Los pueblos indígenas de las Américas son los habitantes de las Américas antes de la llegada de los colonos europeos en el siglo XV, y los grupos étnicos que ahora se identifican con esos pueblos.
Población total | |
---|---|
~ 54 millones | |
Regiones con poblaciones significativas | |
México | 25,7 millones [1] |
Guatemala | 6,4 millones [2] |
Perú | 5,9 millones [3] |
Bolivia | 4,1 millones [4] |
Estados Unidos | 2,9 millones [5] |
Chile | 2,1 millones [6] |
Colombia | 1,9 millones [7] |
Canadá | 1,6 millones [8] |
Ecuador | 1 millón [9] |
Argentina | 955.032 [10] |
Brasil | 817,963 [11] |
Venezuela | 724,592 [12] |
Honduras | 601.019 [13] |
Nicaragua | 443,847 [14] |
Panamá | 417.559 [15] |
Paraguay | 117,150 [16] |
Costa Rica | 104,143 [17] |
Guayana | 78 492 [18] |
Uruguay | 76.452 [19] |
Groenlandia | 50.189 [20] |
Belice | 36.507 [21] |
Surinam | 20,344 [22] |
Guayana Francesa | ~ 19.000 [23] |
El Salvador | 13,310 [24] |
San Vicente y las Granadinas | 3.280 [25] |
Dominica | 2.576 [26] |
Cuba | ~ 1600 [27] |
Trinidad y Tobago | 1.394 [28] |
Granada | 162 [29] |
Idiomas | |
Idiomas indígenas de las Américas , español , portugués , inglés , holandés , danés , francés , ruso (históricamente) | |
Religión | |
Grupos étnicos relacionados | |
Mestizos Métis Zambos Pardos |
Aunque algunos pueblos indígenas de las Américas eran tradicionalmente cazadores-recolectores —y muchos, especialmente en la cuenca del Amazonas , todavía lo son—, muchos grupos practicaban la acuicultura y la agricultura . [30] Si bien algunas sociedades dependían en gran medida de la agricultura, otras practicaban una combinación de agricultura, caza y recolección. En algunas regiones, los pueblos indígenas crearon una arquitectura monumental, ciudades organizadas a gran escala, ciudades-estado, jefaturas , estados , reinos e imperios . Algunos tenían diversos grados de conocimientos de ingeniería, arquitectura, matemáticas, astronomía, escritura, física, medicina, plantación e irrigación, geología, minería, metalurgia, escultura y orfebrería.
Muchas partes de las Américas todavía están pobladas por pueblos indígenas; algunos países tienen poblaciones considerables, especialmente Bolivia , Canadá , Ecuador , Guatemala , México , Perú y Estados Unidos . En las Américas se hablan al menos mil lenguas indígenas diferentes . Algunas, como las lenguas quechuas , aymara , guaraní , mayas y náhuatl , cuentan a sus hablantes por millones. Muchos también mantienen aspectos de las prácticas culturales indígenas en diversos grados, incluida la religión, la organización social y las prácticas de subsistencia . Como la mayoría de las culturas, con el tiempo, las culturas específicas de muchos pueblos indígenas han evolucionado para incorporar aspectos tradicionales pero también para atender las necesidades modernas. Algunos pueblos indígenas todavía viven en relativo aislamiento de la cultura occidental y algunos todavía se cuentan como pueblos no contactados .
Terminología
Application of the term "Indian" originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for India, thought that he had arrived in the East Indies.[31][32][33][34][35][36] Eventually, those islands came to be known as the "West Indies", a name still used. This led to the blanket term "Indies" and "Indians" (Spanish: indios; Portuguese: índios; French: indiens; Dutch: indianen) for the indigenous inhabitants, which implied some kind of racial or cultural unity among the indigenous peoples of the Americas. This unifying concept, codified in law, religion and politics, was not originally accepted by the myriad groups of indigenous peoples themselves, but has since been embraced or tolerated by many over the last two centuries.[37] Even though the term "Indian" generally does not include the culturally and linguistically distinct indigenous peoples of the Arctic regions of the Americas—such as the Aleuts, Inuit or Yupik peoples, who entered the continent as a second, more recent wave of migration several thousand years before and have much more recent genetic and cultural commonalities with the aboriginal peoples of the Asiatic Arctic Russian Far East—these groups are nonetheless considered "indigenous peoples of the Americas".
The term Amerindian (a blend of "American and Indian") and its cognates find preferred use in scientific contexts and in Quebec, the Guianas, and the English-speaking Caribbean.[38][39][40][41]
In Canada, indigenous peoples are commonly known as Indigenous Canadians—and sometimes Aboriginal Canadians, though the term has fallen out of favour in recent times[42]—which includes not only First Nations and Arctic Inuit, but also the minority population of Métis people,[43][44] a First Nations-European mixed race who identify culturally and ethnically with indigenous peoplehood.
The Métis people of Canada can be contrasted, for instance, to the American Indian-European mixed race mestizos (or caboclos in Brazil) of Hispanic America who, with their larger population (in most Latin-American countries constituting either outright majorities, pluralities, or at the least large minorities), identify largely as a new ethnic group distinct from both Europeans and Indigenous Americans, but still considering themselves a subset of the European-derived Hispanic or Brazilian peoplehood in culture and ethnicity (cf. ladinos).
Among Spanish-speaking countries, indígenas or pueblos indígenas ('indigenous peoples') is a common term, though nativos or pueblos nativos ('native peoples') may also be heard; moreover, aborigen ('aborigine') is used in Argentina and pueblos originarios ('original peoples') is common in Chile. In Brazil, indígenas or povos indígenas ('indigenous peoples') are common of formal-sounding designations, while índio ('Indian') is still the more often-heard term (the noun for the South-Asian nationality being indiano). Aborígene and nativo is rarely used in Brazil in Amerindian-specific contexts (e.g. aborígene is usually understood as the ethnonym for Indigenous Australians). The Spanish and Portuguese equivalents to Indian, nevertheless, could be used to mean any hunter-gatherer or full-blooded Indigenous person, particularly to continents other than Europe or Africa—for example, indios filipinos.
Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, as well as Alaska Natives.[45]
Native American name controversy
The Native American name controversy[46] relates to the dispute over acceptable ways to refer to the indigenous peoples of the Americas and to broad subsets thereof, such as those living in a specific country or sharing certain cultural attributes.[47] Early settlers often adopted terms that some tribes used for each other, not realizing these were derogatory terms used by enemies. When discussing broader subsets of peoples, naming may be based on shared language, region, or historical relationship.[48] Many English exonyms have been used to refer to the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Some of these names were based on foreign-language terms used by earlier explorers and colonists, while others resulted from the colonists' attempts to translate or transliterate endonyms from the native languages. Other terms arose during periods of conflict between the colonists and indigenous peoples.[49]
Since the late 20th century, indigenous peoples in the Americas have been more vocal about how they want to be addressed, pushing to suppress use of terms widely considered to be obsolete, inaccurate, or racist. During the latter half of the 20th century and the rise of the Indian rights movement, the United States government responded by proposing the use of the term "Native American", to recognize the primacy of indigenous peoples' tenure in the nation.[50] As may be expected among people of different cultures, not all Native Americans/American Indians agree on its use. No single group naming convention has been accepted by all indigenous peoples. Most prefer to be addressed as people of their tribe or nations when not speaking about Native Americans/American Indians as a whole.[51]
Historia
Migration into the continents
The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research and discussion.[52][53] According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world to gain human habitation.[52] During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the land bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America (Alaska).[54][55] Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist. The Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska (East Beringia) for thousands of years.[56][57]
Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single ancestral population, one that developed in isolation, conjectured to be Beringia.[58][59] The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years.[60][61][62] Around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond.[53][63][64] These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets.[65]
Another route proposed involves migration – either on foot or using primitive boats – along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, including as far as South America.[66] Archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age.[67]
The time range of 40,000–16,500 years ago is debatable and probably will remain so for years to come.[52][53] The few agreements achieved to date include:[68][69]
- origin from South Siberia (DNA studies reported in 2012 indicate the area of Altai Republic, with a separation of populations 20,000-25,000 years ago)[70]
- widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the last glacial period, or more specifically what is known as the Late Glacial Maximum, around 16,000–13,000 years before present.
Stone tools, particularly projectile points and scrapers, are the primary evidence of the earliest human activity in the Americas. Archaeologists and anthropologists have studied differences among these crafted lithic flaked tools to classify cultural periods.[71] The Clovis culture, the earliest definitively-dated Paleo-Indians in the Americas, appears around 11,500 RCBP (radiocarbon years Before Present[72]), equivalent to 13,500 to 13,000 calendar years ago.
In 2014, the autosomal DNA was sequenced of a 12,500+-year-old infant from Montana, whose remains were found in close association with several Clovis artifacts.[73] These are the Anzick-1 remains from the Anzick Clovis burial in Montana. The data indicated that the individual was closely related to present North American Native American populations. But, the DNA was ancestral to present-day South American and Central American Native American populations. The implication is that there was an early divergence between North American indigenous peoples and those of Central and South America. Ruled out were hypotheses which posit that invasions subsequent to the Clovis culture overwhelmed or assimilated previous migrants into the Americas.[73] After study, the remains were returned to Montana for burial by Native Americans.
Similarly, the skeleton of a teenage girl (named 'Naia' after a water nymph from Greek mythology) was found in 2007 in the underwater caves called sistema Sac Actun in Mexico's eastern Yucatán Peninsula. DNA was extracted and dated. The skeleton was found to be 13,000 years old, and it is considered the oldest genetically intact human skeleton ever found in the Americas. The DNA indicates she was from a lineage derived from East Asian origins and also represented in the DNA of the modern native population.[74]
The remains of two infants found at the Upward Sun River site have been dated to 11,500 years ago. They show that all Native Americans descended from a single founding population that initially split from East Asians around 36,000 years ago. They also show that the basal northern and southern Native American branches, to which all other indigenous Americans belong, diverged around 16,000 years ago.[75]
At least two morphologically different Paleo-Indian populations were coexisting in different geographical areas of Mexico 10,000 years ago.[76]
Pre-Columbian era
The Pre-Columbian era refers to all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European and African influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original arrival in the Upper Paleolithic to European colonization during the early modern period.[77]
While technically referring to the era before Christopher Columbus' voyages of 1492 to 1504, in practice the term usually includes the history of American indigenous cultures until Europeans either conquered or significantly influenced them.[79] "Pre-Columbian" is used especially often in the context of discussing the pre-contact Mesoamerican indigenous societies: Olmec; Toltec; Teotihuacano' Zapotec; Mixtec; Aztec and Maya civilizations; and the complex cultures of the Andes: Inca Empire, Moche culture, Muisca Confederation, and Cañari.
The Norte Chico civilization (in present-day Peru) is one of the defining six original civilizations of the world, arising independently around the same time as that of Egypt.[82][83] Many later pre-Columbian civilizations achieved great complexity, with hallmarks that included permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, engineering, astronomy, trade, civic and monumental architecture, and complex societal hierarchies. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first significant European and African arrivals (ca. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and are known only through oral history and through archaeological investigations. Others were contemporary with the contact and colonization period, and were documented in historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Mayan, Olmec, Mixtec, Aztec and Nahua peoples, had their own written languages and records. However, the European colonists of the time worked to eliminate non-Christian beliefs, and burned many pre-Columbian written records. Only a few documents remained hidden and survived, leaving contemporary historians with glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge.
According to both Indigenous American and European accounts and documents, American civilizations before and at the time of European encounter had achieved great complexity and many accomplishments.[84] For instance, the Aztecs built one of the largest cities in the world, Tenochtitlan (the historical site of what would become Mexico City), with an estimated population of 200,000 for the city proper and a population of close to five million for the extended empire.[85] By comparison, the largest European cities in the 16th century were Constantinople and Paris with 300,000 and 200,000 inhabitants respectively.[86] The population in London, Madrid and Rome hardly exceeded 50,000 people. In 1523, right around the time of the Spanish conquest, the entire population in the country of England was just under three million people.[87] This fact speaks to the level of sophistication, agriculture, governmental procedure and rule of law that existed in Tenochtitlan, needed to govern over such a large citizenry. American civilizations also displayed impressive accomplishments in astronomy and mathematics, including the most accurate calendar in the world. The domestication of maize or corn required thousands of years of selective breeding, and continued cultivation of multiple varieties was done with planning and selection, generally by women.
Inuit, Yupik, Aleut, and American Indian creation myths tell of a variety of origins of their respective peoples. Some were "always there" or were created by gods or animals, some migrated from a specified compass point, and others came from "across the ocean".[88]
European colonization
The European colonization of the Americas fundamentally changed the lives and cultures of the resident Indigenous peoples. Although the exact pre-colonization population-count of the Americas is unknown, scholars estimate that Indigenous populations diminished by between 80% and 90% within the first centuries of European colonization. The majority of these losses are attributed to the introduction of Afro-Eurasian diseases into the Americas. Epidemics ravaged the Americas with diseases such as smallpox, measles, and cholera, which the early colonists brought from Europe.
The spread of infectious diseases was slow initially, as most Europeans were not actively or visibly infected, due to inherited immunity from generations of exposure to these diseases in Europe. This changed when the Europeans began the human trafficking of massive numbers of enslaved Western and Central African people to the Americas. Like the Native Americans, these African people, newly exposed to European diseases, lacked any inherited resistances to the diseases of Europe. In 1520 an African who had been infected with smallpox had arrived in Yucatán. By 1558, the disease had spread throughout South America and had arrived at the Plata basin.[89] Colonist violence towards Indigenous peoples accelerated the loss of lives. European colonists perpetrated massacres on the indigenous peoples and enslaved them.[90][91][92] According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census (1894), the North American Indian Wars of the 19th century cost the lives of about 19,000 Europeans and 30,000 Native Americans.[93]
The first indigenous group encountered by Columbus, the 250,000 Taínos of Hispaniola, represented the dominant culture in the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. Within thirty years about 70% of the Taínos had died.[94] They had no immunity to European diseases, so outbreaks of measles and smallpox ravaged their population.[95] One such outbreak occurred in a camp of enslaved Africans, where smallpox spread to the nearby Taíno population and reduced their numbers by 50%.[89] Increasing punishment of the Taínos for revolting against forced labor, despite measures put in place by the encomienda, which included religious education and protection from warring tribes,[96] eventually led to the last great Taíno rebellion (1511–1529).
Following years of mistreatment, the Taínos began to adopt suicidal behaviors, with women aborting or killing their infants and men jumping from cliffs or ingesting untreated cassava, a violent poison.[94] Eventually, a Taíno Cacique named Enriquillo managed to hold out in the Baoruco Mountain Range for thirteen years, causing serious damage to the Spanish, Carib-held plantations and their Indian auxiliaries.[97][failed verification] Hearing of the seriousness of the revolt, Emperor Charles V (also King of Spain) sent captain Francisco Barrionuevo to negotiate a peace treaty with the ever-increasing number of rebels. Two months later, after consultation with the Audencia of Santo Domingo, Enriquillo was offered any part of the island to live in peace.
The Laws of Burgos, 1512–1513, were the first codified set of laws governing the behavior of Spanish settlers in America, particularly with regard to native Indians. The laws forbade the maltreatment of natives and endorsed their conversion to Catholicism.[98] The Spanish crown found it difficult to enforce these laws in distant colonies.
Epidemic disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the American natives.[99][100] After initial contact with Europeans and Africans, Old World diseases caused the deaths of 90 to 95% of the native population of the New World in the following 150 years.[101] Smallpox killed from one third to half of the native population of Hispaniola in 1518.[102][103] By killing the Incan ruler Huayna Capac, smallpox caused the Inca Civil War of 1529–1532. Smallpox was only the first epidemic. Typhus (probably) in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, measles in 1618—all ravaged the remains of Inca culture.
Smallpox killed millions of native inhabitants of Mexico.[104][105] Unintentionally introduced at Veracruz with the arrival of Pánfilo de Narváez on 23 April 1520, smallpox ravaged Mexico in the 1520s,[106] possibly killing over 150,000 in Tenochtitlán (the heartland of the Aztec Empire) alone, and aiding in the victory of Hernán Cortés over the Aztec Empire at Tenochtitlan (present-day Mexico City) in 1521.[citation needed][89]
There are many factors as to why Native Americans suffered such immense losses from Afro-Eurasian diseases. Many European diseases, like cow pox, are acquired from domesticated animals that are not indigenous to the Americas. European populations had adapted to these diseases, and built up resistance, over many generations. Many of the European diseases that were brought over to the Americas were diseases, like yellow fever, that were relatively manageable if infected as a child, but were deadly if infected as an adult. Children could often survive the disease, resulting in immunity to the disease for the rest of their lives. But contact with adult populations without this childhood or inherited immunity would result in these diseases proving fatal.[89][107]
Colonization of the Caribbean led to the destruction of the Arawaks of the Lesser Antilles. Their culture was destroyed by 1650. Only 500 had survived by the year 1550, though the bloodlines continued through to the modern populace. In Amazonia, indigenous societies weathered, and continue to suffer, centuries of colonization and genocide.[108]
Contact with European diseases such as smallpox and measles killed between 50 and 67 per cent of the aboriginal population of North America in the first hundred years after the arrival of Europeans.[109] Some 90 per cent of the native population near Massachusetts Bay Colony died of smallpox in an epidemic in 1617–1619.[110] In 1633, in Fort Orange (New Netherland), the Native Americans there were exposed to smallpox because of contact with Europeans. As it had done elsewhere, the virus wiped out entire population-groups of Native Americans.[111] It reached Lake Ontario in 1636, and the lands of the Iroquois by 1679.[112][113] During the 1770s smallpox killed at least 30% of the West Coast Native Americans.[114] The 1775–82 North American smallpox epidemic and the 1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic brought devastation and drastic population depletion among the Plains Indians.[115][116] In 1832 the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans (The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832).[117]
The indigenous peoples in Brazil declined from a pre-Columbian high of an estimated three million[118] to some 300,000 in 1997.[dubious ][failed verification][119]
The Spanish Empire and other Europeans re-introduced horses to the Americas. Some of these animals escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild.[120] The re-introduction of the horse, extinct in the Americas for over 7500 years, had a profound impact on Native American culture in the Great Plains of North America and in Patagonia in South America. By domesticating horses, some tribes had great success: horses enabled them to expand their territories, exchange more goods with neighboring tribes, and more easily capture game, especially bison.
Trauma histórico indígena (IHT)
Indigenous historical trauma (IHT) is the trauma that can accumulate across generations that develops as a result of the historical ramifications of colonization and is linked to mental and physical health hardships and population decline.[121] IHT affects many different people in a multitude of ways because the indigenous community and their history is diverse.
Many studies (e.g., Whitbeck et al., 2014;[122] Brockie, 2012; Anastasio et al., 2016;[123] Clark & Winterowd, 2012;[124] Tucker et al., 2016)[125] have evaluated the impact of IHT on health outcomes of indigenous communities from the United States and Canada. IHT is a difficult term to standardize and measure because of the vast and variable diversity of indigenous people and their communities. Therefore, it is an arduous task to assign an operational definition and systematically collect data when studying IHT. Many of the studies that incorporate IHT measure it in different ways, making it hard to compile data and review it holistically. This is an important point that provides context for the following studies that attempt to understand the relationship between IHT and potential adverse health impacts.
Some of the methodologies to measure IHT include a “Historical Losses Scale" (HLS), "Historical Losses Associated Symptoms Scale" (HLASS), and residential school ancestry studies.[121]:23 HLS uses a survey format that includes “12 kinds of historical losses,” such as loss of language and loss of land and asks participants how often they think about those losses.[121]:23 The HLASS includes 12 emotional reactions and asks participants how they feel when they think about these losses.[121] Lastly, the residential school ancestry studies ask respondents if their parents, grandparents, great-grandparents or “elders from their community” went to a residential school to understand if family or community history in residential schools are associated with negative health outcomes.[121]:25 In a comprehensive review of the research literature, Joseph Gone and colleagues[121] compiled and compared outcomes for studies using these IHT measures relative to health outcomes of indigenous peoples. The study defined negative health outcomes to include such concepts as anxiety, suicidal ideation, suicidal attempts, polysubstance abuse, PTSD, depression, binge-eating, anger, and sexual abuse.[121]
The connection between IHT and health conditions is complicated because of the difficult nature of measuring IHT, the unknown directionality of IHT and health outcomes, and because the term indigenous people used in the various samples comprises a huge population of individuals with drastically different experiences and histories. That being said, some studies such as Bombay, Matheson, and Anisman (2014),[126] Elias et al. (2012),[127] and Pearce et al. (2008)[128] found that indigenous respondents with a connection to residential schools have more negative health outcomes (i.e., suicide ideation, suicide attempts, and depression) than those who did not have a connection to residential schools. Additionally, indigenous respondents with higher HLS and HLASS scores had one or more negative health outcomes.[121] While there many studies[123][129][124][130][125] that found an association between IHT and adverse health outcomes, scholars continue to suggest that it remains difficult to understand the impact of IHT. IHT needs to be systematically measured. Indigenous people also need to be understood in separated categories based on similar experiences, location, and background as opposed to being categorized as one monolithic group.[121]
Agricultura
Plants
In the course of thousands of years, American indigenous peoples domesticated, bred and cultivated a large array of plant species. These species now constitute between 50% and 60% of all crops in cultivation worldwide.[131] In certain cases, the indigenous peoples developed entirely new species and strains through artificial selection, as with the domestication and breeding of maize from wild teosinte grasses in the valleys of southern Mexico. Numerous such agricultural products retain their native names in the English and Spanish lexicons.
The South American highlands became a center of early agriculture. Genetic testing of the wide variety of cultivars and wild species suggests that the potato has a single origin in the area of southern Peru,[132] from a species in the Solanum brevicaule complex. Over 99% of all modern cultivated potatoes worldwide are descendants of a subspecies indigenous to south-central Chile,[133] Solanum tuberosum ssp. tuberosum, where it was cultivated as long as 10,000 years ago.[134][135] According to Linda Newson, "It is clear that in pre-Columbian times some groups struggled to survive and often suffered food shortages and famines, while others enjoyed a varied and substantial diet."[136]
Persistent drought around AD 850 coincided with the collapse of Classic Maya civilization, and the famine of One Rabbit (AD 1454) was a major catastrophe in Mexico.[137]
Natives of North America began practicing farming approximately 4,000 years ago, late in the Archaic period of North American cultures. Technology had advanced to the point where pottery had started to become common and the small-scale felling of trees had become feasible. Concurrently, the Archaic Indians began using fire in a controlled manner. They carried out intentional burning of vegetation to mimic the effects of natural fires that tended to clear forest understories. It made travel easier and facilitated the growth of herbs and berry-producing plants, which were important both for food and for medicines.[138]
In the Mississippi River valley, Europeans noted that Native Americans managed groves of nut- and fruit-trees not far from villages and towns and their gardens and agricultural fields. They would have used prescribed burning further away, in forest and prairie areas.[139]
Many crops first domesticated by indigenous Americans are now produced and used globally, most notably maize (or "corn") arguably the most important crop in the world.[140] Other significant crops include cassava; chia; squash (pumpkins, zucchini, marrow, acorn squash, butternut squash); the pinto bean, Phaseolus beans including most common beans, tepary beans and lima beans; tomatoes; potatoes; sweet potatoes; avocados; peanuts; cocoa beans (used to make chocolate); vanilla; strawberries; pineapples; peppers (species and varieties of Capsicum, including bell peppers, jalapeños, paprika and chili peppers); sunflower seeds; rubber; brazilwood; chicle; tobacco; coca; blueberries, cranberries, and some species of cotton.
Studies of contemporary indigenous environmental management—including of agro-forestry practices among Itza Maya in Guatemala and of hunting and fishing among the Menominee of Wisconsin—suggest that longstanding "sacred values" may represent a summary of sustainable millennial traditions.[141]
Animals
Indigenous Americans also domesticated some animals, such as turkeys, llamas, alpacas, and guinea-pigs.
Cultura
Cultural practices in the Americas seem to have been shared mostly within geographical zones where distinct ethnic groups adopting shared cultural traits, similar technologies, and social organizations. An example of such a cultural area is Mesoamerica, where millennia of coexistence and shared development among the peoples of the region produced a fairly homogeneous culture with complex agricultural and social patterns. Another well-known example is the North American plains where until the 19th century several peoples shared the traits of nomadic hunter-gatherers based primarily on buffalo hunting.
Languages
The languages of the North American Indians have been classified into 56 groups or stock tongues, in which the spoken languages of the tribes may be said to centre. In connection with speech, reference may be made to gesture language which was highly developed in parts of this area. Of equal interest is the picture writing especially well developed among the Chippewas and Delawares.[142]
Writing systems
The development of writing is counted among the many achievements and innovations of pre-Columbian American cultures. Independent from the development of writing in other areas of the world, the Mesoamerican region produced several indigenous writing systems beginning in the 1st millennium BCE. What may be the earliest-known example in the Americas of an extensive text thought to be writing is by the Cascajal Block. The Olmec hieroglyphs tablet has been indirectly dated from ceramic shards found in the same context to approximately 900 BCE, around the time that Olmec occupation of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán began to wane.[143]
The Maya writing system was a combination of phonetic syllabic symbols and logograms—that is, it was a logosyllabic writing system. It is the only pre-Columbian writing system known to represent completely the spoken language of its community. In total, the script has more than one thousand different glyphs, although a few are variations of the same sign or meaning, and many appear only rarely or are confined to particular localities. At any one time, no more than about five hundred glyphs were in use, some two hundred of which (including variations) had a phonetic or syllabic interpretation.[144][145][146]
The Zapotec writing system is one of the earliest writing systems in the Americas.[147] The oldest example of the Zapotec script is a monument discovered in San José Mogote, dating from around from 600 BCE.[148] Zapotec writing was logographic and presumably syllabic.[147] The remains of the Zapotec writing system are present in the monumental architecture. There are only a few extant inscriptions, making study of this writing system difficult.
Aztec codices (singular codex) are books written by pre-Columbian and colonial-era Aztecs. These codices provide some of the best primary sources for Aztec culture. The pre-Columbian codices differ from European codices in that they are largely pictorial; they were not meant to symbolize spoken or written narratives.[149] The colonial era codices contain not only Aztec pictograms, but also Classical Nahuatl (in the Latin alphabet), Spanish, and occasionally Latin.
Spanish mendicants in the sixteenth century taught indigenous scribes in their communities to write their languages in Latin letters, and there are a large number of local-level documents in Nahuatl, Zapotec, Mixtec, and Yucatec Maya from the colonial era, many of which were part of lawsuits and other legal matters. Although Spaniards initially taught indigenous scribes alphabetic writing, the tradition became self-perpetuating at the local level.[150] The Spanish crown gathered such documentation, and contemporary Spanish translations were made for legal cases. Scholars have translated and analyzed these documents in what is called the New Philology to write histories of indigenous peoples from indigenous viewpoints.[151]
The Wiigwaasabak, birch bark scrolls on which the Ojibwa (Anishinaabe) people wrote complex geometrical patterns and shapes, can also be considered a form of writing, as can Mi'kmaq hieroglyphics.
Aboriginal syllabic writing, or simply syllabics, is a family of abugidas used to write some Aboriginal Canadian languages of the Algonquian, Inuit, and Athabaskan language families.
Music and art
Native American music can vary between cultures, however there are significant commonalities. Traditional music often centers around drumming and singing. Rattles, clapper sticks, and rasps are also popular percussive instruments, both historically and in contemporary cultures. Flutes are made of rivercane, cedar, and other woods. The Apache have a type of fiddle, and fiddles are also found among a number of First Nations and Métis cultures.
The music of the indigenous peoples of Central Mexico and Central America, like that of the North American cultures, tend to be spiritual ceremonies. It traditionally includes a large variety of percussion and wind instruments such as drums, flutes, sea shells (used as trumpets) and "rain" tubes. No remnants of pre-Columbian stringed instruments were found until archaeologists discovered a jar in Guatemala, attributed to the Maya of the Late Classic Era (600–900 CE); this jar was decorated with imagery depicting a stringed musical instrument which has since been reproduced. This instrument is one of the very few stringed instruments known in the Americas prior to the introduction of European musical instruments; when played, it produces a sound that mimics a jaguar's growl.[152]
Visual arts by indigenous peoples of the Americas comprise a major category in the world art collection. Contributions include pottery, paintings, jewellery, weavings, sculptures, basketry, carvings, and beadwork.[153] Because too many artists were posing as Native Americans and Alaska Natives[154] in order to profit from the cachet of Indigenous art in the United States, the U.S. passed the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990, requiring artists to prove that they are enrolled in a state or federally recognized tribe. To support the ongoing practice of American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian arts and cultures in the United States,[155] the Ford Foundation, arts advocates and American Indian tribes created an endowment seed fund and established a national Native Arts and Cultures Foundation in 2007.[156][157]
Demografía
The following table provides estimates for each country in the Americas of the populations of indigenous people and those with partial indigenous ancestry, each expressed as a percentage of the overall population. The total percentage obtained by adding both of these categories is also given.
Note: these categories are inconsistently defined and measured differently from country to country. Some figures are based on the results of population-wide genetic surveys while others are based on self-identification or observational estimation.
Country | Indigenous | Ref. | Part indigenous | Ref. | Combined total | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
North America | ||||||
Greenland | 89% | % | 89% | [158] | ||
Canada | 1.8% | 3.6% | 5.4% | [159] | ||
Mexico | 28% | 62% | 90% | [160] | ||
Dominican Republic | % | % | % | |||
Grenada | ~0.4% | ~0% | ~0.4% | [161] | ||
Haiti | ~0% | ~0% | ~0% | [162] | ||
Jamaica | % | % | % | |||
Puerto Rico | 0.4% | [163] | 84% | [164][165] | 84.4% | |
Saint Kitts and Nevis | % | % | % | |||
Saint Lucia | % | % | % | |||
Saint Vincent andthe Grenadines | 2% | % | % | [166] | ||
Trinidad and Tobago | 0.8% | 88% | 88.8% |
Country | Indigenous | Ref. | Part indigenous | Ref. | Combined total | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
South America | ||||||
Argentina | 2.38% | [167] | 27% | [168][169] | 27.38% | |
Bolivia | 20% | 68% | 88% | [170] | ||
Brazil | 0.4% | 23% | 23.4% | [171] | ||
Chile | 4.6% | % | % | [172] | ||
Colombia | 4.4% | [173] | 49% | [174] | 53.4% | |
Ecuador | 25% | 65% | 90% | [175] | ||
French Guiana | % | % | % | |||
Guyana | 10.5% | [176] | % | % | ||
Paraguay | 1.7% | 95% | 96.7% | [177] | ||
Peru | 25.8% | 60.2% | 86% | [178] | ||
Suriname | 2% | [179] | % | % | ||
Uruguay | 0% | [180] | 2.4% | [181] | 2.4% | |
Venezuela | 2.7% | 51.6% | 54.3% | [182] |
Historia y estatus por continente y país
América del norte
Canadá
Los pueblos indígenas en Canadá comprenden la Naciones Primero , [183] inuit [184] y mestizos ; [185] los descriptores "indio" y " esquimal " están cayendo en desuso. En Canadá, está bastante mal visto usar el nombre "indio" en una conversación informal. [186] "Eskimo" se considera despectivo en muchos otros lugares porque fue dado por personas que no eran inuit y se decía que significaba "comedor de carne cruda". [187] Cientos de naciones indígenas desarrollaron jerarquías comerciales, espirituales y sociales . La etnia métis desarrolló una cultura desde mediados del siglo XVII después de que generaciones de las Primeras Naciones y los inuit nativos se casaran con colonos europeos. Eran pequeños agricultores, cazadores y tramperos, y generalmente católicos y de habla francesa. [188] Los inuit tuvieron una interacción más limitada con los colonos europeos durante ese período temprano. [189] Se han promulgado varias leyes , tratados y leyes entre los europeos-canadienses y las Primeras Naciones en todo Canadá. El derecho aborigen al autogobierno brinda a las Primeras Naciones la oportunidad de gestionar su propio control histórico, cultural, político, sanitario y económico dentro de sus comunidades.
Aunque no sin conflicto, las primeras interacciones europeas / canadienses en el este con las Primeras Naciones y las poblaciones inuit fueron relativamente pacíficas en comparación con la experiencia posterior de los pueblos nativos de los Estados Unidos. [190] Combinado con un desarrollo económico tardío en muchas regiones, [191] esta historia relativamente pacífica resultó en que los pueblos indígenas tuvieran una influencia bastante fuerte en la cultura nacional primitiva, al tiempo que preservaban su propia identidad. [192] Desde finales del siglo XVIII, los canadienses europeos trabajaron para obligar a los pueblos indígenas a asimilarse a la cultura dominante de influencia europea, a la que se referían como cultura canadiense . [193] El gobierno intentó una integración forzada violenta a finales del siglo XIX y principios del XX. Los ejemplos notables aquí incluyen escuelas residenciales . [194]
El Día Nacional de los Aborígenes reconoce las culturas y contribuciones de los pueblos indígenas de Canadá. [195] Actualmente hay más de 600 gobiernos o bandas reconocidas de las Primeras Naciones que abarcan 1.172.790 personas de 2006 repartidas por Canadá, con culturas, idiomas, arte y música indígenas distintivos. [196] [197] [198]
Groenlandia, Reino de Dinamarca
Los inuit de Groenlandia ( Kalaallisut : kalaallit , Tunumiisut : tunumiit , Inuktun : inughuit ) son el grupo étnico indígena y más poblado de Groenlandia . [199] Esto significa que Dinamarca tiene un grupo indígena oficialmente reconocido . los inuit - los inuit groenlandeses de Groenlandia y el pueblo groenlandés en Dinamarca (inuit que residen en Dinamarca).
Aproximadamente el 89 por ciento de la población de Groenlandia de 57.695 habitantes es inuit de Groenlandia , o 51.349 personas en 2012 [update]. [200] [201] Etnográficamente , constan de tres grupos principales:
- los Kalaallit del oeste de Groenlandia, que hablan Kalaallisut
- los tunumiit de Tunu (este de Groenlandia), que hablan tunumiit oraasiat ("este de Groenlandia")
- los Inughuit del norte de Groenlandia, que hablan Inuktun ("Polar Inuit")
México
El territorio del México actual fue el hogar de numerosas civilizaciones indígenas antes de la llegada de los conquistadores españoles : los olmecas , que florecieron entre el 1200 a. C. y alrededor del 400 a. C. en las regiones costeras del Golfo de México ; los zapotecas y mixtecas , que dominaban las montañas de Oaxaca y el istmo de Tehuantepec ; los mayas en Yucatán (y en áreas vecinas de la Centroamérica contemporánea ); los purépechas en el actual Michoacán y áreas circundantes, y los aztecas / mexicas , quienes, desde su capital central en Tenochtitlán , dominaban gran parte del centro y sur del país (y los habitantes no aztecas de esas áreas) cuando Hernán Cortés aterrizó por primera vez en Veracruz .
En contraste con lo que era la regla general en el resto de América del Norte, la historia de la colonia de Nueva España fue una historia de mestizaje ( mestizaje ). Los mestizos , que en México designan a personas que no se identifican culturalmente con ningún grupo indígena, rápidamente llegaron a representar la mayoría de la población de la colonia; pero el 6% de la población mexicana se identifica como hablante de una de las lenguas indígenas. El CDI identifica 62 grupos indígenas en México, cada uno con un idioma único. [202]
En los estados de Chiapas y Oaxaca y en el interior de la Península de Yucatán la mayoría de la población es indígena. Grandes minorías indígenas, incluidos aztecas o nahuas , purépechas , mazahua , otomí y mixtecas también están presentes en las regiones centrales de México. En el norte de México, los indígenas son una pequeña minoría.
La Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas otorga a todas las lenguas indígenas habladas en México, independientemente del número de hablantes, la misma validez que el español en todos los territorios en los que se hablan, y los pueblos indígenas tienen derecho a solicitar algunos servicios públicos y documentos en sus idiomas nativos. [203] Junto con el español, la ley les ha otorgado —más de 60 idiomas— la condición de "idiomas nacionales". La ley incluye todas las lenguas indígenas de las Américas independientemente de su origen; es decir, incluye las lenguas indígenas de etnias no nativas del territorio. La Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas reconoce el idioma de los Kickapoo , quienes inmigraron desde Estados Unidos, [204] y reconoce los idiomas de los refugiados indígenas guatemaltecos . [205] El gobierno mexicano ha promovido y establecido la educación primaria y secundaria bilingüe en algunas comunidades rurales indígenas. No obstante, de los pueblos indígenas en México, solo alrededor del 67% de ellos (o el 5.4% de la población del país) habla una lengua indígena y aproximadamente una sexta parte no habla español (1.2% de la población del país). [206]
Los pueblos indígenas de México tienen derecho a la libre determinación según el artículo segundo de la constitución. Según este artículo se otorga a los pueblos indígenas: [207]
- el derecho a decidir las formas internas de organización social, económica, política y cultural;
- el derecho a aplicar sus propios sistemas normativos de regulación siempre que se respeten los derechos humanos y la igualdad de género ;
- el derecho a preservar y enriquecer sus idiomas y culturas;
- el derecho a elegir representantes ante el concejo municipal en el que se ubican sus territorios;
entre otros derechos.
Estados Unidos
Los pueblos indígenas en lo que ahora son los Estados Unidos contiguos , incluidos sus descendientes, comúnmente se llamaban indios americanos, o simplemente indios en el país y desde finales del siglo XX el término nativo americano se volvió de uso común . En Alaska, los pueblos indígenas pertenecen a 11 culturas con 11 idiomas. Estos incluyen la isla de San Lorenzo Yupik , Iñupiat , Athabaskan , Yup'ik , Cup'ik , Unangax , Alutiiq , Eyak , Haida , Tsimshian y Tlingit , [208] y se denominan colectivamente nativos de Alaska . Incluyen pueblos nativos americanos así como inuit, que son distintos pero ocupan áreas de la región.
Estados Unidos tiene autoridad con los pueblos indígenas polinesios , que incluyen hawaianos , marshaleses (micronesios) y samoanos ; políticamente están clasificados como estadounidenses de las islas del Pacífico . Son geográfica, genética y culturalmente distintos de los pueblos indígenas de los continentes continentales de las Américas.
Los nativos americanos en los Estados Unidos representan entre el 0,97% [209] y el 2% de la población. En el censo de 2010, 2,9 millones de personas se identificaron solo como nativos americanos, nativos de Hawai y nativos de Alaska. Un total de 5.2 millones de personas identificadas como nativos americanos, ya sea solos o en combinación con una o más etnias u otras razas. [5] Las tribus han establecido sus propios criterios de membresía, que a menudo se basan en la cantidad de sangre , la ascendencia lineal o la residencia. Una minoría de nativos americanos vive en unidades de tierra llamadas reservas indígenas .
Algunas tribus de California y del suroeste, como los Kumeyaay , Cocopa , Pascua Yaqui , Tohono O'odham y Apache , abarcan ambos lados de la frontera entre Estados Unidos y México. Por tratado, los habitantes de Haudenosaunee tienen el derecho legal de cruzar libremente la frontera entre Estados Unidos y Canadá. Athabascan , Tlingit , Haida , Tsimshian , Iñupiat , Blackfeet , Nakota , Cree , Anishinaabe , Huron , Lenape , Mi'kmaq , Penobscot y Haudenosaunee, entre otros, viven tanto en Canadá como en Estados Unidos. La frontera internacional atraviesa su territorio cultural común.
Centroamérica
Belice
Los mestizos (mixtos europeos e indígenas) representan alrededor del 34% de la población; los mayas sin mezclar constituyen otro 10,6% ( Ketchi , Mopan y Yucatec ). Los garífunas , que llegaron a Belice en el siglo XIX desde San Vicente y las Granadinas , tienen ascendencia mixta africana , caribe y arahuaca y constituyen otro 6% de la población. [210]
Costa Rica
Hay más de 114.000 habitantes de origen nativo americano, lo que representa el 2,4% de la población. La mayoría de ellos vive en resguardos apartados, distribuidos en ocho etnias: Quitirrisí (En el Valle Central), Matambú o Chorotega (Guanacaste), Maleku (Norte de Alajuela), Bribri (Atlántico Sur), Cabécar (Cordillera de Talamanca), Boruca ( Sur de Costa Rica) y Ngäbe (Sur de Costa Rica a lo largo de la frontera con Panamá).
Estos grupos nativos se caracterizan por su trabajo en madera, como máscaras, tambores y otras figuras artísticas, así como tejidos de algodón.
Su subsistencia se basa en la agricultura, teniendo como cultivos principales el maíz, el frijol y el plátano. [ cita requerida ]
El Salvador
Gran parte de El Salvador fue el hogar de los pipiles , lenca , xinca y kakawira . Los pipiles vivían en el oeste de El Salvador , hablaban náwat y tenían muchos asentamientos allí, sobre todo Cuzcatlán . Los pipiles no tenían recursos minerales preciosos, pero tenían tierras ricas y fértiles que eran buenas para la agricultura. Los españoles se sintieron decepcionados al no encontrar oro o joyas en El Salvador como lo habían hecho en otras tierras como Guatemala o México , pero al enterarse de la tierra fértil de El Salvador, intentaron conquistarla. Entre los guerreros indígenas mesoamericanos destacados que se alzaron militarmente contra los españoles se encontraban los príncipes Atonal y Atlacatl del pueblo pipil en el centro de El Salvador y la princesa Antu Silan Ulap del pueblo lenca en el este de El Salvador, que veían a los españoles no como dioses sino como invasores bárbaros. . Después de feroces batallas, el Pipil luchó con éxito contra el ejército español dirigido por Pedro de Alvarado junto con sus aliados indios mexicanos (los Tlaxcalas), enviándolos de regreso a Guatemala. Después de muchos otros ataques con un ejército reforzado con aliados indígenas guatemaltecos, los españoles lograron conquistar Cuzcatlán. Después de nuevos ataques, los españoles también conquistaron al pueblo Lenca. Finalmente, los españoles se casaron con mujeres pipiles y lencas, lo que resultó en la población mestiza que se convertiría en la mayoría del pueblo salvadoreño. Hoy en día, muchos pipiles y otras poblaciones indígenas viven en los muchos pueblos pequeños de El Salvador como Izalco , Panchimalco , Sacacoyo y Nahuizalco .
Guatemala
Guatemala tiene una de las poblaciones indígenas más grandes de América Central, con aproximadamente el 41% de la población que se considera indígena. [211] La porción demográfica indígena de la población de Guatemala consiste en grupos mayas mayoritarios y un grupo no maya. La porción maya se distribuye en 23 grupos, a saber, K'iche 11.3%, Kaqchikel 8.6%, Mam 6.5%, Q'eqchi ' 5.6% y Otros 9.5%. [211] El grupo no maya está formado por los xinca, que son otro grupo de pueblos indígenas que constituyen el 0,5% de la población. [211] Otras fuentes indican que entre el 50 y el 60% de la población podría ser indígena, debido a que parte de la población mestiza es predominantemente amerindia.
Las tribus mayas cubren una vasta área geográfica en toda América Central y se expanden más allá de Guatemala hacia otros países. Uno podría encontrar grandes grupos de personas mayas en Boca Costa, en la parte sur de Guatemala, así como en las tierras altas occidentales viviendo juntos en comunidades cercanas. [212] Dentro de estas comunidades y fuera de ellas, se hablan como primera lengua alrededor de 23 lenguas indígenas o lenguas amerindias . De estos 23 idiomas, solo recibieron el reconocimiento oficial por parte del Gobierno en 2003 en virtud de la Ley de Idiomas Nacionales. [211] La Ley de Idiomas Nacionales reconoce 23 idiomas indígenas, incluido el xinca, obligando a que las instituciones públicas y gubernamentales no solo traduzcan, sino que también presten servicios en dichos idiomas. [213] Prestaría servicios en Cakchiquel , Garífuna , Kekchi , Mam , Quiché y Xinca . [214]
La Ley de Idiomas Nacionales ha sido un esfuerzo por otorgar y proteger a los pueblos indígenas derechos que anteriormente no les habían sido reconocidos. Junto con la Ley de Idiomas Nacionales aprobada en 2003, en 1996 la Corte Constitucional de Guatemala ratificó el Convenio 169 de la OIT sobre Pueblos Indígenas y Tribales. [215] El Convenio 169 de la OIT sobre Pueblos Indígenas y Tribales , también se conoce como Convenio 169. Es el único Derecho Internacional sobre Pueblos Indígenas que los países independientes pueden adoptar. La convención establece que gobiernos como el de Guatemala deben consultar con los grupos indígenas antes de cualquier proyecto que ocurra en tierras tribales. [216]
Honduras
Aproximadamente el cinco por ciento de la población es de ascendencia indígena de pura sangre, pero hasta el 80 por ciento de los hondureños son mestizos o en parte indígenas con una mezcla europea, y alrededor del diez por ciento son de ascendencia indígena o africana . [217] Las mayores concentraciones de comunidades indígenas en Honduras se encuentran en las áreas más occidentales frente a Guatemala y a lo largo de la costa del Mar Caribe , así como en la frontera con Nicaragua. [217] La mayoría de los indígenas son Lencas , Miskitos al este, Mayas , Pech , Sumos y Tolupan . [217]
Nicaragua
Aproximadamente el 5% de la población nicaragüense son indígenas. El grupo indígena más grande de Nicaragua es el pueblo Miskito . Su territorio se extendía desde Cabo Camarón , Honduras , hasta Río Grande , Nicaragua a lo largo de la Costa de los Mosquitos . Hay un idioma nativo miskito , pero un gran número habla criollo de la costa miskita , español, rama y otros idiomas. Su uso del inglés criollo se debió a un contacto frecuente con los británicos, que colonizaron la zona. Muchos miskitos son cristianos. La sociedad tradicional miskita estaba muy estructurada, tanto política como de otro modo. Tenía un rey, pero no tenía el poder total. En cambio, el poder se dividió entre él, un gobernador miskito , un general miskito y, en la década de 1750, un almirante miskito . La información histórica sobre los reyes miskitos a menudo se ve oscurecida por el hecho de que muchos de los reyes eran semimíticos .
Otra cultura indígena importante en el este de Nicaragua es el pueblo Mayangna (o Sumu) , que cuenta con unas 10.000 personas. [218] Una cultura indígena más pequeña en el sureste de Nicaragua son los Rama .
Otros grupos indígenas de Nicaragua se ubican en las áreas central, norte y pacífica y se autoidentifican de la siguiente manera: Chorotega , Cacaopera (o Matagalpa) , Xiu-Subtiaba y Nahua . [219]
Sudamerica
Argentina
En 2005, la población indígena de Argentina (conocida como pueblos originarios ) sumaba alrededor de 600,329 (1,6% de la población total); esta cifra incluye a 457,363 personas que se autoidentificaron como pertenecientes a un grupo étnico indígena y 142,966 que se identificaron como descendientes de primera generación de un pueblo indígena. [220] Los diez pueblos indígenas más poblados son los Mapuche (113.680 personas), los Kolla (70.505), los Toba (69.452), los Guaraní (68.454), los Wichi (40.036), los Diaguita - Calchaquí (31.753), los Mocoví (15.837), el Huarpe (14.633), el Comechingón (10.863) y el Tehuelche (10.590). Pueblos menores pero importantes son los quechuas (6.739), los charrúa (4.511), los pilagá (4.465), los chané (4.376) y los chorote (2.613). El pueblo Selknam (Ona) ahora está prácticamente extinto en su forma pura. Las lenguas de las naciones diaguita, tehuelche y selknam se han extinguido o prácticamente extinguido: la lengua cacán (hablada por diaguitas) en el siglo XVIII y la lengua selknam en el siglo XX; Un puñado de ancianos todavía habla una lengua tehuelche (tehuelche meridional).
Bolivia
En Bolivia , el censo de 2001 informó que el 62% de los residentes mayores de 15 años se identifican como pertenecientes a un pueblo indígena. Alrededor del 3,7% informa haber crecido con una lengua materna indígena pero no se identifica como indígena. [221] Cuando se suman ambas categorías, y los niños menores de 15 años, alrededor del 66,4% de la población de Bolivia se registró como indígena en el censo de 2001. [222]
Los grupos étnicos indígenas más grandes son: Quechua , alrededor de 2,5 millones de personas; Aymara , 2,0 millones; Chiquitano , 181.000; Guaraní , 126.000; y Mojeño , 69.000. Unos 124.000 pertenecen a grupos indígenas más pequeños. [223] La Constitución de Bolivia , promulgada en 2009, reconoce 36 culturas, cada una con su propio idioma, como parte de un estado plurinacional. Algunos grupos, incluido CONAMAQ (el Consejo Nacional de Ayllus y Markas de Qullasuyu), trazan fronteras étnicas dentro de la población de habla quechua y aymara, lo que da como resultado un total de 50 pueblos indígenas nativos de Bolivia.
Un gran número de campesinos bolivianos de las tierras altas conservaron la lengua, la cultura, las costumbres y la organización comunal indígenas durante la conquista española y el período posterior a la independencia. Se movilizaron para resistir varios intentos de disolución de las propiedades comunales y utilizaron el reconocimiento legal de los "caciques empoderados" para promover la organización comunal. Las revueltas indígenas tuvieron lugar con frecuencia hasta 1953. [224] Si bien el gobierno del Movimiento Nacional Revolucionario iniciado en 1952 desalentó a las personas que se identificaban como indígenas (reclasificando a la población rural como campesinos o campesinos), la militancia étnica y de clase renovada resurgió en el movimiento katarista a partir de la década de 1970. [225] Muchos pueblos indígenas de las tierras bajas, principalmente en el este, ingresaron a la política nacional a través de la Marcha por el Territorio y la Dignidad de 1990 organizada por la confederación CIDOB . Esa marcha presionó exitosamente al gobierno nacional para que firmara el Convenio 169 de la OIT y comenzara el proceso aún en curso de reconocimiento y titulación oficial de territorios indígenas. La Ley de Participación Popular de 1994 otorgó "organizaciones territoriales de base"; estos son reconocidos por el estado y tienen ciertos derechos para gobernar áreas locales.
Algunos programas de radio y televisión se producen en los idiomas quechua y aymara. La reforma constitucional de 1997 reconoció a Bolivia como una sociedad multilingüe y pluriétnica e introdujo la reforma educativa . En 2005, por primera vez en la historia del país, un indígena aymara, Evo Morales , fue elegido presidente.
Morales comenzó a trabajar en su política de "autonomía indígena", que lanzó en el departamento de tierras bajas orientales el 3 de agosto de 2009. Bolivia fue la primera nación en la historia de América del Sur en afirmar el derecho de los pueblos indígenas al autogobierno. [226] Hablando en el departamento de Santa Cruz , el Presidente lo calificó como "un día histórico para el movimiento campesino e indígena", diciendo que, aunque pudiera cometer errores, "nunca traicionaría la lucha iniciada por nuestros antepasados y la lucha de los Pueblo boliviano ". [226] En diciembre de 2009 se llevó a cabo una votación sobre una mayor autonomía de las jurisdicciones, al mismo tiempo que las elecciones generales para los cargos. El tema dividió al país. [227]
En ese momento, los pueblos indígenas votaron abrumadoramente por una mayor autonomía: cinco departamentos que aún no lo habían hecho votaron por ella; [228] [229] al igual que la provincia del Gran Chaco en Taríja, por la autonomía regional; [230] y 11 de los 12 municipios que realizaron referendos sobre este tema. [228]
Brasil
Los pueblos indígenas de Brasil representan el 0,4% de la población de Brasil, o alrededor de 817.000 personas, pero millones de brasileños son mestizos o tienen alguna ascendencia indígena. [231] Los pueblos indígenas se encuentran en todo el territorio de Brasil, aunque en el siglo XXI, la mayoría de ellos viven en territorios indígenas en el norte y centro-oeste del país. El 18 de enero de 2007, la Fundação Nacional do Índio (FUNAI) informó que había confirmado la presencia de 67 tribus aisladas diferentes en Brasil, frente a 40 en 2005. Brasil es ahora la nación que tiene el mayor número de tribus aisladas, y la isla de Nueva Guinea es el segundo. [231]
El Washington Post informó en 2007: "Como se ha demostrado en el pasado, cuando las tribus no contactadas se introducen en otras poblaciones y los microbios que portan, enfermedades tan simples como el resfriado común pueden ser mortales. En la década de 1970, 185 miembros de la tribu Panara murió dentro de los dos años del descubrimiento después de contraer enfermedades como la gripe y la varicela, dejando solo 69 sobrevivientes ". [232]
Chile
Según el censo de 2012, el 10% de la población chilena, incluidos los rapa nui (un pueblo polinesio ) de la Isla de Pascua , era indígena, aunque la mayoría muestra diversos grados de herencia mixta. [233] Muchos son descendientes de los mapuche y viven en Santiago , Araucanía y Región de Los Lagos . Los mapuche combatieron con éxito la derrota en los primeros 300-350 años de dominio español durante la Guerra de Arauco . Las relaciones con la nueva República de Chile fueron buenas hasta que el estado chileno decidió ocupar sus tierras. Durante la ocupación de la Araucanía, los mapuche se rindieron al ejército del país en la década de 1880. Su tierra fue abierta al asentamiento de chilenos y europeos. El conflicto por los derechos territoriales de los mapuches continúa hasta el presente.
Otros grupos incluyen a los aymaras , la mayoría de los cuales viven en Bolivia y Perú, con un número menor en las regiones de Arica-Parinacota y Tarapacá , y el pueblo de Atacama ( Atacameños ), que reside principalmente en El Loa .
Colombia
Una minoría hoy en Colombia 's mayoritariamente mestiza y blanca de Colombia población, los pueblos indígenas de Colombia consta de alrededor de 85 culturas distintas y más de 1.378.884 personas. [234] [235] La Constitución de 1991 reconoce una variedad de derechos colectivos para los pueblos indígenas.
Una de las influencias es la cultura Muisca , un subconjunto del grupo étnico Chibcha más grande , famoso por su uso del oro , lo que llevó a la leyenda de El Dorado . En el momento de la conquista española , los muiscas eran la civilización nativa más grande geográficamente entre los imperios incas y aztecas .
Ecuador
Ecuador fue el sitio de muchas culturas indígenas y civilizaciones de diferentes proporciones. Una cultura sedentaria temprana, conocida como la cultura Valdivia , se desarrolló en la región costera, mientras que los Caras y los Quitus se unieron para formar una civilización elaborada que terminó con el nacimiento de la capital Quito. Los cañaris cerca de Cuenca eran los más avanzados y más temidos por los incas , debido a su feroz resistencia a la expansión inca. Sus restos arquitectónicos fueron posteriormente destruidos por españoles e incas.
Aproximadamente el 96,4% de la población indígena de Ecuador son quichuas de las tierras altas que viven en los valles de la región de la Sierra. Consisten principalmente en los descendientes de pueblos conquistados por los incas, son hablantes de kichwa e incluyen a los caranqui , los otavalos , los cayambe, los quitu-carras, los panzaleo , los chimbuelo, los salasacan, los tugua, los puruhá, los cañari , y el Saraguro . La evidencia lingüística sugiere que los salascan y los saraguro pueden haber sido descendientes de grupos étnicos bolivianos trasplantados a Ecuador como mitimaes .
Los grupos costeros, incluidos los awá , chachi y tsáchila , constituyen el 0,24% de la población indígena, mientras que el 3,35% restante vive en el oriente y está formado por los orientales kichwa (los canelo y los quijos), los shuar , los Huaorani , Siona-Secoya, Cofán y Achuar .
En 1986, los pueblos indígenas formaron la primera organización política "verdaderamente" nacional . La Confederación de Nacionalidades Indígenas del Ecuador ( CONAIE ) ha sido la principal institución política de los Indígenas desde entonces y ahora es el segundo partido político más grande de la nación. Ha sido influyente en la política nacional, contribuyendo a la destitución de los presidentes Abdalá Bucaram en 1997 y Jamil Mahuad en 2000.
Perú
Según el Censo, la población nativa en Perú representa aproximadamente el 26%. [3] Las tradiciones y costumbres de los nativos peruanos han dado forma a la forma en que los peruanos viven y se ven a sí mismos hoy. La ciudadanía cultural —o lo que Renato Rosaldo ha llamado, "el derecho a ser diferente y pertenecer, en un sentido democrático y participativo" (1996: 243) - aún no está muy desarrollado en el Perú. Esto quizás no sea más evidente que en las regiones amazónicas del país, donde las sociedades indígenas continúan luchando contra los abusos económicos patrocinados por el estado, la discriminación cultural y la violencia generalizada. [236]
Surinam
Venezuela
La mayoría de los venezolanos tienen alguna herencia indígena y son pardos , incluso si se identifican como blancos. Pero aquellos que se identifican como indígenas, por haber sido criados en esas culturas, representan solo alrededor del 2% de la población total. Los pueblos indígenas hablan alrededor de 29 idiomas diferentes y muchos más dialectos. Como algunos de los grupos étnicos son muy pequeños, sus lenguas nativas están en peligro de extinción en las próximas décadas. Los grupos indígenas más importantes son los Ye'kuana , los Wayuu , los Pemón y los Warao . Se cree que los nativos más avanzados que vivieron dentro de los límites de la actual Venezuela fueron los timoto-cuicas , que vivían en los Andes venezolanos. Los historiadores estiman que había entre 350 mil y 500 mil habitantes indígenas en la época de la colonización española. La zona más densamente poblada fue la región andina (Timoto-cuicas), gracias a sus avanzadas técnicas agrícolas y su capacidad para producir un excedente de alimentos.
La constitución de 1999 de Venezuela otorga a los indígenas derechos especiales , aunque la gran mayoría de ellos aún vive en condiciones de pobreza muy críticas. El gobierno proporciona educación primaria en sus idiomas en las escuelas públicas a algunos de los grupos más grandes, en un esfuerzo por continuar con los idiomas.
Otras partes de las Américas
Los pueblos indígenas constituyen la mayoría de la población en Bolivia y Perú , y son un elemento significativo en la mayoría de las otras antiguas colonias españolas. Las excepciones a esto incluyen Uruguay ( nativo charrúa ). Según el censo de 2011, el 2,4% de los uruguayos informó tener ascendencia indígena. [181] Algunos gobiernos reconocen algunos de los principales idiomas nativos americanos como idiomas oficiales: el quechua en Perú y Bolivia; Aymara también en Perú y Bolivia , guaraní en Paraguay y groenlandés en Groenlandia .
Auge de los movimientos indígenas
Since the late 20th century, indigenous peoples in the Americas have become more politically active in asserting their treaty rights and expanding their influence. Some have organized in order to achieve some sort of self-determination and preservation of their cultures. Organizations such as the Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin and the Indian Council of South America are examples of movements that are overcoming national borders to reunite indigenous populations, for instance those across the Amazon Basin. Similar movements for indigenous rights can also be seen in Canada and the United States, with movements like the International Indian Treaty Council and the accession of native Indian groups into the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization.
There has been a recognition of indigenous movements on an international scale. The membership of the United Nations voted to adopt the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, despite dissent from some of the stronger countries of the Americas.
In Colombia, various indigenous groups have protested the denial of their rights. People organized a march in Cali in October 2008 to demand the government live up to promises to protect indigenous lands, defend the indigenous against violence, and reconsider the free trade pact with the United States.[237]
Indigenous heads of state
The first indigenous candidate to be democratically elected as head of a country in Latin America was Benito Juárez, a Zapotec Mexican; he was elected President of Mexico in 1858.[238]
In 2005, Evo Morales of the Aymara people was the first indigenous candidate elected as president of Bolivia and the first in South America.
Genética
Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas primarily focuses on Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups and Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups. "Y-DNA" is passed solely along the patrilineal line, from father to son, while "mtDNA" is passed down the matrilineal line, from mother to offspring of both sexes. Neither recombines, and thus Y-DNA and mtDNA change only by chance mutation at each generation with no intermixture between parents' genetic material.[239] Autosomal "atDNA" markers are also used, but differ from mtDNA or Y-DNA in that they overlap significantly.[240] AtDNA is generally used to measure the average continent-of-ancestry genetic admixture in the entire human genome and related isolated populations.[240]
Scientific evidence links indigenous Americans to Asian peoples, specifically Siberian populations, such as the Ket, Selkup, Chukchi and Koryak peoples. Indigenous peoples of the Americas have been linked to North Asian populations by the distribution of blood types, and in genetic composition as reflected by molecular data, such as DNA.[241] There is general agreement among anthropologists that the source populations for the migration into the Americas originated from an area somewhere east of the Yenisei River. The common occurrence of the mtDNA Haplogroups A, B, C, and D among eastern Asian and Native American populations has long been recognized.[242] As a whole, the greatest frequency of the four Native American associated haplogroups occurs in the Altai–Baikal region of southern Siberia.[243] Some subclades of C and D closer to the Native American subclades occur among Mongolian, Amur, Japanese, Korean, and Ainu populations.[242][244]
The genetic pattern indicates indigenous peoples of the Americas experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas.[245][246][247] The former is the determinant factor for the number of gene lineages, zygosity mutations, and founding haplotypes present in today's indigenous peoples of the Americas populations.[246]
Human settlement of the New World occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line, with a possible initial layover of 10,000 to 20,000 years in Beringia for the small founding population.[58][248][249] The micro-satellite diversity and distributions of the Y lineage specific to South America indicates that certain indigenous peoples of the Americas populations have been isolated since the initial colonization of the region.[250] The Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit haplogroup Q (Y-DNA) mutations, however are distinct from other indigenous peoples of the Americas with various mtDNA and atDNA mutations.[251][252][253] This suggests that the earliest migrants into the northern extremes of North America and Greenland derived from later migrant populations.[254][255]
A 2013 study in Nature reported that DNA found in the 24,000-year-old remains of a young boy from the archaeological Mal'ta-Buret' culture suggest that up to one-third of the ancestry of indigenous Americans may be traced back to western Eurasians, who may have "had a more north-easterly distribution 24,000 years ago than commonly thought" (with the rest tracing back to early East Asian peoples).[256] "We estimate that 14 to 38 percent of Native American ancestry may originate through gene flow from this ancient population", the authors wrote. Professor Kelly Graf said,
Our findings are significant at two levels. First, it shows that Upper Paleolithic Siberians came from a cosmopolitan population of early modern humans that spread out of Africa to Europe and Central and South Asia. Second, Paleoindian skeletons like Buhl Woman with phenotypic traits atypical of modern-day indigenous Americans can be explained as having a direct historical connection to Upper Paleolithic Siberia.
A route through Beringia is seen as more likely than the Solutrean hypothesis.[256] Kashani et al. 2012 state that "The similarities in ages and geographical distributions for C4c and the previously analyzed X2a lineage provide support to the scenario of a dual origin for Paleo-Indians. Taking into account that C4c is deeply rooted in the Asian portion of the mtDNA phylogeny and is indubitably of Asian origin, the finding that C4c and X2a are characterized by parallel genetic histories definitively dismisses the controversial hypothesis of an Atlantic glacial entry route into North America."[257]
Genetic analyses of HLA I and HLA II genes as well as HLA-A, -B, and -DRB1 gene frequencies links the Ainu people in northern Japan and southeastern Russia to some Indigenous peoples of the Americas, especially to populations on the Pacific Northwest Coast such as Tlingit. The scientists suggest that the main ancestor of the Ainu and of some Native American groups can be traced back to Paleolithic groups in Southern Siberia.[258]
A 2016 study found that indigenous Americans and Polynesians most likely came into contact around 1200.[259]
Gente notable
Ver también
List of indigenous peoples
- List of Greenlandic Inuit
- List of indigenous artists of the Americas
- List of indigenous peoples of the Americas
- List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas
Culture
- Ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas
- Chunkey
- Fully feathered basket
- Indian Mass
- Pow wow
Population and demographics
- Child development of the indigenous peoples of the Americas
- Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas
- Indigenous Movements in the Americas
- Origins of Paleoindians
- Pacific Islander
- Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
Latin America
- Indigenous peoples of South America
- List of Mayan languages
- Society in the Spanish Colonial Americas
North America
- Genocide of indigenous peoples of the Americas
- History of the west coast of North America
- List of traditional territories of the indigenous peoples of North America
- Native Americans in the United States
- List of American Inuit
- Native American Languages Act of 1990
- Native American weaponry
- Native Americans in German popular culture
- Republic of Lakotah
- Redskin
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Sources
Journal articles
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Books
- König, Eva (2002). Indianer 1858-1928, Photographische Reisen von Alaska bis Feuerland. Museum für Volkerkunde Hamburg: Edition Braus. ISBN 978-3-89904-021-0.
- Cappel, Constance (2007). The Smallpox Genocide of the Odawa Tribe at L'Arbre Croche, 1763: The History of a Native American People. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 978-0-7734-5220-6. OCLC 175217515.
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- Churchill, Ward (1997). A Little Matter of Genocide: Holocaust and Denial in the Americas, 1492 to the Present. San Francisco, CA: City Lights Books. ISBN 978-0-87286-323-1. OCLC 35029491.
- Dean, Bartholomew (2002). "State Power and Indigenous Peoples in Peruvian Amazonia: A Lost Decade, 1990–2000". In Maybury-Lewis, David (ed.). The Politics of Ethnicity: Indigenous Peoples in Latin American States. David Rockefeller Center series on Latin American studies, Harvard University. 9. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University/David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies. pp. 199–238. ISBN 978-0-674-00964-6. OCLC 427474742.
- Dean, Bartholomew; Levi, Jerome M. (2003). At the Risk of Being Heard: Identity, Indigenous Rights, and Postcolonial States. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-09736-4. OCLC 50841012.
- Dean, Bartholomew (January 2006). "Salt of the Mountain: Campa Asháninka History and Resistance in the Peruvian Jungle (review)". The Americas. 62 (3): 464–466. doi:10.1353/tam.2006.0013. ISSN 0003-1615. S2CID 143708252.
- Kane, Katie (1999). "Nits Make Lice: Drogheda, Sand Creek, and the Poetics of Colonial Extermination". Cultural Critique. 42 (42): 81–103. doi:10.2307/1354592. ISSN 0882-4371. JSTOR 1354592.
- Krech, Shepard III (1999). The Ecological Indian: Myth and History. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-04755-4. OCLC 318358852.
- Varese, Stefano; Ribeiro, Darcy (2004) [2002]. Salt of the Mountain: Campa Ashaninka History and Resistance in the Peruvian Jungle. trans. Susan Giersbach Rascón. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3512-0. OCLC 76909908.
Otras lecturas
- Hamilton, Charles, ed. 1950. Cry of the Thunderbird: The American Indian's Own Story. New York: Macmillan Company
enlaces externos
- America's Stone Age Explorers, from PBS's Nova
- A History of the Native People of Canada from the Canadian Museum of Civilization
- Indigenous Peoples in Brazil from the Instituto Socioambiental (ISA)
- Official website of the National Museum of the American Indian, part of the Smithsonian Institution
- Chamberlain, Alexander Francis (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).