There is emerging recognition that transport and mobility raise profound questions of justice. In... more There is emerging recognition that transport and mobility raise profound questions of justice. In applying different theories of justice to transport and mobility, attention has focused on accessibility, and the harms associated with transport collisions and pollution. This is unsurprising for two reasons. First accessibility and protection from transport related harms, are conditions for simply remaining alive, and for engaging in activities involved in living well. Second, at present, both are very unevenly distributed. However there are further important, but less visible, transport related inequalities. This talk explores and analyses the justice implications of one such inequality concerning sacrifices made by households in order to preserve their mobility. Drawing on an analysis of the British Living Costs and Food Survey and the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions we describe the trade-offs that households make between transport and other areas of expenditure (notably housing and domestic energy), as well as the material deprivation and economic stress of car-owning households. In doing this, we bring to light geographical patterns of ‘transport poverty’, showing how car dependence has a strong bearing on the size and the composition of the group of households who own cars despite struggling to make ends meet. We suggest that transport poverty presents theories of distributive justice with complications, and that there can be pitfalls in seeking to address transport poverty without upsetting other aspects of transport justice. Transport poverty is associated with wealth inequalities but we show it cannot be resolved by wealth re-distribution alone. Instead we suggest a need for a more fundamental reflection both on the organisation of transport and the values attached to activities involving different forms of mobility.
This paper considers how the implementation of a tradable credit scheme (TCS) may be used to redu... more This paper considers how the implementation of a tradable credit scheme (TCS) may be used to reduce road traffic and to contribute to the formation of liveable cities and global climate change commitments. The concept of applying TCS to individual road transport is familiar to transport researchers as a measure to regulate congestion and reduce transport-related emissions. Yet, it is not a strategy currently being considered by policy makers in the UK, despite the electrification of the road vehicle fleet and the associated loss of tax revenue presenting a rare opportunity to alter the economic instruments, which apply to road traffic. We consider how transport researchers can capitalise on this unique moment in transport history to shape transport policy. Our study uses qualitative methods, including a thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews with transport stakeholders and experts, in addition to a literature review and document analysis. Data analysis is inductive, permitt...
Less car travel increases prospects of limiting transport energy. Policy attempts to reduce car u... more Less car travel increases prospects of limiting transport energy. Policy attempts to reduce car use by encouraging people to choose other modes face criticism that travel needs are not simply about choice but are structurally influenced, especially by urban form. Mullen and Marsden extend understanding of travel need by showing how uncertainty in housing and employment further constrains people’s control over travel, resulting in needs for complicated journeys often at short notice. Some respond to uncertainty by running a car even where this presents financial problems. Those without a vehicle face lost opportunities and hardship. In the face of increasing employment and housing precarity, policy needs to rethink focus on choice and instead find ways of meeting complex travel needs without extensive resort to cars.
Great hopes are vested in electric vehicle uptake a t a scale which will eventually overtake foss... more Great hopes are vested in electric vehicle uptake a t a scale which will eventually overtake fossil fuelled vehicles. The substantial questions f the plausibility of these ambitions are tied up with questions of what impacts could be expected if there was major expansion of electric vehicles. Examination of some of these questions is occurring through a range of studies and forecasts. As with any investigation, these studies and forecasts involve theoretical assumptions and implicit and explicit priorities. A ttention has tended to focus on understanding supply side development and provision of vehicles and infrastructure, and demand-side changes in relative costs of electric a nd conventional vehicles and vehicle fuel. This paper analyses the assumptions and priorities contained in forecasts for electric vehicles and asks whether they mean that potential scenarios , nd impacts which could significantly affect the lives of some groups of people, go uncon sidered. We identify a numbe...
Promotion of active travel is a fixture in transport policy and planning. Yet, this paper argues,... more Promotion of active travel is a fixture in transport policy and planning. Yet, this paper argues, walking and the availability of comprehensive and accessible pedestrian environments have an importance for mobility justice and sustainability which is not currently recognised. The paper investigates how and why walking provision matters for justice, and explores what this means for decision-making affecting mobility systems and the built environment. It begins with an argument that a coherent conception of mobility justice would be simultaneously concerned with environmental and social implications of transport since both affect people’s physical lives, welfare and flourishing. That requirement frames the types of mobility systems which could be compatible with justice, and points to a need for prioritisation of active travel far beyond current policy and practice. Specifically, the need for environmental sustainability coupled with social inclusion creates a case for systematically ...
Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2020
The governance of autonomous driving (AD) technology is vital to enhance its benefits while avoid... more The governance of autonomous driving (AD) technology is vital to enhance its benefits while avoiding the risks. In this paper, we attempt to focus on this issue and take the development of AD in China as an example for examining its governance. First, the positions and responsibilities of important stakeholders (the government and businesses) in the development of AD in the Chinese special administrative system environment are examined. Then, the regulatory relationship between them is discussed through investigating relevant policy documents, company websites, and media reports. The investigation shows that, thus far, the legislative process with regard to AD governance is lagging behind its development to some extent. In most instances, the government’s response is relatively conservative and focuses on creating normative documents to better regulate AD. There is, therefore, a comparative lack of commitment to confirming the legitimacy of AD. In contrast, companies are the pioneer...
Structured abstract Purpose: to examine the potential for switching short trips in urban areas fr... more Structured abstract Purpose: to examine the potential for switching short trips in urban areas from cars to walking and cycling, and the possible contribution this could make to a reduction in transport-related greenhouse gas emissions. Methods: case studies in four urban areas combining a questionnaire survey, interviews with households and during journeys, and in-depth ethnographies of everyday travel. Findings: the chapter emphasises the barriers to increasing walking and cycling in British urban areas. It demonstrates that motivations for walking and cycling are mostly personal (health and local environment) and that the complexities and contingencies of everyday travel for many households, combined with inadequate infrastructure, safety concerns and the fact that walking and cycling are seen by many as an abnormal modes of travel, mean that increasing rates of walking and cycling will be hard. Given that the contribution of trips under 2 miles to transport-related greenhouse gas emissions is relatively small, it is argued that any gains from increased walking and cycling would mostly accrue to personal health and the local environment rather than to the UK’s carbon reduction target. Research implications: the research demonstrates the effectiveness for transport research of a case study approach utilising mixed quantitative and qualitative methodologies. Practical implications: policies to reduce transport-related greenhouse gas emissions should focus on those areas where there are the greatest potential gains. Social implications: positive attitudes towards walking and cycling are motivated mainly by personal concerns rather than global environmental issues. Originality: Use of detailed ethnographic material in policy-related transport research.
Within the field of transport there exists a broad set of objectives which can be used to guide t... more Within the field of transport there exists a broad set of objectives which can be used to guide the development of transport policy. These include economic growth, environmental protection, health and well-being and social equity although each will have different importance dependent on the context under consideration. There is a strong tradition of work on objectives-led planning which presumes that these objectives flow through the decision-making process from problem identification to appraisal and evaluation. This paper looks at the experience of four major metropolitan areas in the UK and explores the motivations of urban planners, economic planners and transport planners in their approach to using transport as a contributor to improve the performance of their cities. The method involved semi-structured interviews with 21 practitioners in a two stage process. In the first stage participants discussed the role of transport in improving the city and in the second stage were asked to consider how they approach current and might implement potential future demand management policies. The interviews covered actors from the main city and from important surrounding towns. In the paper we use this data to construct a series of fundamental conceptualizations of the role of transport policies from the perspective of these decision-makers. We relate these back to both the core transport objectives described above and a series of potential theoretical explanations, many of which are not currently used as the basis for transport planning. The findings suggest that many of the underlying objectives are part of the framing of the transport problem but that they are interpreted in quite different ways which can be related to theory not currently deployed in transport planning. We identify a need to broaden the types of decision-making tools which are adopted within transport planning. If the relationships between policy fields is to be more integrated, as well as the relationships between policy makers in adjacent administrations, then decision-support tools which focus on understanding and mediating the position of these decision-makers will be important. It will not be effective to plea for a change in the frame of other sectors or to hope to impose policy tools and logics from transport to elsewhere. This is particularly so as transport is often seen as a means to an end. Our findings also reinforce the importance of educating transport professionals to be able to understand and relate to other policy areas and to know how and when best to use the tools of transport planning to support this.
There is emerging recognition that transport and mobility raise profound questions of justice. In... more There is emerging recognition that transport and mobility raise profound questions of justice. In applying different theories of justice to transport and mobility, attention has focused on accessibility, and the harms associated with transport collisions and pollution. This is unsurprising for two reasons. First accessibility and protection from transport related harms, are conditions for simply remaining alive, and for engaging in activities involved in living well. Second, at present, both are very unevenly distributed. However there are further important, but less visible, transport related inequalities. This talk explores and analyses the justice implications of one such inequality concerning sacrifices made by households in order to preserve their mobility. Drawing on an analysis of the British Living Costs and Food Survey and the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions we describe the trade-offs that households make between transport and other areas of expenditure (notably housing and domestic energy), as well as the material deprivation and economic stress of car-owning households. In doing this, we bring to light geographical patterns of ‘transport poverty’, showing how car dependence has a strong bearing on the size and the composition of the group of households who own cars despite struggling to make ends meet. We suggest that transport poverty presents theories of distributive justice with complications, and that there can be pitfalls in seeking to address transport poverty without upsetting other aspects of transport justice. Transport poverty is associated with wealth inequalities but we show it cannot be resolved by wealth re-distribution alone. Instead we suggest a need for a more fundamental reflection both on the organisation of transport and the values attached to activities involving different forms of mobility.
This paper considers how the implementation of a tradable credit scheme (TCS) may be used to redu... more This paper considers how the implementation of a tradable credit scheme (TCS) may be used to reduce road traffic and to contribute to the formation of liveable cities and global climate change commitments. The concept of applying TCS to individual road transport is familiar to transport researchers as a measure to regulate congestion and reduce transport-related emissions. Yet, it is not a strategy currently being considered by policy makers in the UK, despite the electrification of the road vehicle fleet and the associated loss of tax revenue presenting a rare opportunity to alter the economic instruments, which apply to road traffic. We consider how transport researchers can capitalise on this unique moment in transport history to shape transport policy. Our study uses qualitative methods, including a thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews with transport stakeholders and experts, in addition to a literature review and document analysis. Data analysis is inductive, permitt...
Less car travel increases prospects of limiting transport energy. Policy attempts to reduce car u... more Less car travel increases prospects of limiting transport energy. Policy attempts to reduce car use by encouraging people to choose other modes face criticism that travel needs are not simply about choice but are structurally influenced, especially by urban form. Mullen and Marsden extend understanding of travel need by showing how uncertainty in housing and employment further constrains people’s control over travel, resulting in needs for complicated journeys often at short notice. Some respond to uncertainty by running a car even where this presents financial problems. Those without a vehicle face lost opportunities and hardship. In the face of increasing employment and housing precarity, policy needs to rethink focus on choice and instead find ways of meeting complex travel needs without extensive resort to cars.
Great hopes are vested in electric vehicle uptake a t a scale which will eventually overtake foss... more Great hopes are vested in electric vehicle uptake a t a scale which will eventually overtake fossil fuelled vehicles. The substantial questions f the plausibility of these ambitions are tied up with questions of what impacts could be expected if there was major expansion of electric vehicles. Examination of some of these questions is occurring through a range of studies and forecasts. As with any investigation, these studies and forecasts involve theoretical assumptions and implicit and explicit priorities. A ttention has tended to focus on understanding supply side development and provision of vehicles and infrastructure, and demand-side changes in relative costs of electric a nd conventional vehicles and vehicle fuel. This paper analyses the assumptions and priorities contained in forecasts for electric vehicles and asks whether they mean that potential scenarios , nd impacts which could significantly affect the lives of some groups of people, go uncon sidered. We identify a numbe...
Promotion of active travel is a fixture in transport policy and planning. Yet, this paper argues,... more Promotion of active travel is a fixture in transport policy and planning. Yet, this paper argues, walking and the availability of comprehensive and accessible pedestrian environments have an importance for mobility justice and sustainability which is not currently recognised. The paper investigates how and why walking provision matters for justice, and explores what this means for decision-making affecting mobility systems and the built environment. It begins with an argument that a coherent conception of mobility justice would be simultaneously concerned with environmental and social implications of transport since both affect people’s physical lives, welfare and flourishing. That requirement frames the types of mobility systems which could be compatible with justice, and points to a need for prioritisation of active travel far beyond current policy and practice. Specifically, the need for environmental sustainability coupled with social inclusion creates a case for systematically ...
Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2020
The governance of autonomous driving (AD) technology is vital to enhance its benefits while avoid... more The governance of autonomous driving (AD) technology is vital to enhance its benefits while avoiding the risks. In this paper, we attempt to focus on this issue and take the development of AD in China as an example for examining its governance. First, the positions and responsibilities of important stakeholders (the government and businesses) in the development of AD in the Chinese special administrative system environment are examined. Then, the regulatory relationship between them is discussed through investigating relevant policy documents, company websites, and media reports. The investigation shows that, thus far, the legislative process with regard to AD governance is lagging behind its development to some extent. In most instances, the government’s response is relatively conservative and focuses on creating normative documents to better regulate AD. There is, therefore, a comparative lack of commitment to confirming the legitimacy of AD. In contrast, companies are the pioneer...
Structured abstract Purpose: to examine the potential for switching short trips in urban areas fr... more Structured abstract Purpose: to examine the potential for switching short trips in urban areas from cars to walking and cycling, and the possible contribution this could make to a reduction in transport-related greenhouse gas emissions. Methods: case studies in four urban areas combining a questionnaire survey, interviews with households and during journeys, and in-depth ethnographies of everyday travel. Findings: the chapter emphasises the barriers to increasing walking and cycling in British urban areas. It demonstrates that motivations for walking and cycling are mostly personal (health and local environment) and that the complexities and contingencies of everyday travel for many households, combined with inadequate infrastructure, safety concerns and the fact that walking and cycling are seen by many as an abnormal modes of travel, mean that increasing rates of walking and cycling will be hard. Given that the contribution of trips under 2 miles to transport-related greenhouse gas emissions is relatively small, it is argued that any gains from increased walking and cycling would mostly accrue to personal health and the local environment rather than to the UK’s carbon reduction target. Research implications: the research demonstrates the effectiveness for transport research of a case study approach utilising mixed quantitative and qualitative methodologies. Practical implications: policies to reduce transport-related greenhouse gas emissions should focus on those areas where there are the greatest potential gains. Social implications: positive attitudes towards walking and cycling are motivated mainly by personal concerns rather than global environmental issues. Originality: Use of detailed ethnographic material in policy-related transport research.
Within the field of transport there exists a broad set of objectives which can be used to guide t... more Within the field of transport there exists a broad set of objectives which can be used to guide the development of transport policy. These include economic growth, environmental protection, health and well-being and social equity although each will have different importance dependent on the context under consideration. There is a strong tradition of work on objectives-led planning which presumes that these objectives flow through the decision-making process from problem identification to appraisal and evaluation. This paper looks at the experience of four major metropolitan areas in the UK and explores the motivations of urban planners, economic planners and transport planners in their approach to using transport as a contributor to improve the performance of their cities. The method involved semi-structured interviews with 21 practitioners in a two stage process. In the first stage participants discussed the role of transport in improving the city and in the second stage were asked to consider how they approach current and might implement potential future demand management policies. The interviews covered actors from the main city and from important surrounding towns. In the paper we use this data to construct a series of fundamental conceptualizations of the role of transport policies from the perspective of these decision-makers. We relate these back to both the core transport objectives described above and a series of potential theoretical explanations, many of which are not currently used as the basis for transport planning. The findings suggest that many of the underlying objectives are part of the framing of the transport problem but that they are interpreted in quite different ways which can be related to theory not currently deployed in transport planning. We identify a need to broaden the types of decision-making tools which are adopted within transport planning. If the relationships between policy fields is to be more integrated, as well as the relationships between policy makers in adjacent administrations, then decision-support tools which focus on understanding and mediating the position of these decision-makers will be important. It will not be effective to plea for a change in the frame of other sectors or to hope to impose policy tools and logics from transport to elsewhere. This is particularly so as transport is often seen as a means to an end. Our findings also reinforce the importance of educating transport professionals to be able to understand and relate to other policy areas and to know how and when best to use the tools of transport planning to support this.
ABSTRACT Purpose – To examine the potential for switching short trips in urban areas from cars to... more ABSTRACT Purpose – To examine the potential for switching short trips in urban areas from cars to walking and cycling, and the possible contribution, this could make to a reduction in transport-related greenhouse gas emissions.Methods – Case studies in four urban areas combining a questionnaire survey, interviews with households and during journeys and in-depth ethnographies of everyday travel.Findings – The barriers to an increase in walking and cycling in British urban areas are emphasised. It demonstrates that motivations for walking and cycling are mostly personal (health and local environment) and that the complexities and contingencies of everyday travel for many households, combined with inadequate infrastructure, safety concerns and the fact that walking and cycling are seen by many as abnormal modes of travel, mean that increasing rates of walking and cycling will be hard. Given that the contribution of trips less than 2 miles to transport-related greenhouse gas emissions is relatively small, it is argued that any gains from increased walking and cycling would mostly accrue to personal health and the local environment rather than to the UK's carbon reduction target.Social implications – Positive attitudes towards walking and cycling are motivated mainly by personal concerns rather than global environmental issues.Originality – Use of detailed ethnographic material in policy-related transport research.
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Talks by Caroline Mullen
Papers by Caroline Mullen