting finds was a khumcha (water vessel), with an inscription in Sogdian script (6th-7th centuries AD) reading βγyβntk (Vagivande) (fig. 7). Two rooms and the adjacent street of the 9th – 10th (?) centuries belonged to the medium phase. At the upper phase (the beginning of the 12th century AD) this area was used for glass manufacture: furnaces, hearths and pits were found here. The ‘West Street’ which was 1.5-2 m width and separated Citadel and Shahristân I was stratigraphically explored. There were 18 horizons. Burnt brick pavements were built along both sides of the street (fig. 8); they were also used as street shops’ sufa-benches. In the upper layers of the street, a large quantity of devices for furnace was found that would have been used for firing ceramics. The condition of the street was taken care over by adding solids on its surfaces periodically. But this was a new tradition: the two lower layers, in which early medieval material was identified, were filled with organic waste. Traces of a big fire that involved the adjacent buildings are clearly distinguishable in the upper of them. Research of House 1 was resumed in the eastern part of the residential area of Shahristân 1 (fig. 10). Here two planning units were allocated. A large hall of about 42 square m. has been completely excavated in the western block. The passage from the hall to the west led to a narrow corridor, from which one could access to a small room that was set out in the standard way for Early Medieval Paykand: with sufa-bench on all four sides and a podium in the centre. On the basis of finds (coins of King Asbar) the lower construction horizon can be dated by the 6th century AD. In the western part of Shahristân 1 a new building complex from four rooms was studied under medieval structures (fig. 9). The canteen with hearth was situated near entrance. The room for drinking and gambling had sufa-benches with three dug-in large size khum-vessels. Many coins and interesting things were found here: a bronze cup, a small stone cross, a lid for a specially made copper vessel, dice bones etc. The adjacent lounge had more than two meters wide sufa-bench. Сopper coins are from Bukhara oasis, one, probably Chinese coin reading “kai yuan tong bao” and fels issued between 130 and 136 H. on behalf of Abu Muslim. Thus, Sogdian coins continued to be used in the middle of the 8th century AD during Arab rule. So it can be assumed that the investigated complex could be a Sogdian tavern or even small hotel where one could drink wine, entertain oneself playing games and have a rest as well. Thus 50 years on, after the Arab conquest of the Central Asia, the old Sogdian traditions were still preserved. In the east of the Southern Suburb of Paikend a small bathhouse was discovered in the second stratigraphic horizon, under the local winter mosque (fig. 11). Here there were two rooms, divided into cubicles containing burnt bricks bathtubs, fireplaces for heating water and sufa-benches. One of the rooms had wall niches, covered by stucco plaster and painted red. The bathhouse can date back to the 10th century.
Archaeological Research in Uzbekistan, Season 2012, 2013
The article covers the results of investigations on the citadel of an antique site in the upper r... more The article covers the results of investigations on the citadel of an antique site in the upper reaches of Kashkadarya river, in Eastern part of Southern Sogdiana - Kesh (Uzbekistan).
The site called Paikend is located on the southwestern border of the Bukhara oasis (Western Sogd)... more The site called Paikend is located on the southwestern border of the Bukhara oasis (Western Sogd). This old city was a key transit point of Central Asia on the routes of the Great Silk Road. Historical sources tell about merchants of Paikend (Paykand, Baykand, Pa-ti-yan) who were making a fortune due to intermediary trade between China and Near East. Mercery was the best seller but as new data showed Paikend had deal in furs as well. This paper focuses on one of the phenomena related to this traffic – the construction of hotels (caravanserais and others). One of them (X–XI cc.) was archaeologically investigated in the suburbs of Paikend in the beginning of the 80s by Jamaliddin К. Mirzaakhmedov, who was one of the founders of Uzbek-Russian Bukhara Expedition. New archaeological excavations (the 2000s) let us assume the existence of the small hotels (and taverns) for the foreign merchants inside of the city at least from the second half of the 8th c. AD.
Since ancient times, Bukhara oasis was under significant influence of two great historical- cultu... more Since ancient times, Bukhara oasis was under significant influence of two great historical- cultural provinces of the Central Asian region, which were Margiana (North Khorasan) and Khorezm (Chorasmia). Due to its location on the southern border of the oasis, Paikend was a key point in transmission of this impact from the ancient times till Middle Ages. The most important routes which linked China (via Eastern Turkestan, Chach and Samarkand Sogd) and Iran, as well as Eastern Europe (via Chorasmia and Bactria-Tokharistan) and India converged here. Findings of new archaeological excavations in the 2010s are eloquent evidence of grand-scale construction activities which were carried out on the citadel of Paikend in the second half of the 3rd - 4th cc. AD. Some details of the fire temple’s architecture and mural paintings in the site have parallels in the Iranian art of this time. A significant transformation of the material complex which finds numerous similarities in Kushano-Sasanian antiquities is evident in that time as well. Obviously, this was due to the great influence of Sasanian Empire. Authors have a theory that the events were launched by seizure of the Bukhara oasis by the troops of Shapur I. One important consequence of this impact was the acceleration of urbanization processes in throughout Western Sogdiana.
Transactions of the State Hermitage Museum. LXXV, 2015
В 2010 году в Санкт-Петербурге прошла конференция "Города Средней Азии в системе средневековых го... more В 2010 году в Санкт-Петербурге прошла конференция "Города Средней Азии в системе средневековых городов Востока", посвященная 60-летию со дня рождения Григория Львовича Семенова (1950-2007), заведующего Отделом Востока и руководителя Бухарской археологической экспедиции. В 2011 году исполнилось 30 лет со дня начала раскопок Бухарской археологической экспедиции на городище Пайкенд. В Бухаре и Пайкенде была проведена международная конференция "История и культура Бухарского оазиса в древности и средневековье". В сборник вошли статьи, написанные на основе докладов, представленных на этих конференциях, а также ряд публикаций, представляющих результаты новых исследований. Статьи охватывают темы по истории, археологии, эпиграфике, источниковедению, этнографии и архитектуре Центральной Азии и сопредельных стран.
In 2010 the conference "Central Asian Cities in the System of Medieval Cities of the East" was held in St Petersburg, dedicated to the 60th anniversary of the birth of Grigory Lvovich Semyonov (1950-2007), Head of the Oriental Department and Head of the Bukhara Archaeological Expedition. The year 2011 marked 30 years since the Bukhara Archaeological Expedition began excavations at the Paikend settlement. An international conference "History and Culture of the Bukhara Oasis in Antiquity and the Middle Ages" was held in Bukhara and Paikend. The collection includes articles written on the basis of papers at these conferences, as well as a number of publications presenting the results of new research. The articles cover topics in the history, archaeology, epigraphy, source studies, ethnography and architecture of Central Asia and neighbouring countries.
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Papers by Andrey Omelchenko
This paper presents the results of recent archaeological excavations at the citadel of Paikend, an ancient city in the south of the Bukhara Oasis (modern Uzbekistan). The Fire Temple was the earliest structure here, surrounded by fortified walls in the first half of the 3rd century BCE. The author hypothesises that Paikend and Takht-i Sangin were built under Antiochus I Soter, when he was co-ruler in the east of the Seleucid Empire. The construction of temples on its frontiers (at Kanka on the Syr Darya and possibly at Erkurgan on the lower Kashkadarya) had a sacred significance in marking the limits of the eastern provinces.
In the 2nd–1st centuries BCE, the Hellenistic fortress of Paikend was reconstructed after the conquest of the Central Asian oases by nomads. At this time, many weapons and military equipment were placed in sacrificial pits - bothroi and the special clay box - favissa on the periphery of the Paikend temple. They were offerings to the sanctuary. The similar Greek practice also existed at the Oxus temple. It coincided in some respects with Eurasian nomadic rituals. The types of weapons were also similar.
The details of the layout of the Paikend temple of the 3rd–4th centuries CE and the finds confirm its proposed Zoroastrian nature. They find parallels in Iranian cult architecture as well as in the Oxus temple. At the same time, the cult practices of Central Asia had some specific features.
В данной статье представлены результаты недавних археологических раскопок цитадели Пайкенда, древнего города на юге Бухарского оазиса (Узбекистан). Самым ранним сооружением здесь был храм огня, окруженный крепостными стенами в первой половине III века до н.э. Автор предполагает, что Пайкенд и Тахт-и-Сангин были построены при Антиохе I Сотере, когда он был соправителем на востоке империи Селевкидов. Возведение храмов по ее границам (также на Канке на Сырдарье и, возможно, в Еркургане на нижней Кашкадарье) имело сакральное значение, обозначая пределы восточных провинций.
Во II–I вв. до н.э. эллинистическая крепость Пайкенда была восстановлена после завоевания кочевниками оазисов Центральной Азии. В это время в жертвенных ямах - ботросах и специальном глиняном ящике - фависсе, на периферии храма Пайкенда, помещалось много оружия и военного снаряжения. Это были подношения святилищу. Схожая с греческой практика существовала и в храме Окса. В некоторых отношениях она совпадала с ритуалами евразийских кочевников. Схожими были и типы оружия.
Детали планировки храма Пайкенд III–IV вв. н.э. и находки подтверждают его зороастрийский характер. Они находят параллели в иранской культовой архитектуре, а также в храме Окса. В то же время культовая практика Центральной Азии имела некоторые специфические черты.
In 2023, the Hermitage-Kazan Centre, a subdivision of the Kazan Kremlin Museum Reserve, hosted the exhibition "Alexander the Great. The Way to the East". This is a small part of a catalogue devoted to antiquities with Hellenistic influences and reminiscences from Central Asia and neighbouring countries in the collection of the State Hermitage Museum..
Excavations at Paikend in 2021-22
In 2021-22, the Bukhara Archaeological Expedition of the State Hermitage and the Institute of Archaeology of Samarkand, with the participation of specialists from the Bukhara Museum Reserve, continued to study the ancient history of the Paikend site.
The important task is to identify the first fortifications in the northern part of the citadel (Fig. 1). Pits containing pottery from the end of the 4th century BCE (Fig. 19) were discovered under the north-western corner of the fortress (Figs. 2,3). Cultural layers with pottery (fig. 20) and iron weapons (fig. 24: 3-6,12) of the turn of an epoch were found under the "archers' corridor" of the 3rd-4th century CE.
Tower no. 3 of this period was completely excavated in the central part of the northern façade of the citadel (Fig. 5). It had a vaulted passage to the "archers' corridor" (fig. 6). Under the tower, part of the 1st century BC room which had a certain vault construction inside has been discovered (Fig. 7). Iron weapons were also found here (Fig. 24: 1,2,7-11).
To the east, a single-chambered furnace of the same period, apparently associated with iron production, was discovered (Figs 8, 9). The head of the terracotta figurine (fig. 25) and a bronze bell with a dragon's head (?) (fig. 26) also came from here.
An important result of the new excavations was the discovery of the "Great Hall" under the courtyard of the early medieval "Palace" in the eastern part of the citadel (Figs 10, 11). The hall was apparently part of the Fire Temple complex (3rd century BCE - 7th century CE), which sanctuaries and courtyard were located to the north. To the south the hall was connected to the room, perhaps for the storage of temple offerings (Fig. 12). The length of the hall is 13.7 m. Monumental adobe benches (sufas) were attached to the walls and on the north side there was a monumental staircase 3.4 m wide (Fig. 11). The coin of King Mavak found on the sufa allows us to date the last renovation of the hall to the 5th century CE. (Fig. 28:1). The discovery of such a monumental structure supports our conclusion that at least the eastern sector of the Paikend citadel was occupied by the Temple of Fire. As Biruni noted, Zoroastrian priests called Magi from all over the Bukhara oasis gathered there on certain holidays.
In the western sector, a new excavation has revealed a residential building with a courtyard. Based on the ceramic complex (Fig. 23) and the dirham of the Seljuk sultan Sanjar (Fig. 28: 4), these buildings date from the 12th century. The part of the Fire Temple was discovered underneath. It included a corridor of 11x4.15 m with sufas and a courtyard of 7.5x12 m with an aivan and a well. The dating to the 7th-early 8th century B.C. is confirmed by ceramic finds (fig. 22) and fragments of ostracons with Sogdian inscriptions in ink (fig. 27).
To the north of the fortress, the expedition continues to study the "site in front of the citadel", where quarter buildings of the 6th-7th centuries AD have been identified (Figs. 16-18). The house with columns was opened along the main road. From the north, along the "A" road, two small two-roomed dwellings were attached to it. Lanes "B" and "C" were closed with gates to prevent direct access to the "rich" household and the main street running along the fortress wall of the Paikend citadel.
Бухарская экспедиция Государственного Эрмитажа и Института археологии Академии наук Республики Узбекистан с 1981 года ведет раскопки на городище Пайкенд, расположенном на землях древнего Западного (Бухарского) Согда. Одним из самых значительных результатов стало обнаружение храма Огня на цитадели, основанного в эллинистический период. В 2016-17 годах в обходном коридоре, видимо, внутреннего двора храма, были раскопаны специальные ямы (ботросы). Они были заполнены предметами оружия и амуниции первых веков до нашей эры – первых веков нашей эры. Наиболее примечательным предметом из этого комплекса была полая бляшка из литого золота с рельефным изображением свернувшегося орлиноголового грифона. Учитывая конструкцию изделия, воинский характер других находок и аналогии, сделан вывод, что она являлась частью особого типа ножен кинжала с боковыми выступами (или дольчатых ножен). Ножны такой конструкции были новшеством воинов-всадников пазырыкской культуры (Алтайский край, VI-III вв. до н.э.) и затем широко распространились в степях от Китая до Северного Причерноморья. Как свидетельствуют археологические данные и изображения на рельефах Боспора и Передней Азии, такие ножны крепились к бедру. Бляшки, подобные пайкендской, вероятно, использовались для затягивания ремней и дополнительно украшали ножны. Подобные артефакты были раскопаны in situ в богатых погребениях Тилля-тепе (Бактрия), Дачи (в нижнем течении реки Дон) и Исаковки (Западная Сибирь). Грифон из Пайкенда наиболее похож на тех, что украшали ножны из Тилля-тепе. В целом, изображения грифонов были популярны среди кочевников, отнявших власть у эллинистических правителей Центральной Азии, и известны в землях Согдианы, Бактрии, Парфии и Хорезма.
The first examples of terracottas, produced locally with the use of evidently imported matrices, were represented by discs depicting in high relief the heads of the Gorgon Medusa on Megara bowls and Silenus on situlae.
The permanent local production of full-figure terracotta statuettes in Sogdiana begins, as it seems, closer to the middle of the 2nd century BC. At the early stage, the Sogdian school of coroplastics resembled the Margiana’s school which was greatly influenced by Near-East centres. Similar trends were present in the coroplastics of Northern India which, like Mesopotamia, Margiana and partly Bactria, in the 1st century BC were under the political influence of the Parthian state.
The earlier group of terracottas in Sogdiana, and generally in Central Asia, is represented by female naked figurines of the Mother Goddess, sometimes with a child in hands. About at the turn of this era, statuettes of women in local clothes with certain elements resembling Greek examples become widely distributed. For the attribution of the divinities such as Nana, Anahita, Atargatis-Athena, of importance are the headdresses and attributes of the figurines.
Of wide distribution are statuettes of musicians: in Central Sogdiana it is men, in Southern Sogdiana – women playing lutes, flutes of two types, harps or drums. Frequently also modeled figurines of riders-primitives are found which became widespread in the oases of the region with the advent of nomadic tribes (Sakae, Yuezhi). After the turn of this era, male statuettes appear wearing caftans and pointed kuloh caps, occasionally with a dagger, evidently representations of Mithras.
In the 3rd–4th century, in the coroplastics of Sogdiana, individualized images became widespread reflecting the increase of realistic trends in the art of the Hellenized regions of the East in the 1st–2nd century (Faiyum portraits, steles from Palmira, Gandhara art). A large series of the late ancient, as well as early mediaeval coroplastics of Sogdiana is constituted by representations originated from the portrait of Alexander of Macedon; also anthropomorphic imprints appear as imitations of the Roman ceramics and glass.
The study of the constructions was continued in the south-western section of the Citadel. Here, along the southern and western fortification walls, the structure dating back to the end of the 3rd – 4th century AD was examined. Its layout followed a comb-like pattern. 12 chambers connected by arch passageways were uncovered; they were leading to the bypass corridor parallel to the fortification wall. The rooms, most of them surrounded by adobe suffa benches along the perimeter (fig. 2a, 4b-right, 5a), were approximately of the same size (4.5 x 3.5 m). Two of them were storages (fig. 3a, 4b-left). The southern walls of the rooms, forming the fortification wall proper were pierced by rectangular embrasures (fig. 2a, 3).
The height of the ceiling in the rooms was 2.7-2.8 m and the height of the arch leading to the corridor was 2.1-2.3 m. In room 11, the debris on the floor contained plaster from the ceiling as well as fragments of hums (large vessels) which originally had been placed on the second floor (fig. 2b). In room 15 there were two doors (fig. 4b): because after an abandonment of the complex it was used again 50 years after.
According to certain details this structure can be considered to serve as garrison barracks. On the basis of the analogies in construction techniques and the archaeological materials found in the course of earlier excavations in the north and south-east, we can state that at that time the whole perimeter of the Citadel was reinforced, making it a high-class fortress. From our point of view, there was a three-level defense system: the embrasures, the parapet of the battle platform above the living premises and the parapet above the corridor. The wall stood on a massive (4.75 m wide) mud-brick platform, which provided reliable defense from battering rams (fig. 3b, 3, 4a, 5b).
Archaeological findings indicate the spread of the elements of Kushano-Sasanid complex in Paykand in the 3rd – 4th century AD. Its bright evidence is the local circulation of copper imitations of Kushan coins and Kushano-Sasanian coins (fig. 7, 1-5), which is associated with including Western Sogd to the sphere of political control of Sassanid Iran. In this case, could the considerable construction activity in Paykand Citadel in the 3rd century AD be explained by the activity of the Sasanids in the east, for the latter undoubtedly needed strongholds on new territories? We believe that the further study of the early layers in Paykand would help us to shed light on this question.
A silver imitation of an Euthydemus tetradrachm with the legend MR’Y was found in the sand filling of room 7 (fig. 7, 7). Judging from their weight, such coins served for large trading operations and as a store of value.
As hand-made pottery assemblage from the barracks (fig. 6) shown the migration of semi-nomadic groups began from the Syr-darya region in to Western Sogdiana already in the third century CE. as well.
In the south west part of the citadel, near to the barracks, we continued to study the mid 10th century colonnade mosque. Stratigraphic research of the subterranean constructions took place on the area of 120 square meters. It was observed that a trench was dug for the building of the foundations of the column bases of the mosque (fig. 8).
In the residential quarter of Shahristân 1 the study of the area of house 8 in the lower construction horizon showed that three rooms formed a separate living block (fig. 9) with a hallway, a storage room, small corridor and a bedroom. Suffa couches line the sides of the room. In the centre of the room there was a low podium with a fireplace where the trace of a metal lattice was preserved in the ashes.
In the east of the Southern Suburb, research was continued on the lower (southern) group of rooms. In the upper construction horizon the main complex included a big hall (6.5x6.6m) and three ancillary rooms (fig. 10). In the centre of the hall there stood a rectangular sandal (fireplace). Smoke would escape through a hatch in the roof: there were four holes from ceiling pillars around the fireplace.
The Mihrab niche in the west wall of the hall preserved in situ ganj (alabaster) panels framing it (fig. 11). Remains of another big panel were found fallen and lying on the floor. The panel was decorated with carved geometric and floral design combined with red and blue painting. The two – large-scale and small-scale – carving styles used for decorating the mihrab might be applied at two different times. So here was a small winter local mosque complex which could be dated of the end of the 10th century – first third of the 11th century. Judging by the unfired pitchers found in one of the ancillary rooms, the complex could have been a mosque for the community of potters.
Restoration works were carried out at one of the fortification tower of Shahristân 2 and the minaret on the citadel (fig. 12).
In 2011, in connection with the 30 year anniversary of the Bukhara Archeological Expedition, the permanent galleries of the Paykand Museum (opened in 2002) were renovated. On the 22nd-23rd August 2011, an international scientific conference on ‘The History and Culture of the Bukhara Oasis in the Antiquity and the Middle Ages’ took place in Bukhara and Paykand with the active participation of the Bukhara State Architecture and Art Museum (director R.V. Almeev). The conference was attended by academic scholars from France, Germany, the Netherlands, Russia, the USA and Uzbekistan.
In the south western part of the Citadel we continued to carry out research the garrison barracks adjoining on the fortification wall and dating back to the 3rd-4th centuries AD. It is made up of standard size sections which lead onto a main corridor. Two rooms (№№ 11, 15) near the western wall were excavated till the foundation platform (fig. 1). In the chambers there were vertical incisions made by sharp instruments in the plaster of the walls of the passage which probably marked to count days (of duty?).
Sufa-benches were also found in the corridor. In the opposite wall of the corridor, there were three passages leading inside the Citadel. On the floor we found a fragment of a dining taghora dish with a twisted handle – yet another element of a Kushan-Sassanian complex in the Bukhara oasis.
In the south west part of the citadel, near to the barracks, research of a mosque with colonnade of the mid 10th century was continued . The treasure (15 silver coins, imitations of Sassanian drachmas from the time of Shah Varakhran V) was discovered in the foundation of the mosque. It fell into the filling of more ancient layers. Some of the coins seemed to have been issued under the King of Bukhara Khunak (end of the 7th- beginning of the 8th century).
We found a structure beneath the foundation of the 10th century which was probably an earlier mosque (fig. 2). It differs from the more recent mosque’s plan, and was characterized by a courtyard surrounded by a gallery. The mosque can be dated by the Abbasid coins (end of 8th-9th century). On the floor two ceramic ostraca fragments were found, upon which the names ‘Ahmad’ and ‘Abu-Rahman’ were marked with ink.
In the north eastern part of the citadel we uncovered a part of the earliest fortification wall, which would have defenced the Zoroastrian fire temple. The wall from square adobes had embrasures, and in the base of it a platform was built from ‘plano-convex’ adobes (fig. 3). In the adjoining room there were found cylinder-conical large vessels, similar to the Achaemenid’s time one. But there were table pottery as well (fig. 4). These specimens spread to the Central Asia under the influence of the Greek pottery tradition appeared after the expeditions of Alexander the Great. Thus, findings confirmed that the Paykand citadel was founded at the end of the 4th century BC.
In the archer's corridor of the north western corner of the citadel, at least 10 floor coatings were recorded (the top ones belonging to the 4th century AD). The wall reaching 6.5 m is well preserved. A passage leading inside the Citadel was found. In the 8th horizon we found such evidence of local metal-working as iron slag. Iron weapons, some intact, others in pieces, were found on the lowest floor: a sword, daggers, a knife and a three-bladed arrowhead (fig. 5). They are similar to the weapons of the Sarmatian tribes and ones of the burial mounds in southern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, from the end of the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD, which associated with Yuetji-Tokhar tribes in Bactria.
New excavation on the Area to the north of the Citadel found no less than three large construction phases (fig. 6). A part of a room dating to earlier than the Middle Ages was traced in the lower phase. One of the interesting finds was a khumcha (water vessel), with an inscription in Sogdian script (6th-7th centuries AD) reading βγyβntk (Vagivande) (fig. 7). Two rooms and the adjacent street of the 9th – 10th (?) centuries belonged to the medium phase. At the upper phase (the beginning of the 12th century AD) this area was used for glass manufacture: furnaces, hearths and pits were found here.
The ‘West Street’ which was 1.5-2 m width and separated Citadel and Shahristân I was stratigraphically explored. There were 18 horizons. Burnt brick pavements were built along both sides of the street (fig. 8); they were also used as street shops’ sufa-benches. In the upper layers of the street, a large quantity of devices for furnace was found that would have been used for firing ceramics.
The condition of the street was taken care over by adding solids on its surfaces periodically. But this was a new tradition: the two lower layers, in which early medieval material was identified, were filled with organic waste. Traces of a big fire that involved the adjacent buildings are clearly distinguishable in the upper of them.
Research of House 1 was resumed in the eastern part of the residential area of Shahristân 1 (fig. 10). Here two planning units were allocated. A large hall of about 42 square m. has been completely excavated in the western block. The passage from the hall to the west led to a narrow corridor, from which one could access to a small room that was set out in the standard way for Early Medieval Paykand: with sufa-bench on all four sides and a podium in the centre. On the basis of finds (coins of King Asbar) the lower construction horizon can be dated by the 6th century AD.
In the western part of Shahristân 1 a new building complex from four rooms was studied under medieval structures (fig. 9). The canteen with hearth was situated near entrance. The room for drinking and gambling had sufa-benches with three dug-in large size khum-vessels. Many coins and interesting things were found here: a bronze cup, a small stone cross, a lid for a specially made copper vessel, dice bones etc. The adjacent lounge had more than two meters wide sufa-bench. Сopper coins are from Bukhara oasis, one, probably Chinese coin reading “kai yuan tong bao” and fels issued between 130 and 136 H. on behalf of Abu Muslim. Thus, Sogdian coins continued to be used in the middle of the 8th century AD during Arab rule. So it can be assumed that the investigated complex could be a Sogdian tavern or even small hotel where one could drink wine, entertain oneself playing games and have a rest as well. Thus 50 years on, after the Arab conquest of the Central Asia, the old Sogdian traditions were still preserved.
In the east of the Southern Suburb of Paikend a small bathhouse was discovered in the second stratigraphic horizon, under the local winter mosque (fig. 11). Here there were two rooms, divided into cubicles containing burnt bricks bathtubs, fireplaces for heating water and sufa-benches. One of the rooms had wall niches, covered by stucco plaster and painted red. The bathhouse can date back to the 10th century.
This paper presents the results of recent archaeological excavations at the citadel of Paikend, an ancient city in the south of the Bukhara Oasis (modern Uzbekistan). The Fire Temple was the earliest structure here, surrounded by fortified walls in the first half of the 3rd century BCE. The author hypothesises that Paikend and Takht-i Sangin were built under Antiochus I Soter, when he was co-ruler in the east of the Seleucid Empire. The construction of temples on its frontiers (at Kanka on the Syr Darya and possibly at Erkurgan on the lower Kashkadarya) had a sacred significance in marking the limits of the eastern provinces.
In the 2nd–1st centuries BCE, the Hellenistic fortress of Paikend was reconstructed after the conquest of the Central Asian oases by nomads. At this time, many weapons and military equipment were placed in sacrificial pits - bothroi and the special clay box - favissa on the periphery of the Paikend temple. They were offerings to the sanctuary. The similar Greek practice also existed at the Oxus temple. It coincided in some respects with Eurasian nomadic rituals. The types of weapons were also similar.
The details of the layout of the Paikend temple of the 3rd–4th centuries CE and the finds confirm its proposed Zoroastrian nature. They find parallels in Iranian cult architecture as well as in the Oxus temple. At the same time, the cult practices of Central Asia had some specific features.
В данной статье представлены результаты недавних археологических раскопок цитадели Пайкенда, древнего города на юге Бухарского оазиса (Узбекистан). Самым ранним сооружением здесь был храм огня, окруженный крепостными стенами в первой половине III века до н.э. Автор предполагает, что Пайкенд и Тахт-и-Сангин были построены при Антиохе I Сотере, когда он был соправителем на востоке империи Селевкидов. Возведение храмов по ее границам (также на Канке на Сырдарье и, возможно, в Еркургане на нижней Кашкадарье) имело сакральное значение, обозначая пределы восточных провинций.
Во II–I вв. до н.э. эллинистическая крепость Пайкенда была восстановлена после завоевания кочевниками оазисов Центральной Азии. В это время в жертвенных ямах - ботросах и специальном глиняном ящике - фависсе, на периферии храма Пайкенда, помещалось много оружия и военного снаряжения. Это были подношения святилищу. Схожая с греческой практика существовала и в храме Окса. В некоторых отношениях она совпадала с ритуалами евразийских кочевников. Схожими были и типы оружия.
Детали планировки храма Пайкенд III–IV вв. н.э. и находки подтверждают его зороастрийский характер. Они находят параллели в иранской культовой архитектуре, а также в храме Окса. В то же время культовая практика Центральной Азии имела некоторые специфические черты.
In 2023, the Hermitage-Kazan Centre, a subdivision of the Kazan Kremlin Museum Reserve, hosted the exhibition "Alexander the Great. The Way to the East". This is a small part of a catalogue devoted to antiquities with Hellenistic influences and reminiscences from Central Asia and neighbouring countries in the collection of the State Hermitage Museum..
Excavations at Paikend in 2021-22
In 2021-22, the Bukhara Archaeological Expedition of the State Hermitage and the Institute of Archaeology of Samarkand, with the participation of specialists from the Bukhara Museum Reserve, continued to study the ancient history of the Paikend site.
The important task is to identify the first fortifications in the northern part of the citadel (Fig. 1). Pits containing pottery from the end of the 4th century BCE (Fig. 19) were discovered under the north-western corner of the fortress (Figs. 2,3). Cultural layers with pottery (fig. 20) and iron weapons (fig. 24: 3-6,12) of the turn of an epoch were found under the "archers' corridor" of the 3rd-4th century CE.
Tower no. 3 of this period was completely excavated in the central part of the northern façade of the citadel (Fig. 5). It had a vaulted passage to the "archers' corridor" (fig. 6). Under the tower, part of the 1st century BC room which had a certain vault construction inside has been discovered (Fig. 7). Iron weapons were also found here (Fig. 24: 1,2,7-11).
To the east, a single-chambered furnace of the same period, apparently associated with iron production, was discovered (Figs 8, 9). The head of the terracotta figurine (fig. 25) and a bronze bell with a dragon's head (?) (fig. 26) also came from here.
An important result of the new excavations was the discovery of the "Great Hall" under the courtyard of the early medieval "Palace" in the eastern part of the citadel (Figs 10, 11). The hall was apparently part of the Fire Temple complex (3rd century BCE - 7th century CE), which sanctuaries and courtyard were located to the north. To the south the hall was connected to the room, perhaps for the storage of temple offerings (Fig. 12). The length of the hall is 13.7 m. Monumental adobe benches (sufas) were attached to the walls and on the north side there was a monumental staircase 3.4 m wide (Fig. 11). The coin of King Mavak found on the sufa allows us to date the last renovation of the hall to the 5th century CE. (Fig. 28:1). The discovery of such a monumental structure supports our conclusion that at least the eastern sector of the Paikend citadel was occupied by the Temple of Fire. As Biruni noted, Zoroastrian priests called Magi from all over the Bukhara oasis gathered there on certain holidays.
In the western sector, a new excavation has revealed a residential building with a courtyard. Based on the ceramic complex (Fig. 23) and the dirham of the Seljuk sultan Sanjar (Fig. 28: 4), these buildings date from the 12th century. The part of the Fire Temple was discovered underneath. It included a corridor of 11x4.15 m with sufas and a courtyard of 7.5x12 m with an aivan and a well. The dating to the 7th-early 8th century B.C. is confirmed by ceramic finds (fig. 22) and fragments of ostracons with Sogdian inscriptions in ink (fig. 27).
To the north of the fortress, the expedition continues to study the "site in front of the citadel", where quarter buildings of the 6th-7th centuries AD have been identified (Figs. 16-18). The house with columns was opened along the main road. From the north, along the "A" road, two small two-roomed dwellings were attached to it. Lanes "B" and "C" were closed with gates to prevent direct access to the "rich" household and the main street running along the fortress wall of the Paikend citadel.
Бухарская экспедиция Государственного Эрмитажа и Института археологии Академии наук Республики Узбекистан с 1981 года ведет раскопки на городище Пайкенд, расположенном на землях древнего Западного (Бухарского) Согда. Одним из самых значительных результатов стало обнаружение храма Огня на цитадели, основанного в эллинистический период. В 2016-17 годах в обходном коридоре, видимо, внутреннего двора храма, были раскопаны специальные ямы (ботросы). Они были заполнены предметами оружия и амуниции первых веков до нашей эры – первых веков нашей эры. Наиболее примечательным предметом из этого комплекса была полая бляшка из литого золота с рельефным изображением свернувшегося орлиноголового грифона. Учитывая конструкцию изделия, воинский характер других находок и аналогии, сделан вывод, что она являлась частью особого типа ножен кинжала с боковыми выступами (или дольчатых ножен). Ножны такой конструкции были новшеством воинов-всадников пазырыкской культуры (Алтайский край, VI-III вв. до н.э.) и затем широко распространились в степях от Китая до Северного Причерноморья. Как свидетельствуют археологические данные и изображения на рельефах Боспора и Передней Азии, такие ножны крепились к бедру. Бляшки, подобные пайкендской, вероятно, использовались для затягивания ремней и дополнительно украшали ножны. Подобные артефакты были раскопаны in situ в богатых погребениях Тилля-тепе (Бактрия), Дачи (в нижнем течении реки Дон) и Исаковки (Западная Сибирь). Грифон из Пайкенда наиболее похож на тех, что украшали ножны из Тилля-тепе. В целом, изображения грифонов были популярны среди кочевников, отнявших власть у эллинистических правителей Центральной Азии, и известны в землях Согдианы, Бактрии, Парфии и Хорезма.
The first examples of terracottas, produced locally with the use of evidently imported matrices, were represented by discs depicting in high relief the heads of the Gorgon Medusa on Megara bowls and Silenus on situlae.
The permanent local production of full-figure terracotta statuettes in Sogdiana begins, as it seems, closer to the middle of the 2nd century BC. At the early stage, the Sogdian school of coroplastics resembled the Margiana’s school which was greatly influenced by Near-East centres. Similar trends were present in the coroplastics of Northern India which, like Mesopotamia, Margiana and partly Bactria, in the 1st century BC were under the political influence of the Parthian state.
The earlier group of terracottas in Sogdiana, and generally in Central Asia, is represented by female naked figurines of the Mother Goddess, sometimes with a child in hands. About at the turn of this era, statuettes of women in local clothes with certain elements resembling Greek examples become widely distributed. For the attribution of the divinities such as Nana, Anahita, Atargatis-Athena, of importance are the headdresses and attributes of the figurines.
Of wide distribution are statuettes of musicians: in Central Sogdiana it is men, in Southern Sogdiana – women playing lutes, flutes of two types, harps or drums. Frequently also modeled figurines of riders-primitives are found which became widespread in the oases of the region with the advent of nomadic tribes (Sakae, Yuezhi). After the turn of this era, male statuettes appear wearing caftans and pointed kuloh caps, occasionally with a dagger, evidently representations of Mithras.
In the 3rd–4th century, in the coroplastics of Sogdiana, individualized images became widespread reflecting the increase of realistic trends in the art of the Hellenized regions of the East in the 1st–2nd century (Faiyum portraits, steles from Palmira, Gandhara art). A large series of the late ancient, as well as early mediaeval coroplastics of Sogdiana is constituted by representations originated from the portrait of Alexander of Macedon; also anthropomorphic imprints appear as imitations of the Roman ceramics and glass.
The study of the constructions was continued in the south-western section of the Citadel. Here, along the southern and western fortification walls, the structure dating back to the end of the 3rd – 4th century AD was examined. Its layout followed a comb-like pattern. 12 chambers connected by arch passageways were uncovered; they were leading to the bypass corridor parallel to the fortification wall. The rooms, most of them surrounded by adobe suffa benches along the perimeter (fig. 2a, 4b-right, 5a), were approximately of the same size (4.5 x 3.5 m). Two of them were storages (fig. 3a, 4b-left). The southern walls of the rooms, forming the fortification wall proper were pierced by rectangular embrasures (fig. 2a, 3).
The height of the ceiling in the rooms was 2.7-2.8 m and the height of the arch leading to the corridor was 2.1-2.3 m. In room 11, the debris on the floor contained plaster from the ceiling as well as fragments of hums (large vessels) which originally had been placed on the second floor (fig. 2b). In room 15 there were two doors (fig. 4b): because after an abandonment of the complex it was used again 50 years after.
According to certain details this structure can be considered to serve as garrison barracks. On the basis of the analogies in construction techniques and the archaeological materials found in the course of earlier excavations in the north and south-east, we can state that at that time the whole perimeter of the Citadel was reinforced, making it a high-class fortress. From our point of view, there was a three-level defense system: the embrasures, the parapet of the battle platform above the living premises and the parapet above the corridor. The wall stood on a massive (4.75 m wide) mud-brick platform, which provided reliable defense from battering rams (fig. 3b, 3, 4a, 5b).
Archaeological findings indicate the spread of the elements of Kushano-Sasanid complex in Paykand in the 3rd – 4th century AD. Its bright evidence is the local circulation of copper imitations of Kushan coins and Kushano-Sasanian coins (fig. 7, 1-5), which is associated with including Western Sogd to the sphere of political control of Sassanid Iran. In this case, could the considerable construction activity in Paykand Citadel in the 3rd century AD be explained by the activity of the Sasanids in the east, for the latter undoubtedly needed strongholds on new territories? We believe that the further study of the early layers in Paykand would help us to shed light on this question.
A silver imitation of an Euthydemus tetradrachm with the legend MR’Y was found in the sand filling of room 7 (fig. 7, 7). Judging from their weight, such coins served for large trading operations and as a store of value.
As hand-made pottery assemblage from the barracks (fig. 6) shown the migration of semi-nomadic groups began from the Syr-darya region in to Western Sogdiana already in the third century CE. as well.
In the south west part of the citadel, near to the barracks, we continued to study the mid 10th century colonnade mosque. Stratigraphic research of the subterranean constructions took place on the area of 120 square meters. It was observed that a trench was dug for the building of the foundations of the column bases of the mosque (fig. 8).
In the residential quarter of Shahristân 1 the study of the area of house 8 in the lower construction horizon showed that three rooms formed a separate living block (fig. 9) with a hallway, a storage room, small corridor and a bedroom. Suffa couches line the sides of the room. In the centre of the room there was a low podium with a fireplace where the trace of a metal lattice was preserved in the ashes.
In the east of the Southern Suburb, research was continued on the lower (southern) group of rooms. In the upper construction horizon the main complex included a big hall (6.5x6.6m) and three ancillary rooms (fig. 10). In the centre of the hall there stood a rectangular sandal (fireplace). Smoke would escape through a hatch in the roof: there were four holes from ceiling pillars around the fireplace.
The Mihrab niche in the west wall of the hall preserved in situ ganj (alabaster) panels framing it (fig. 11). Remains of another big panel were found fallen and lying on the floor. The panel was decorated with carved geometric and floral design combined with red and blue painting. The two – large-scale and small-scale – carving styles used for decorating the mihrab might be applied at two different times. So here was a small winter local mosque complex which could be dated of the end of the 10th century – first third of the 11th century. Judging by the unfired pitchers found in one of the ancillary rooms, the complex could have been a mosque for the community of potters.
Restoration works were carried out at one of the fortification tower of Shahristân 2 and the minaret on the citadel (fig. 12).
In 2011, in connection with the 30 year anniversary of the Bukhara Archeological Expedition, the permanent galleries of the Paykand Museum (opened in 2002) were renovated. On the 22nd-23rd August 2011, an international scientific conference on ‘The History and Culture of the Bukhara Oasis in the Antiquity and the Middle Ages’ took place in Bukhara and Paykand with the active participation of the Bukhara State Architecture and Art Museum (director R.V. Almeev). The conference was attended by academic scholars from France, Germany, the Netherlands, Russia, the USA and Uzbekistan.
In the south western part of the Citadel we continued to carry out research the garrison barracks adjoining on the fortification wall and dating back to the 3rd-4th centuries AD. It is made up of standard size sections which lead onto a main corridor. Two rooms (№№ 11, 15) near the western wall were excavated till the foundation platform (fig. 1). In the chambers there were vertical incisions made by sharp instruments in the plaster of the walls of the passage which probably marked to count days (of duty?).
Sufa-benches were also found in the corridor. In the opposite wall of the corridor, there were three passages leading inside the Citadel. On the floor we found a fragment of a dining taghora dish with a twisted handle – yet another element of a Kushan-Sassanian complex in the Bukhara oasis.
In the south west part of the citadel, near to the barracks, research of a mosque with colonnade of the mid 10th century was continued . The treasure (15 silver coins, imitations of Sassanian drachmas from the time of Shah Varakhran V) was discovered in the foundation of the mosque. It fell into the filling of more ancient layers. Some of the coins seemed to have been issued under the King of Bukhara Khunak (end of the 7th- beginning of the 8th century).
We found a structure beneath the foundation of the 10th century which was probably an earlier mosque (fig. 2). It differs from the more recent mosque’s plan, and was characterized by a courtyard surrounded by a gallery. The mosque can be dated by the Abbasid coins (end of 8th-9th century). On the floor two ceramic ostraca fragments were found, upon which the names ‘Ahmad’ and ‘Abu-Rahman’ were marked with ink.
In the north eastern part of the citadel we uncovered a part of the earliest fortification wall, which would have defenced the Zoroastrian fire temple. The wall from square adobes had embrasures, and in the base of it a platform was built from ‘plano-convex’ adobes (fig. 3). In the adjoining room there were found cylinder-conical large vessels, similar to the Achaemenid’s time one. But there were table pottery as well (fig. 4). These specimens spread to the Central Asia under the influence of the Greek pottery tradition appeared after the expeditions of Alexander the Great. Thus, findings confirmed that the Paykand citadel was founded at the end of the 4th century BC.
In the archer's corridor of the north western corner of the citadel, at least 10 floor coatings were recorded (the top ones belonging to the 4th century AD). The wall reaching 6.5 m is well preserved. A passage leading inside the Citadel was found. In the 8th horizon we found such evidence of local metal-working as iron slag. Iron weapons, some intact, others in pieces, were found on the lowest floor: a sword, daggers, a knife and a three-bladed arrowhead (fig. 5). They are similar to the weapons of the Sarmatian tribes and ones of the burial mounds in southern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, from the end of the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD, which associated with Yuetji-Tokhar tribes in Bactria.
New excavation on the Area to the north of the Citadel found no less than three large construction phases (fig. 6). A part of a room dating to earlier than the Middle Ages was traced in the lower phase. One of the interesting finds was a khumcha (water vessel), with an inscription in Sogdian script (6th-7th centuries AD) reading βγyβntk (Vagivande) (fig. 7). Two rooms and the adjacent street of the 9th – 10th (?) centuries belonged to the medium phase. At the upper phase (the beginning of the 12th century AD) this area was used for glass manufacture: furnaces, hearths and pits were found here.
The ‘West Street’ which was 1.5-2 m width and separated Citadel and Shahristân I was stratigraphically explored. There were 18 horizons. Burnt brick pavements were built along both sides of the street (fig. 8); they were also used as street shops’ sufa-benches. In the upper layers of the street, a large quantity of devices for furnace was found that would have been used for firing ceramics.
The condition of the street was taken care over by adding solids on its surfaces periodically. But this was a new tradition: the two lower layers, in which early medieval material was identified, were filled with organic waste. Traces of a big fire that involved the adjacent buildings are clearly distinguishable in the upper of them.
Research of House 1 was resumed in the eastern part of the residential area of Shahristân 1 (fig. 10). Here two planning units were allocated. A large hall of about 42 square m. has been completely excavated in the western block. The passage from the hall to the west led to a narrow corridor, from which one could access to a small room that was set out in the standard way for Early Medieval Paykand: with sufa-bench on all four sides and a podium in the centre. On the basis of finds (coins of King Asbar) the lower construction horizon can be dated by the 6th century AD.
In the western part of Shahristân 1 a new building complex from four rooms was studied under medieval structures (fig. 9). The canteen with hearth was situated near entrance. The room for drinking and gambling had sufa-benches with three dug-in large size khum-vessels. Many coins and interesting things were found here: a bronze cup, a small stone cross, a lid for a specially made copper vessel, dice bones etc. The adjacent lounge had more than two meters wide sufa-bench. Сopper coins are from Bukhara oasis, one, probably Chinese coin reading “kai yuan tong bao” and fels issued between 130 and 136 H. on behalf of Abu Muslim. Thus, Sogdian coins continued to be used in the middle of the 8th century AD during Arab rule. So it can be assumed that the investigated complex could be a Sogdian tavern or even small hotel where one could drink wine, entertain oneself playing games and have a rest as well. Thus 50 years on, after the Arab conquest of the Central Asia, the old Sogdian traditions were still preserved.
In the east of the Southern Suburb of Paikend a small bathhouse was discovered in the second stratigraphic horizon, under the local winter mosque (fig. 11). Here there were two rooms, divided into cubicles containing burnt bricks bathtubs, fireplaces for heating water and sufa-benches. One of the rooms had wall niches, covered by stucco plaster and painted red. The bathhouse can date back to the 10th century.
In 2010 the conference "Central Asian Cities in the System of Medieval Cities of the East" was held in St Petersburg, dedicated to the 60th anniversary of the birth of Grigory Lvovich Semyonov (1950-2007), Head of the Oriental Department and Head of the Bukhara Archaeological Expedition. The year 2011 marked 30 years since the Bukhara Archaeological Expedition began excavations at the Paikend settlement. An international conference "History and Culture of the Bukhara Oasis in Antiquity and the Middle Ages" was held in Bukhara and Paikend. The collection includes articles written on the basis of papers at these conferences, as well as a number of publications presenting the results of new research. The articles cover topics in the history, archaeology, epigraphy, source studies, ethnography and architecture of Central Asia and neighbouring countries.