Alissa Whitmore
I am an Anthropologically-trained Roman Archaeologist (Ph.D. 2013, University of Iowa), who has researched the material culture of Roman bathing, gender, and ancient magic.
In my dissertation, I analyzed artifacts found in 13 Roman public and military baths, located predominantly in Italy and the UK, and ranging in date from 2nd c BCE - 4th c CE. I focused on finds from drains, as these contexts were often less affected by post-deposition activities. I argued that many of these bathhouse artifacts can be interpreted as evidence for the presence and activities of ancient bathers, providing confirmation of details on Roman bathing culture gained from ancient texts, as well as new insights on behaviors and social groups.
My post-doc research focuses on the meaning and social significance of Roman phallic pendants. I am particularly interested in variations in the use and appearance of these amulets over space and time, and how these differences may related to the meanings and uses (apotropaic, fertility / virility, etc.) that these objects had for users. In addition to incorporating cross-cultural scholarship on phallic pendants and objects, I also examine how these pendants would appear on the body to gain a fuller understanding of how these items may have been used in the past.
In my dissertation, I analyzed artifacts found in 13 Roman public and military baths, located predominantly in Italy and the UK, and ranging in date from 2nd c BCE - 4th c CE. I focused on finds from drains, as these contexts were often less affected by post-deposition activities. I argued that many of these bathhouse artifacts can be interpreted as evidence for the presence and activities of ancient bathers, providing confirmation of details on Roman bathing culture gained from ancient texts, as well as new insights on behaviors and social groups.
My post-doc research focuses on the meaning and social significance of Roman phallic pendants. I am particularly interested in variations in the use and appearance of these amulets over space and time, and how these differences may related to the meanings and uses (apotropaic, fertility / virility, etc.) that these objects had for users. In addition to incorporating cross-cultural scholarship on phallic pendants and objects, I also examine how these pendants would appear on the body to gain a fuller understanding of how these items may have been used in the past.
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Books by Alissa Whitmore
The volume critically explores the gender constructs and sexual behaviours in the provinces and frontiers in light of recent studies of Roman erotic experience and flux gender identities. At its core, it challenges the unproblematised extension of the traditional Romano-Hellenistic model to the provinces and frontiers. Did sexual relations and gender identities undergo processes of "provincialisation" or "barbarisation" similar to other well-known aspects of cultural negotiation and syncretism in provincial and border regions, for example in art and religion? The 11 chapters that make up the volume explore these issues from a variety of angles, providing a balanced and rounded view through use of literary, epigraphic, and archaeological evidence. Accordingly, the contributions represent new and emerging ideas on the subject of sex, gender, and sexuality in the Roman provinces.
As such, Un-Roman Sex will be of interest to higher-level undergraduates and graduates/academics studying the Roman empire, gender, and sexuality in the ancient world and at the Roman frontiers.
http://www.oxbowbooks.com/oxbow/small-finds-and-ancient-social-practices-in-the-northwest-provinces-of-the-roman-empire.html
Book Chapters by Alissa Whitmore
Conference Presentations by Alissa Whitmore
This paper examines how the function and meaning of these pendants likely varied with the social identities of wearers (adult/child, civilian/solider, male/female). Given the presence of additional phallic imagery – armor mounts – in military contexts (Crummy 1983; Bishop 1988; Johns and Wise 2003), I pay special attention to the use of these pendants by adult Roman men, for whom the wearing of a phallus would include additional meanings of sexuality, virility, power, and force that would likely have been absent for child wearers. Typological studies and use wear data shed light on how the pendants were worn and appeared on the body, revealing that only some phallic pendants would appear erect, which may have implications for their presumed apotropaic functions. These pendants also offer a window onto Roman gender ideology, as men, children, and women used and wore depictions of only one sex’s genitalia (with few exceptions) for magical protection, fertility, and power.
In addition to a close study of Roman phallic pendants and their archaeological contexts, my research incorporates anthropological theory and cross-cultural examples from other cultures with phallic objects (i.e. Phoenician, Greek, Thai, Moche) to reflect upon the possible uses, meanings, and significance that these pendants had for different members of Roman society.
This paper has two main goals. First, I examine how the function and meaning of these pendants varied with the social identities of wearers (adult/child, civilian/solider, male/female). Secondly, I use these pendants as a window onto Roman gender ideology; specifically, how did men, women, and children differentially navigate a society in which only one sex’s genitalia (with a few exceptions) had magical, protective powers (cf. Monserrat 2000).
My approach brings together several datasets and theoretical approaches. I analyze Roman texts for the social contexts (wearer, situation, author’s purpose) of pendants and other phallic objects (vessels, breads, etc.). Next, I catalogue the archaeological contexts in which phallic pendants were recovered, with an emphasis on associated sites, buildings, and individuals. Lastly, I use anthropological and psychological theory (cf. Carroll 1984) to compare Roman use of phallic pendants and imagery with similar examples in other past and present cultures, surveying both Mediterranean (Greek, Italian-Etruscan, modern Italian) and global (Moche, Japanese) practices. Together, these sources illustrate the varied meanings of phallic imagery and the social impacts of living amongst a “cult of the phallus” (cf. Keuls 1993).
January 8-11, 2015 New Orleans, Louisiana
Colloquium Session: Social Life in Public Baths in the Ancient Mediterranean and Beyond
Organizer: Alissa Whitmore (University of Iowa, alissa.whitmore@gmail.com)
While scholarship on Roman public baths has been popular for some time, sustained dialogue between specialists of different regions has often been limited. Scholars of urban public baths typically have only passing familiarity with military bathhouses, and researchers focusing on Romano-British baths often have limited acquaintance with those in the eastern provinces. Given the vastness of the Empire, no scholar can attain expertise in all facets of ancient bathing, but the lack of integration in bathing scholarship can prevent researchers from becoming familiar with other cultures, approaches, and datasets. Furthermore, this isolation limits our knowledge of similarities, differences, and temporal changes in public bathing culture in and around the Mediterranean.
To acknowledge and address this issue, this colloquium offers an inclusive and diachronic study of social life in ancient public baths. Session papers, integrating a variety of approaches and datasets, focus on bathing culture in different time periods, regions, and societies. Adrienne Hagen (Violence and Vulnerability) incorporates ancient literature, inscriptions, and iconography to reveal the higher risk of violence that women, children, and slaves faced in Roman baths. Maryl Gensheimer (Decoration and Discourses) analyzes free standing and architectural sculpture to evaluate the different experiences of elite and subaltern bathers in the Baths of Caracalla. Alissa Whitmore (Bathing on the Edge) uses small finds and architectural layouts to investigate the activities and social identities of bathers in Romano-British and Gallo-Roman military baths. Robert Darby (Drawn to the Baths) evaluates graffiti and inscriptions found in the Near Eastern 'Ayn Gharandal fort and military baths to illuminate the significance of bathing for ancient soldiers. Stefanie Hoss (The Influence of Christianity) integrates ancient texts and architectural spaces to examine the impact of religion on changing bathhouse layouts in Late Antiquity. Fikret Yegül concludes the session with a discussion of these topics and papers.
With its range of approaches, regions, and time periods, this colloquium represents a step toward a more integrated study of ancient bathing. Each paper situates public baths in their larger cultural contexts, revealing similarities and differences between bathing cultures and underlining the interplay of baths, social organization, power, and belief systems. Several papers, as well as the diachronic (1st – 7th c. C.E.) nature of the colloquium, provide insights into temporal and cultural changes in ancient bathing culture. Others offer a more comprehensive understanding of the social experiences of lower class bathers and life in military baths. Together, these papers illustrate diverse approaches which can shed light on ancient social life and the utility of a more unified study of public bathing.
Presenters and Papers
Adrienne Hagen (University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA) – Violence and Vulnerability in the Roman Baths
Maryl B. Gensheimer (University of Maryland, USA) – Decoration and Discourses on Social Status within the Baths of Caracalla
Alissa M. Whitmore (University of Iowa, USA) – Bathing on the Edge: Roman Military and Vicus Baths in the Northwest Provinces
Robert Darby (University of Tennessee, USA) – Drawn to the Baths: Daily Life and Desert Leisure in the Cohors II Galatarum.
Stefanie Hoss (University of Cologne, Germany) – The Influence of Christianity on the Culture of Bathing and Bathhouse Design.
Discussant: Fikret Yegül (University of California, Santa Barbara, USA)
To address these questions, this paper focuses upon the material culture and architectural layouts of Romano-British and Gallo-Roman military and vicus baths. Most of our information on the social environment of military baths comes from the abundant artifact assemblage recovered from the Caerleon Legionary fortress baths. I place the Caerleon finds in context with material culture recovered from nine other baths in Britannia and Raetia, dating from the 1st – 4th c. C.E., in order to obtain a wider picture of military bathing culture. In addition to locating similarities between assemblages, which suggest that a given bathing population or activity was not an isolated occurrence, I also highlight differences which appear between legionary and vicus baths and between Romano-British and Gallo-Roman baths. Following the approach of DeLaine (1999) and Revell (2007), I also analyze the architectural layouts of military baths, seeking to isolate spaces that would have promoted socialization and examining variations in the use of space between legionary and vicus military baths.
In this paper, I analyse textual and archaeological evidence for commerce in public baths in Italy and the Northwest provinces. Texts, graffiti, broken vessels, and animal bones provide evidence for the various wares of bathhouse vendors, and other artefacts, including needles, scalpels, and crucibles, suggest that a wide range of services were available in the baths. Small finds from the shops of Pompeii’s Stabian baths provide a case study for examining the relationship between public baths and nearby shops and the degree to which the proximity of baths affects a shop’s merchandise and target clientele. This integration of commercial activities into public baths highlights the truly multi-functional nature of Roman spaces.
I begin this paper by analyzing ancient texts, graffiti, and art for activities and related material culture which these sources locate in public baths. Next I turn to the archaeological record, focusing on artifacts from 14 baths from Italy, the UK, Portugal, Switzerland, and Germany, ranging in date from the second century B.C.E. to the fourth century C.E. In an effort to isolate objects which were most likely used while the baths were open, I concentrate on small finds from rapidly abandoned baths, such as those in Pompeii and Herculaneum, and those found in bathhouse drains.
By identifying the most commonly recovered artifacts, it is possible to obtain a “typical” bathhouse finds assemblage, which reveals the activities, including eating and drinking, adornment, and bathing and grooming, most often represented in the archaeological record of baths. Other less common, but in no way isolated, finds and activities also appear, such as cloth-working, warding away evil spirits, and medical procedures. Just as there are some behaviors only demonstrated by small finds, it is obvious that some artifacts and activities expected from ancient sources rarely appear in the archaeological record. While some of these absences can be attributed to taphonomic processes and the caprices of the archaeological record, others may provide further evidence for ancient behaviors, such as recycling of broken materials, regular cleaning of the baths, and transport of metal bathing instruments from home. It is only by joining these rich, but flawed, datasets that we can uncover a more thorough understanding not only of Roman bathing culture, but also the ancient behaviors and archaeological processes affecting the objects discovered in Roman public baths.
This paper attempts to provide a picture of a typical bath assemblage. I begin with the activities and objects which ancient texts locate in the baths. Next I turn to the archaeological record, focusing on 13 Roman baths from Italy, the UK, Portugal, Switzerland, and Germany, whose artifacts were found in contexts, such as drains, which suggest that these objects were actually used in the baths. I highlight the common artifacts which are found in nearly every bath, as well as rare small finds, which are isolated to only a few baths. Some small finds expected from ancient sources rarely appear in the archaeological record, and I provide some potential reasons for the absence of these objects.
While interpreting construction and demolition layers will always be a challenge, knowledge of typical Roman bath assemblages and the types of objects commonly used in the baths will help archaeologists to determine which artifacts plausibly belong to and reflect use of the baths and which objects are likely extraneous.
These objects represent the lost or intentionally discarded possessions of bathers. Some finds provide further evidence for activities already well attested in the baths: animal bones and ceramic and glass vessels attest to eating and drinking in the baths, while phallic amulets could have served as protection from the dangers of the baths. Jewelry found in the drains not only attests to the presence of women in public and military baths, but also the common practice of wearing jewelry and adornment into pools, perhaps as a marker of social status. In other cases, artifacts can provide evidence for activities in the baths which are rarely or never discussed in ancient sources, such as gambling and cloth working, an activity likely performed by lower class individuals and women.
Such an analysis is useful not only in that it can reveal the everyday activities of lesser known social groups in the baths, but also because small finds from drains can begin to allow an examination of whether the same activities occurred in public and military baths, and whether variations in bathing culture existed in different geographic areas of the Roman Empire.
The volume critically explores the gender constructs and sexual behaviours in the provinces and frontiers in light of recent studies of Roman erotic experience and flux gender identities. At its core, it challenges the unproblematised extension of the traditional Romano-Hellenistic model to the provinces and frontiers. Did sexual relations and gender identities undergo processes of "provincialisation" or "barbarisation" similar to other well-known aspects of cultural negotiation and syncretism in provincial and border regions, for example in art and religion? The 11 chapters that make up the volume explore these issues from a variety of angles, providing a balanced and rounded view through use of literary, epigraphic, and archaeological evidence. Accordingly, the contributions represent new and emerging ideas on the subject of sex, gender, and sexuality in the Roman provinces.
As such, Un-Roman Sex will be of interest to higher-level undergraduates and graduates/academics studying the Roman empire, gender, and sexuality in the ancient world and at the Roman frontiers.
http://www.oxbowbooks.com/oxbow/small-finds-and-ancient-social-practices-in-the-northwest-provinces-of-the-roman-empire.html
This paper examines how the function and meaning of these pendants likely varied with the social identities of wearers (adult/child, civilian/solider, male/female). Given the presence of additional phallic imagery – armor mounts – in military contexts (Crummy 1983; Bishop 1988; Johns and Wise 2003), I pay special attention to the use of these pendants by adult Roman men, for whom the wearing of a phallus would include additional meanings of sexuality, virility, power, and force that would likely have been absent for child wearers. Typological studies and use wear data shed light on how the pendants were worn and appeared on the body, revealing that only some phallic pendants would appear erect, which may have implications for their presumed apotropaic functions. These pendants also offer a window onto Roman gender ideology, as men, children, and women used and wore depictions of only one sex’s genitalia (with few exceptions) for magical protection, fertility, and power.
In addition to a close study of Roman phallic pendants and their archaeological contexts, my research incorporates anthropological theory and cross-cultural examples from other cultures with phallic objects (i.e. Phoenician, Greek, Thai, Moche) to reflect upon the possible uses, meanings, and significance that these pendants had for different members of Roman society.
This paper has two main goals. First, I examine how the function and meaning of these pendants varied with the social identities of wearers (adult/child, civilian/solider, male/female). Secondly, I use these pendants as a window onto Roman gender ideology; specifically, how did men, women, and children differentially navigate a society in which only one sex’s genitalia (with a few exceptions) had magical, protective powers (cf. Monserrat 2000).
My approach brings together several datasets and theoretical approaches. I analyze Roman texts for the social contexts (wearer, situation, author’s purpose) of pendants and other phallic objects (vessels, breads, etc.). Next, I catalogue the archaeological contexts in which phallic pendants were recovered, with an emphasis on associated sites, buildings, and individuals. Lastly, I use anthropological and psychological theory (cf. Carroll 1984) to compare Roman use of phallic pendants and imagery with similar examples in other past and present cultures, surveying both Mediterranean (Greek, Italian-Etruscan, modern Italian) and global (Moche, Japanese) practices. Together, these sources illustrate the varied meanings of phallic imagery and the social impacts of living amongst a “cult of the phallus” (cf. Keuls 1993).
January 8-11, 2015 New Orleans, Louisiana
Colloquium Session: Social Life in Public Baths in the Ancient Mediterranean and Beyond
Organizer: Alissa Whitmore (University of Iowa, alissa.whitmore@gmail.com)
While scholarship on Roman public baths has been popular for some time, sustained dialogue between specialists of different regions has often been limited. Scholars of urban public baths typically have only passing familiarity with military bathhouses, and researchers focusing on Romano-British baths often have limited acquaintance with those in the eastern provinces. Given the vastness of the Empire, no scholar can attain expertise in all facets of ancient bathing, but the lack of integration in bathing scholarship can prevent researchers from becoming familiar with other cultures, approaches, and datasets. Furthermore, this isolation limits our knowledge of similarities, differences, and temporal changes in public bathing culture in and around the Mediterranean.
To acknowledge and address this issue, this colloquium offers an inclusive and diachronic study of social life in ancient public baths. Session papers, integrating a variety of approaches and datasets, focus on bathing culture in different time periods, regions, and societies. Adrienne Hagen (Violence and Vulnerability) incorporates ancient literature, inscriptions, and iconography to reveal the higher risk of violence that women, children, and slaves faced in Roman baths. Maryl Gensheimer (Decoration and Discourses) analyzes free standing and architectural sculpture to evaluate the different experiences of elite and subaltern bathers in the Baths of Caracalla. Alissa Whitmore (Bathing on the Edge) uses small finds and architectural layouts to investigate the activities and social identities of bathers in Romano-British and Gallo-Roman military baths. Robert Darby (Drawn to the Baths) evaluates graffiti and inscriptions found in the Near Eastern 'Ayn Gharandal fort and military baths to illuminate the significance of bathing for ancient soldiers. Stefanie Hoss (The Influence of Christianity) integrates ancient texts and architectural spaces to examine the impact of religion on changing bathhouse layouts in Late Antiquity. Fikret Yegül concludes the session with a discussion of these topics and papers.
With its range of approaches, regions, and time periods, this colloquium represents a step toward a more integrated study of ancient bathing. Each paper situates public baths in their larger cultural contexts, revealing similarities and differences between bathing cultures and underlining the interplay of baths, social organization, power, and belief systems. Several papers, as well as the diachronic (1st – 7th c. C.E.) nature of the colloquium, provide insights into temporal and cultural changes in ancient bathing culture. Others offer a more comprehensive understanding of the social experiences of lower class bathers and life in military baths. Together, these papers illustrate diverse approaches which can shed light on ancient social life and the utility of a more unified study of public bathing.
Presenters and Papers
Adrienne Hagen (University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA) – Violence and Vulnerability in the Roman Baths
Maryl B. Gensheimer (University of Maryland, USA) – Decoration and Discourses on Social Status within the Baths of Caracalla
Alissa M. Whitmore (University of Iowa, USA) – Bathing on the Edge: Roman Military and Vicus Baths in the Northwest Provinces
Robert Darby (University of Tennessee, USA) – Drawn to the Baths: Daily Life and Desert Leisure in the Cohors II Galatarum.
Stefanie Hoss (University of Cologne, Germany) – The Influence of Christianity on the Culture of Bathing and Bathhouse Design.
Discussant: Fikret Yegül (University of California, Santa Barbara, USA)
To address these questions, this paper focuses upon the material culture and architectural layouts of Romano-British and Gallo-Roman military and vicus baths. Most of our information on the social environment of military baths comes from the abundant artifact assemblage recovered from the Caerleon Legionary fortress baths. I place the Caerleon finds in context with material culture recovered from nine other baths in Britannia and Raetia, dating from the 1st – 4th c. C.E., in order to obtain a wider picture of military bathing culture. In addition to locating similarities between assemblages, which suggest that a given bathing population or activity was not an isolated occurrence, I also highlight differences which appear between legionary and vicus baths and between Romano-British and Gallo-Roman baths. Following the approach of DeLaine (1999) and Revell (2007), I also analyze the architectural layouts of military baths, seeking to isolate spaces that would have promoted socialization and examining variations in the use of space between legionary and vicus military baths.
In this paper, I analyse textual and archaeological evidence for commerce in public baths in Italy and the Northwest provinces. Texts, graffiti, broken vessels, and animal bones provide evidence for the various wares of bathhouse vendors, and other artefacts, including needles, scalpels, and crucibles, suggest that a wide range of services were available in the baths. Small finds from the shops of Pompeii’s Stabian baths provide a case study for examining the relationship between public baths and nearby shops and the degree to which the proximity of baths affects a shop’s merchandise and target clientele. This integration of commercial activities into public baths highlights the truly multi-functional nature of Roman spaces.
I begin this paper by analyzing ancient texts, graffiti, and art for activities and related material culture which these sources locate in public baths. Next I turn to the archaeological record, focusing on artifacts from 14 baths from Italy, the UK, Portugal, Switzerland, and Germany, ranging in date from the second century B.C.E. to the fourth century C.E. In an effort to isolate objects which were most likely used while the baths were open, I concentrate on small finds from rapidly abandoned baths, such as those in Pompeii and Herculaneum, and those found in bathhouse drains.
By identifying the most commonly recovered artifacts, it is possible to obtain a “typical” bathhouse finds assemblage, which reveals the activities, including eating and drinking, adornment, and bathing and grooming, most often represented in the archaeological record of baths. Other less common, but in no way isolated, finds and activities also appear, such as cloth-working, warding away evil spirits, and medical procedures. Just as there are some behaviors only demonstrated by small finds, it is obvious that some artifacts and activities expected from ancient sources rarely appear in the archaeological record. While some of these absences can be attributed to taphonomic processes and the caprices of the archaeological record, others may provide further evidence for ancient behaviors, such as recycling of broken materials, regular cleaning of the baths, and transport of metal bathing instruments from home. It is only by joining these rich, but flawed, datasets that we can uncover a more thorough understanding not only of Roman bathing culture, but also the ancient behaviors and archaeological processes affecting the objects discovered in Roman public baths.
This paper attempts to provide a picture of a typical bath assemblage. I begin with the activities and objects which ancient texts locate in the baths. Next I turn to the archaeological record, focusing on 13 Roman baths from Italy, the UK, Portugal, Switzerland, and Germany, whose artifacts were found in contexts, such as drains, which suggest that these objects were actually used in the baths. I highlight the common artifacts which are found in nearly every bath, as well as rare small finds, which are isolated to only a few baths. Some small finds expected from ancient sources rarely appear in the archaeological record, and I provide some potential reasons for the absence of these objects.
While interpreting construction and demolition layers will always be a challenge, knowledge of typical Roman bath assemblages and the types of objects commonly used in the baths will help archaeologists to determine which artifacts plausibly belong to and reflect use of the baths and which objects are likely extraneous.
These objects represent the lost or intentionally discarded possessions of bathers. Some finds provide further evidence for activities already well attested in the baths: animal bones and ceramic and glass vessels attest to eating and drinking in the baths, while phallic amulets could have served as protection from the dangers of the baths. Jewelry found in the drains not only attests to the presence of women in public and military baths, but also the common practice of wearing jewelry and adornment into pools, perhaps as a marker of social status. In other cases, artifacts can provide evidence for activities in the baths which are rarely or never discussed in ancient sources, such as gambling and cloth working, an activity likely performed by lower class individuals and women.
Such an analysis is useful not only in that it can reveal the everyday activities of lesser known social groups in the baths, but also because small finds from drains can begin to allow an examination of whether the same activities occurred in public and military baths, and whether variations in bathing culture existed in different geographic areas of the Roman Empire.