Jasmin Marston

Free trade has emerged as the panacea for development and prosperity over the past century. How did this idea influence agricultural policies and food security in developing countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in the recent decades? This paper examines the literature covering the emergence of the free trade idea in the 19 th century, traces its disappearance as well as re-emergence after the second World War, and raises the question if the current free trade regime that manifested itself most prominently in the World Trade Organization (WTO), is the most fitting to raise people out of poverty and ensure food equality.

It has been a decade since the European Commission started negotiating Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs) with the African, Caribbean and Pacific Countries (ACP). During the same time the Doha Development Round representing multilateral trade negotiations on a global level, produced a stalemate, as the first push back from developing countries during such negotiations has led to Western nation’s refusal to cooperate. Global power dynamics are undergoing a cumulative reordering process, and Africa’s role seems to be shifting with this development. The focus of this research paper is the exploration and explanation for the rationale for African countries opposition to singing an ‘alternative’ bilateral trade agreement (EPAs) with the European Union.  The common assumption about objectives and normative underpinnings of changes in trade regime rely on material based explanations, this essay however will furthermore draw attention to the constructivist theoretical framework to enrich and expand our understanding of this shift in Africa’s role in trade negotiations.

This essay explores alternative financing sources for development, either by supplementing or substituting Official Development Assistance (ODA). It highlights the importance of continued commitment of the developed world to ensure sustainable development, as well as for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). As the ongoing financial crisis has forced many governments to readjust their budgets, aid cuts were part of the agenda. To supplement ODA a financial transaction tax (FTT) has been named as the ‘prime’ alternative source for financing development. Just recently (September 2011) a proposal for a FTT has been introduced by the European Commission, which is examined in some detail in this essay as it has a high chance of becoming a reality- unfortunately with a modified intent. In addition, attention is drawn to two concepts which could be substitutes for the ‘hand outs’ of the north, by establishing self-reliant and sustainable sources to finance development – ‘Fair’ Trade and a system of International Tax Transparency. Due to space constraints, these two important issues are only dealt with concisely, and should be taken as a thought-provoking impulse. Concluding everything is possible with a (timely) reassessment of priorities.

Despite the fact that the world has the resources and technology to eradicate hunger and ensure long-term food security for all, the number of hungry reached a tragic apogee of 1.02 billion in 2009 (FAO, 2009a) . At the same time the International Association for the Study of Obesity estimated, that 1.7 billion people were overweight or obese (Lang and Heasman, 2004). Food policy is in crisis. Despite gigantic leaps in production over the past 100 years more people than ever in our history go hungry, while many others are suffering from ill health due to lacking quality in our food production system. Meanwhile an unprecedented and alarming destruction of our resource provider planet earth is advancing (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). While the impacts of climate change will vary it is clear that action has to be taken, particularly in regions projected to experience severe ecological shifts (such as poor countries which will suffer earliest and most according to Stern, 2007).
The following essay examines the three broad conceptual frameworks, concerning food policy and the food economy indentified in Tim Lang and Michael Heasman’s book: ‘Food Wars - The Global battle for Mouths, Minds and Market,’, while considering other authors perspectives and opinions. The current - the “Productionist” paradigm, as well as the two alternative frameworks - the “Ecologically Integrated” paradigm and the Life Sciences Integrated Paradigm (LSIP) – are examined and evaluated in regards of their suitability to ensure food security in developing countries.

After the onset of the global financial crisis, and the near collapse of the Irish banking system, Ireland is left with one of the most expensive banking crisis, burdening the country’s citizen with €69.7 billion (as of August 2012) of ‘bank bailout’ debt. Similarly other peripheral countries, such as Spain, Greece, and Iceland, have also suffered from the impact to the financial crisis (and subsequent austerity), but in contrast have displayed high levels of contention while levels of protest in Ireland have remained low. This thesis explores the configuration of factors leading to this covert contention in the Republic, by making use of individual elite interviews (N=18) corroborated by a theoretical framework of contention, as well as historic data of the country itself. According to the results it is a combination of factors including the weak organizational structures partly due to decades of ‘Social Partnership’ (reflecting a benevolent view of the state); fear, hopelessness and guilt; as well as the role of the media which has been relied upon by society, yet failed to present a balanced account, depriving people of alternative view points. Other current and historic factors are involved, yet difficult to deceiver as in the case of Ireland is: “like a perfect storm”, to use the words of Interviewee 15.

This empirical study follows an applied research question. It sets out to illuminate political, economic and ideational influences on the agricultural sector of Ghana as well as the role of aid within it. The inter-disciplinary approach combines theories of development studies, political science, (economic) history and anthropology, presenting a descriptive analysis that was informed by primary data collected during 16-months of field research. Qualitative methods, including semi-structured interviews (260), focus group discussions (4), and participatory observations in pertinent meetings in the capital (14) as well as three months on the fields in Northern Ghana informed the findings.

Ghana’s agricultural data systems are of highly questionable quality, as (quantitative and qualitative) research has been neglected, leading to conceptualizing and implementing of imprudent agricultural initiatives. Instead the focus on mechanization and modernization since independence, by national governments and aid agencies alike, have steadily snubbed smallholder-farmers knowledge and accelerated the degradation of soils. The relationship between the governments and development partners is defined by inequalities, lack of transparencies, as well as financial and ideational dependencies. Fifteen active donors were running close to 100 agricultural projects and programs in 2016, invariably copying the high-external-input, private sector focused, agricultural approach chosen in the West, with most Ghanaians summarizing the situation of aid and agricultural in Ghana with: “He who pays the piper calls the tune”.

Presentation on aid effectiveness and Development Partner (DP) coordination efforts and challenges in the agricultural sector in Ghana, based on previous research and additional qualitative and quantitative research collected with support of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) in 2019.