The paper will present the ways Rilindja, which in Albanian historiography denotes the Albanian n... more The paper will present the ways Rilindja, which in Albanian historiography denotes the Albanian nationalist movement from the 1850s until the proclamation of independence in 1912, is employed in the contemporary Orientalist discourse of Albanian intellectuals. The European integration of the country is often conceived of in cultural terms as an escape from the Eastern tyranny and backwardness towards Western freedom, modernity and prosperity. Following the critique of Orientalism by E. W. Said, this paper argues that contemporary Albanian intellectuals construct an idealized, simplified and homogenized picture of Rilindja in their projection of European identity of Albanians.
Following the rift with China, Albania found itself on a lonely road towards pretending to protec... more Following the rift with China, Albania found itself on a lonely road towards pretending to protect the purity of the Marxism-Leninism in Europe. Although diplomatic relations with the West were restricted only to trade, the Albanian Communist leader, Enver Hoxha, was interested in recent developments inside Western Communist parties. Through Eurocommunist theorizations, the parties in Italy, France and Spain abandoned revolutionary aims, incorporated democracy in their ideology and tried to build electoral coalitions with socialist parties and other left-wing forces. By contrast, the Albanian Enver Hoxha considered that Communist revolution was still possible in the world, and the Communist parties still acted as Leninist revolutionary vanguards. From this perspective, he denounced Eurocommunism as a continuation of " revisionism ". This paper will present the attitude of the Party of Labour of Albania about Western Communism by placing it in its historical context and framing it in light of broader debates inside the European Communist movement.
SUMMARY The paper will present the ways Rilindja, which in Albanian historiography denotes the Al... more SUMMARY The paper will present the ways Rilindja, which in Albanian historiography denotes the Albanian nationalist movement from the 1850s until the proclamation of independence in 1912, is employed in the contemporary Orientalist discourse of Albanian intellectuals. The European integration of the country is often conceived of in cultural terms as an escape from the Eastern tyranny and backwardness towards Western freedom, modernity and prosperity. Following the critique of Orientalism by E. W. Said, this paper argues that contemporary Albanian intellectuals construct an idealized, simplified and homogenized picture of Rilindja in their projection of European identity of Albanians. IL POSTO DELLA RILINDJA NELL'ORIENTALISMO DEGLI INTELLETTUALI NELL'ALBANIA POSTCOMUNISTA SINTESI Il contributo presenta i modi in cui la Rilindja, che nella storiografia albanese denota il movimento nazionali-stico albanese dagli anni '50 dell'Ottocento fino alla proclamazione dell'indipendenza nel 1912, viene utilizzata nel discorso orientalistico attuale degli intellettuali albanesi. L'integrazione europea del paese è spesso concepita in termini di cultura come una fuga dalla tirannia e arretratezza orientale verso la libertà, modernità e prosperità occidentale. Seguendo la critica dell'orientalismo di E. W. Said il contributo sostiene che gli intellettuali dell'Albania contemporanea, nella loro proiezione dell'identità europea degli albanesi, stiano costruendo un'immagine idealiz-zata, semplificata e omogeneizzata della Rilindja.
Th e communist regime in Albania considered literature to be one of
the main ideological vehicles... more Th e communist regime in Albania considered literature to be one of the main ideological vehicles for the formation of the “New Albanian Man”. To this aim, a great part of literature in post-war Albania spoke of how not only did the Albanian people preserve their national identity throughout history, but also of how they fought on the side of European civilization and progress. In this process, a series of barbarian Others were constructed, because if national resistance and communism were to be linked together in a progressive tradition, then the Turks, counter-revolutionary social classes, capitalism and even “revisionist” betrayers of Marxism-Leninism represented the regressive tradition. By taking as a case study the literary works of Ismail Kadare, this paper argues that Kadare, in his depiction of the Turks as the Oriental other of the Albanian nation, employed the clichés and stereotypes borrowed from the European Orientalist tradition, in which the Turks largely are presented as the barbaric mirror to Europe. Later on, the danger coming from the “social-revisionism” of the Russian and Chinese communist states were portrayed in Kadare’s novels as the continuation of the “Asiatic threat”. Th e intended effect of Orientalism in Albanian literature was to emphasize the modernity of Albanian socialist society and to culturally justify the lonely road of Albanian communism.
• This article investigates the role of Islam in representations of the self and the other in the... more • This article investigates the role of Islam in representations of the self and the other in the contemporary Albanian national discourse, on the basis of an analysis of history textbooks published in postcommunist Albania between 1990 and 2013, focusing specifically on texts used in pre-university education. Even after the dissolution of the Socialist Republic of Albania in 1991, Islam in Albania continued to be associated with concepts derived from the socialist era, including the primacy of the nation as well as Eurocentrism and secularism, which were seen as the pinnacle of modernity.
This article investigates the ways “Europeanization” was perceived by the intellectual elite in A... more This article investigates the ways “Europeanization” was perceived by the intellectual elite in Albania during the processes of nation-building in 1920s-1930s. This historical period was a crucial one in terms of the modernization efforts of Albanian society and serves as a mirror for the post-Communist “Europeanization” processes, within the framework of economic and cultural globalization trends. The period saw the development of state nationalism aiming to spread the national consciousness and to integrate the “peripheries” to the national core. Undertaking the building of a modern, literate and secular society, the political and intellectual elites in Albania looked to the Occident/Europe for suitable guidelines and models of nation-building and also for legitimization and acceptance in the “civilized world”. In this article attention will be paid to the public debates and the use of concept of the Occident/Europe by intellectuals, who advanced different political alternatives about the direction that the modernization of Albania should follow.
This article analyzes the continuity and change in the nationalist
discourse in Albania during th... more This article analyzes the continuity and change in the nationalist discourse in Albania during the three periods of its modern history, National Awakening (1878-1912), Communism (1944-1990), and Post-Communism (1990-2002) by looking at the three basic approaches of the literature on ethnic studies: primordialism, circumstantialism, and constructionism. We aim to show how the actors of nationalist discourse construct a ‘primordial’ Albanian identity in different, yet somehow consistent ways over these three periods depending on the different economic, political and social circumstances.
The phenomenon of violent extremism (VE) remains present and potentially threatening in Albania d... more The phenomenon of violent extremism (VE) remains present and potentially threatening in Albania despite the progress observed in implementation of the National Strategy and Action Plan against Violent Extremism (November 2015). The concerted actions carried out by state, religious, civil society and other players in the country have raised awareness on the risks and forms of VE and have reinforced alertness of religious communities and authorities. Albania has additionally strengthened the legal framework with restrictive mechanisms, and developed better capacities of central authorities and non-state stakeholders to respond to religious extremism. Nevertheless, the presence of religious extremist ideologies and individuals is confirmed by the present study. Specifically, one in ten Albanians confirm that in their area there are individuals who incite religious extremism, who support religious VE, or who pressurise religious believers into joining extremist causes. Moreover, the threat does not stem simply from the presence of such individuals but even more so from the possible consequences of their actions if Countering / Prevention of violent extremism (C/PVE) stakeholders in Albania fail to target the concerns of at-risk groups and address drivers of VE through a tailored approach.
Socio-economic, political and cultural drivers of VE remain largely pressing and conducive to extremist ideologies. The country’s state of democracy and its current level of socio-economic development raise concerns that they, in combination with other factors, may threaten specific groups in society through the power of manipulation of extremist ideologies.
The paper will present the ways Rilindja, which in Albanian historiography denotes the Albanian n... more The paper will present the ways Rilindja, which in Albanian historiography denotes the Albanian nationalist movement from the 1850s until the proclamation of independence in 1912, is employed in the contemporary Orientalist discourse of Albanian intellectuals. The European integration of the country is often conceived of in cultural terms as an escape from the Eastern tyranny and backwardness towards Western freedom, modernity and prosperity. Following the critique of Orientalism by E. W. Said, this paper argues that contemporary Albanian intellectuals construct an idealized, simplified and homogenized picture of Rilindja in their projection of European identity of Albanians.
Following the rift with China, Albania found itself on a lonely road towards pretending to protec... more Following the rift with China, Albania found itself on a lonely road towards pretending to protect the purity of the Marxism-Leninism in Europe. Although diplomatic relations with the West were restricted only to trade, the Albanian Communist leader, Enver Hoxha, was interested in recent developments inside Western Communist parties. Through Eurocommunist theorizations, the parties in Italy, France and Spain abandoned revolutionary aims, incorporated democracy in their ideology and tried to build electoral coalitions with socialist parties and other left-wing forces. By contrast, the Albanian Enver Hoxha considered that Communist revolution was still possible in the world, and the Communist parties still acted as Leninist revolutionary vanguards. From this perspective, he denounced Eurocommunism as a continuation of " revisionism ". This paper will present the attitude of the Party of Labour of Albania about Western Communism by placing it in its historical context and framing it in light of broader debates inside the European Communist movement.
SUMMARY The paper will present the ways Rilindja, which in Albanian historiography denotes the Al... more SUMMARY The paper will present the ways Rilindja, which in Albanian historiography denotes the Albanian nationalist movement from the 1850s until the proclamation of independence in 1912, is employed in the contemporary Orientalist discourse of Albanian intellectuals. The European integration of the country is often conceived of in cultural terms as an escape from the Eastern tyranny and backwardness towards Western freedom, modernity and prosperity. Following the critique of Orientalism by E. W. Said, this paper argues that contemporary Albanian intellectuals construct an idealized, simplified and homogenized picture of Rilindja in their projection of European identity of Albanians. IL POSTO DELLA RILINDJA NELL'ORIENTALISMO DEGLI INTELLETTUALI NELL'ALBANIA POSTCOMUNISTA SINTESI Il contributo presenta i modi in cui la Rilindja, che nella storiografia albanese denota il movimento nazionali-stico albanese dagli anni '50 dell'Ottocento fino alla proclamazione dell'indipendenza nel 1912, viene utilizzata nel discorso orientalistico attuale degli intellettuali albanesi. L'integrazione europea del paese è spesso concepita in termini di cultura come una fuga dalla tirannia e arretratezza orientale verso la libertà, modernità e prosperità occidentale. Seguendo la critica dell'orientalismo di E. W. Said il contributo sostiene che gli intellettuali dell'Albania contemporanea, nella loro proiezione dell'identità europea degli albanesi, stiano costruendo un'immagine idealiz-zata, semplificata e omogeneizzata della Rilindja.
Th e communist regime in Albania considered literature to be one of
the main ideological vehicles... more Th e communist regime in Albania considered literature to be one of the main ideological vehicles for the formation of the “New Albanian Man”. To this aim, a great part of literature in post-war Albania spoke of how not only did the Albanian people preserve their national identity throughout history, but also of how they fought on the side of European civilization and progress. In this process, a series of barbarian Others were constructed, because if national resistance and communism were to be linked together in a progressive tradition, then the Turks, counter-revolutionary social classes, capitalism and even “revisionist” betrayers of Marxism-Leninism represented the regressive tradition. By taking as a case study the literary works of Ismail Kadare, this paper argues that Kadare, in his depiction of the Turks as the Oriental other of the Albanian nation, employed the clichés and stereotypes borrowed from the European Orientalist tradition, in which the Turks largely are presented as the barbaric mirror to Europe. Later on, the danger coming from the “social-revisionism” of the Russian and Chinese communist states were portrayed in Kadare’s novels as the continuation of the “Asiatic threat”. Th e intended effect of Orientalism in Albanian literature was to emphasize the modernity of Albanian socialist society and to culturally justify the lonely road of Albanian communism.
• This article investigates the role of Islam in representations of the self and the other in the... more • This article investigates the role of Islam in representations of the self and the other in the contemporary Albanian national discourse, on the basis of an analysis of history textbooks published in postcommunist Albania between 1990 and 2013, focusing specifically on texts used in pre-university education. Even after the dissolution of the Socialist Republic of Albania in 1991, Islam in Albania continued to be associated with concepts derived from the socialist era, including the primacy of the nation as well as Eurocentrism and secularism, which were seen as the pinnacle of modernity.
This article investigates the ways “Europeanization” was perceived by the intellectual elite in A... more This article investigates the ways “Europeanization” was perceived by the intellectual elite in Albania during the processes of nation-building in 1920s-1930s. This historical period was a crucial one in terms of the modernization efforts of Albanian society and serves as a mirror for the post-Communist “Europeanization” processes, within the framework of economic and cultural globalization trends. The period saw the development of state nationalism aiming to spread the national consciousness and to integrate the “peripheries” to the national core. Undertaking the building of a modern, literate and secular society, the political and intellectual elites in Albania looked to the Occident/Europe for suitable guidelines and models of nation-building and also for legitimization and acceptance in the “civilized world”. In this article attention will be paid to the public debates and the use of concept of the Occident/Europe by intellectuals, who advanced different political alternatives about the direction that the modernization of Albania should follow.
This article analyzes the continuity and change in the nationalist
discourse in Albania during th... more This article analyzes the continuity and change in the nationalist discourse in Albania during the three periods of its modern history, National Awakening (1878-1912), Communism (1944-1990), and Post-Communism (1990-2002) by looking at the three basic approaches of the literature on ethnic studies: primordialism, circumstantialism, and constructionism. We aim to show how the actors of nationalist discourse construct a ‘primordial’ Albanian identity in different, yet somehow consistent ways over these three periods depending on the different economic, political and social circumstances.
The phenomenon of violent extremism (VE) remains present and potentially threatening in Albania d... more The phenomenon of violent extremism (VE) remains present and potentially threatening in Albania despite the progress observed in implementation of the National Strategy and Action Plan against Violent Extremism (November 2015). The concerted actions carried out by state, religious, civil society and other players in the country have raised awareness on the risks and forms of VE and have reinforced alertness of religious communities and authorities. Albania has additionally strengthened the legal framework with restrictive mechanisms, and developed better capacities of central authorities and non-state stakeholders to respond to religious extremism. Nevertheless, the presence of religious extremist ideologies and individuals is confirmed by the present study. Specifically, one in ten Albanians confirm that in their area there are individuals who incite religious extremism, who support religious VE, or who pressurise religious believers into joining extremist causes. Moreover, the threat does not stem simply from the presence of such individuals but even more so from the possible consequences of their actions if Countering / Prevention of violent extremism (C/PVE) stakeholders in Albania fail to target the concerns of at-risk groups and address drivers of VE through a tailored approach.
Socio-economic, political and cultural drivers of VE remain largely pressing and conducive to extremist ideologies. The country’s state of democracy and its current level of socio-economic development raise concerns that they, in combination with other factors, may threaten specific groups in society through the power of manipulation of extremist ideologies.
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Papers by Enis Sulstarova
the main ideological vehicles for the formation of the “New Albanian Man”. To
this aim, a great part of literature in post-war Albania spoke of how not only did
the Albanian people preserve their national identity throughout history, but also
of how they fought on the side of European civilization and progress. In this
process, a series of barbarian Others were constructed, because if national resistance
and communism were to be linked together in a progressive tradition,
then the Turks, counter-revolutionary social classes, capitalism and even “revisionist”
betrayers of Marxism-Leninism represented the regressive tradition. By
taking as a case study the literary works of Ismail Kadare, this paper argues that
Kadare, in his depiction of the Turks as the Oriental other of the Albanian nation,
employed the clichés and stereotypes borrowed from the European Orientalist
tradition, in which the Turks largely are presented as the barbaric mirror to
Europe. Later on, the danger coming from the “social-revisionism” of the Russian
and Chinese communist states were portrayed in Kadare’s novels as the
continuation of the “Asiatic threat”. Th e intended effect of Orientalism in Albanian
literature was to emphasize the modernity of Albanian socialist society and
to culturally justify the lonely road of Albanian communism.
discourse in Albania during the three periods of its modern history, National Awakening (1878-1912), Communism (1944-1990), and Post-Communism (1990-2002) by looking at the three basic approaches of the literature on ethnic studies: primordialism, circumstantialism, and constructionism. We aim to show how the actors of nationalist discourse construct a ‘primordial’ Albanian identity in different, yet somehow consistent ways over these three periods depending on the different economic, political and social circumstances.
Books by Enis Sulstarova
Socio-economic, political and cultural drivers of VE remain largely pressing and conducive to extremist ideologies. The country’s state of democracy and its current level of socio-economic development raise concerns that they, in combination with other factors, may threaten specific groups in society through the power of manipulation of extremist ideologies.
the main ideological vehicles for the formation of the “New Albanian Man”. To
this aim, a great part of literature in post-war Albania spoke of how not only did
the Albanian people preserve their national identity throughout history, but also
of how they fought on the side of European civilization and progress. In this
process, a series of barbarian Others were constructed, because if national resistance
and communism were to be linked together in a progressive tradition,
then the Turks, counter-revolutionary social classes, capitalism and even “revisionist”
betrayers of Marxism-Leninism represented the regressive tradition. By
taking as a case study the literary works of Ismail Kadare, this paper argues that
Kadare, in his depiction of the Turks as the Oriental other of the Albanian nation,
employed the clichés and stereotypes borrowed from the European Orientalist
tradition, in which the Turks largely are presented as the barbaric mirror to
Europe. Later on, the danger coming from the “social-revisionism” of the Russian
and Chinese communist states were portrayed in Kadare’s novels as the
continuation of the “Asiatic threat”. Th e intended effect of Orientalism in Albanian
literature was to emphasize the modernity of Albanian socialist society and
to culturally justify the lonely road of Albanian communism.
discourse in Albania during the three periods of its modern history, National Awakening (1878-1912), Communism (1944-1990), and Post-Communism (1990-2002) by looking at the three basic approaches of the literature on ethnic studies: primordialism, circumstantialism, and constructionism. We aim to show how the actors of nationalist discourse construct a ‘primordial’ Albanian identity in different, yet somehow consistent ways over these three periods depending on the different economic, political and social circumstances.
Socio-economic, political and cultural drivers of VE remain largely pressing and conducive to extremist ideologies. The country’s state of democracy and its current level of socio-economic development raise concerns that they, in combination with other factors, may threaten specific groups in society through the power of manipulation of extremist ideologies.