This paper presents a novel semantic analysis of unit names and gradable adjectives, inspired by ... more This paper presents a novel semantic analysis of unit names and gradable adjectives, inspired by measurement theory (Krantz et al 1971). Based on measurement theory's typology of measures, I claim that different predicates are associated with different types of measures whose special characteristics, together with features of the relations denoted by unit names, explain the puzzling limited distribution of measure phrases.
Questions and their answers have been discussed at length over the past few years. In this paper ... more Questions and their answers have been discussed at length over the past few years. In this paper we present and analyze a Hebrew hedger, be-gadol, roughly translated as basically. We use the literature on questions, answers and the relation between them to suggest that be-gadol is an item which conveys a restriction on the context of utterance. This restriction concerns the relation between answers to the QUD on an answerhood scale, which is characterized as involving two notions, informativity (Roberts 1996) and resolution, defined using tools from decision theories (Ginzburg 1995; van Rooij 2003). This significantly supports the linguistic reality of these notions.
Classification of entities into categories can be determined based on a rule – a single criterion... more Classification of entities into categories can be determined based on a rule – a single criterion or relatively few criteria combined with logical operations like ‘and’ or ‘or’. Alternatively, classification can be based on similarity to prototypical examples, i.e. an overall degree of match to prototypical values on multiple dimensions. Two cognitive systems are reported in the literature to underlie processing by rules vs. similarity. This paper presents a novel thesis according to which adjectives and nouns trigger processing by the rule vs. similarity systems, respectively. The paper defends the thesis that nouns are conceptually gradable and multidimensional, but, unlike adjectives, their dimensions are integrated through similarity operations, like weighted sums, to yield an overall degree of match to ideal values on multiple dimensions. By contrast, adjectives are associated with single dimensions, or several dimensions bound by logical operations, such as ‘and’ and ‘or’. In ...
This paper presents an experimental study of multidimensional gradability across categories. The ... more This paper presents an experimental study of multidimensional gradability across categories. The study tests whether and to what extent the naturalness of multidimensional adjectives and nouns in degree constructions is predictable from their conceptual-semantic properties – the way their dimensions are typically bound to create a unified interpretation. Past research suggests that binding by counting operations is common in multidimensional adjectives, possible in certain nouns (labeled additive nouns), and rare in others (dubbed multiplicative nouns; Hampton et al. 2009). We hypothesize that the higher naturalness of adjectives in degree constructions (Kennedy 1999) stems from a preference for dimension-binding by counting operations. Accordingly, we predict that additive nouns would be judged more natural than multiplicative nouns in any construction whose interpretation involves dimension-counting, e.g., dimensional quantifiers (as in: in {some, most, every} respect}) and degree...
This paper investigates core semantic properties that distinguish between different types of grad... more This paper investigates core semantic properties that distinguish between different types of gradable adjectives and the effect of context on their interpretation. We contend that all gradable adjectives are interpreted relative to a comparison class (van Rooij 2011), and that it is the nature of the comparison class that constitutes the main semantic difference between their subclasses: some adjectives select a class comprised of counterparts of the individual of which the adjective is predicated, while others – an extensional category of this individual. We propose, following Kennedy (2007), that the standard of membership is selected according to a principle of economy whereby an interpretation relative to a maximum or a minimum degree within a comparison class takes precedence over one relative to an arbitrary point. This proposal captures so-called “standard shift” effects, that is, the influence of context on the interpretation of gradable adjectives from all subclasses, wheth...
As part of the common practice of experimental research in cognitive psychology, objects are syst... more As part of the common practice of experimental research in cognitive psychology, objects are systematically represented by clusters of property values. Individuals correspond to points in an n-dimensional space, for some number n, where each dimension (axis) is some scalar property. For example, the set of possible individuals presented as stimuli in a given experiment can be represented with the two-dimensional space generated from the scalar properties denoted by red and long, or from the dimensions color and shape, the latter seen as nominal-scale properties, assigning to entities values such as “red,” “blue,” “square” and “circle.” The result is a set of individuals including a red square, a blue square, etc. Many other examples can be found in, for instance, Murphy (2002).
This paper argues that modeling granularity and approximation (Krifka 2007; Lewis 1979) is crucia... more This paper argues that modeling granularity and approximation (Krifka 2007; Lewis 1979) is crucial for capturing important aspects of the distribution and interpretation of adjectives and their modifiers, modulo certain differences between modified adjectives and numerals. In addition, the paper presents supporting experimental results with minimizers like 'slightly' and maximizers like 'completely'.
DESCRIPTION This paper argues that combinations of gradable adjectives with for phrases are more ... more DESCRIPTION This paper argues that combinations of gradable adjectives with for phrases are more interesting than they are normally considered to be. Important ingredients of the semantics of for phrases were largely neglected so far. These ingredients point against the popular analyses of for phrases. This paper defends an analysis of for phrases as modifiers of degree functions. The effect of this modification is shown to be significantly more fundamental than merely restricting function domains (cf. Kennedy 2007). Moreover, the new data and analysis have consequences to a variety of previous analyses that use a null morpheme, pos, to derive the interpretation of for phrases and the positive form, and/or to achieve a variety of other purposes. Based on new facts, this paper shows that the data does not support such a null morpheme; rather, postulating it creates a line of complications that need to be taken into account. The question, then, is – do we need it at all? We conclude t...
Are complex predicates – in particular, negated (e.g., not expensive), conjunctive (e.g., expensi... more Are complex predicates – in particular, negated (e.g., not expensive), conjunctive (e.g., expensive and time consuming) and disjunctive predicates (e.g., tall or bald) – associated with a graded structure, namely a mapping of entities to degrees? On the one hand, most up to date semantic theories of gradability and comparison in natural language disregard this question. On the other hand, contemporary fuzzy logical theories provide compositional rules to construct a degree function for a complex expression based on the degree functions of its constituents. These composition rules have been found useful for a variety of practical applications. The question is then whether these rules can correctly represent the interpretation of complex natural language expressions and its relation to the interpretation of their constituents. The relevance of this question is enhanced by recent findings from a variety of studies (Ripley, 2010; Serchuk et al., 2010; Alxatib and Pelletier 2010), according to which high percentages of subjects count contradictory predicates such as tall and not tall as true of borderline cases (neither short nor tall entities). While these findings stand in sharp contrast to predictions of vagueness-based theories of adjectives, they are in accord with the predictions of a fuzzy analysis, as extensively argued by Kamp and Partee (1995). Given these new findings, then, the fact that fuzzy analyses allow for non-zero truth values to contradictions can no longer count against them (for a more detailed discussion see Sauerland, this volume). It is therefore increasingly important to test other predictions of applications of fuzzy analyses to natural language conjunctions and disjunctions. To this end, this paper discusses preliminary results based on a questionnaire eliciting judgments from 35 Hebrew speakers. The results suggest that, counter the predictions of fuzzy analyses, comparative and equative morphemes cannot apply to conjunctions and disjunctions of gradable adjectives.
This book presents a study of the connections between vagueness and gradability, and their differ... more This book presents a study of the connections between vagueness and gradability, and their different manifestations in adjectives (morphological gradability effects) and nouns (typicality effects). It addresses two opposing theoretical approaches from within formal semantics and cognitive psychology.
This book presents a study of the connections between vagueness and gradability, and their differ... more This book presents a study of the connections between vagueness and gradability, and their different manifestations in adjectives (morphological gradability effects) and nouns (typicality effects). It addresses two opposing theoretical approaches from within formal semantics and cognitive psychology.
This paper presents a novel semantic analysis of unit names and gradable adjectives, inspired by ... more This paper presents a novel semantic analysis of unit names and gradable adjectives, inspired by measurement theory (Krantz et al 1971). Based on measurement theory's typology of measures, I claim that different predicates are associated with different types of measures whose special characteristics, together with features of the relations denoted by unit names, explain the puzzling limited distribution of measure phrases.
Questions and their answers have been discussed at length over the past few years. In this paper ... more Questions and their answers have been discussed at length over the past few years. In this paper we present and analyze a Hebrew hedger, be-gadol, roughly translated as basically. We use the literature on questions, answers and the relation between them to suggest that be-gadol is an item which conveys a restriction on the context of utterance. This restriction concerns the relation between answers to the QUD on an answerhood scale, which is characterized as involving two notions, informativity (Roberts 1996) and resolution, defined using tools from decision theories (Ginzburg 1995; van Rooij 2003). This significantly supports the linguistic reality of these notions.
Classification of entities into categories can be determined based on a rule – a single criterion... more Classification of entities into categories can be determined based on a rule – a single criterion or relatively few criteria combined with logical operations like ‘and’ or ‘or’. Alternatively, classification can be based on similarity to prototypical examples, i.e. an overall degree of match to prototypical values on multiple dimensions. Two cognitive systems are reported in the literature to underlie processing by rules vs. similarity. This paper presents a novel thesis according to which adjectives and nouns trigger processing by the rule vs. similarity systems, respectively. The paper defends the thesis that nouns are conceptually gradable and multidimensional, but, unlike adjectives, their dimensions are integrated through similarity operations, like weighted sums, to yield an overall degree of match to ideal values on multiple dimensions. By contrast, adjectives are associated with single dimensions, or several dimensions bound by logical operations, such as ‘and’ and ‘or’. In ...
This paper presents an experimental study of multidimensional gradability across categories. The ... more This paper presents an experimental study of multidimensional gradability across categories. The study tests whether and to what extent the naturalness of multidimensional adjectives and nouns in degree constructions is predictable from their conceptual-semantic properties – the way their dimensions are typically bound to create a unified interpretation. Past research suggests that binding by counting operations is common in multidimensional adjectives, possible in certain nouns (labeled additive nouns), and rare in others (dubbed multiplicative nouns; Hampton et al. 2009). We hypothesize that the higher naturalness of adjectives in degree constructions (Kennedy 1999) stems from a preference for dimension-binding by counting operations. Accordingly, we predict that additive nouns would be judged more natural than multiplicative nouns in any construction whose interpretation involves dimension-counting, e.g., dimensional quantifiers (as in: in {some, most, every} respect}) and degree...
This paper investigates core semantic properties that distinguish between different types of grad... more This paper investigates core semantic properties that distinguish between different types of gradable adjectives and the effect of context on their interpretation. We contend that all gradable adjectives are interpreted relative to a comparison class (van Rooij 2011), and that it is the nature of the comparison class that constitutes the main semantic difference between their subclasses: some adjectives select a class comprised of counterparts of the individual of which the adjective is predicated, while others – an extensional category of this individual. We propose, following Kennedy (2007), that the standard of membership is selected according to a principle of economy whereby an interpretation relative to a maximum or a minimum degree within a comparison class takes precedence over one relative to an arbitrary point. This proposal captures so-called “standard shift” effects, that is, the influence of context on the interpretation of gradable adjectives from all subclasses, wheth...
As part of the common practice of experimental research in cognitive psychology, objects are syst... more As part of the common practice of experimental research in cognitive psychology, objects are systematically represented by clusters of property values. Individuals correspond to points in an n-dimensional space, for some number n, where each dimension (axis) is some scalar property. For example, the set of possible individuals presented as stimuli in a given experiment can be represented with the two-dimensional space generated from the scalar properties denoted by red and long, or from the dimensions color and shape, the latter seen as nominal-scale properties, assigning to entities values such as “red,” “blue,” “square” and “circle.” The result is a set of individuals including a red square, a blue square, etc. Many other examples can be found in, for instance, Murphy (2002).
This paper argues that modeling granularity and approximation (Krifka 2007; Lewis 1979) is crucia... more This paper argues that modeling granularity and approximation (Krifka 2007; Lewis 1979) is crucial for capturing important aspects of the distribution and interpretation of adjectives and their modifiers, modulo certain differences between modified adjectives and numerals. In addition, the paper presents supporting experimental results with minimizers like 'slightly' and maximizers like 'completely'.
DESCRIPTION This paper argues that combinations of gradable adjectives with for phrases are more ... more DESCRIPTION This paper argues that combinations of gradable adjectives with for phrases are more interesting than they are normally considered to be. Important ingredients of the semantics of for phrases were largely neglected so far. These ingredients point against the popular analyses of for phrases. This paper defends an analysis of for phrases as modifiers of degree functions. The effect of this modification is shown to be significantly more fundamental than merely restricting function domains (cf. Kennedy 2007). Moreover, the new data and analysis have consequences to a variety of previous analyses that use a null morpheme, pos, to derive the interpretation of for phrases and the positive form, and/or to achieve a variety of other purposes. Based on new facts, this paper shows that the data does not support such a null morpheme; rather, postulating it creates a line of complications that need to be taken into account. The question, then, is – do we need it at all? We conclude t...
Are complex predicates – in particular, negated (e.g., not expensive), conjunctive (e.g., expensi... more Are complex predicates – in particular, negated (e.g., not expensive), conjunctive (e.g., expensive and time consuming) and disjunctive predicates (e.g., tall or bald) – associated with a graded structure, namely a mapping of entities to degrees? On the one hand, most up to date semantic theories of gradability and comparison in natural language disregard this question. On the other hand, contemporary fuzzy logical theories provide compositional rules to construct a degree function for a complex expression based on the degree functions of its constituents. These composition rules have been found useful for a variety of practical applications. The question is then whether these rules can correctly represent the interpretation of complex natural language expressions and its relation to the interpretation of their constituents. The relevance of this question is enhanced by recent findings from a variety of studies (Ripley, 2010; Serchuk et al., 2010; Alxatib and Pelletier 2010), according to which high percentages of subjects count contradictory predicates such as tall and not tall as true of borderline cases (neither short nor tall entities). While these findings stand in sharp contrast to predictions of vagueness-based theories of adjectives, they are in accord with the predictions of a fuzzy analysis, as extensively argued by Kamp and Partee (1995). Given these new findings, then, the fact that fuzzy analyses allow for non-zero truth values to contradictions can no longer count against them (for a more detailed discussion see Sauerland, this volume). It is therefore increasingly important to test other predictions of applications of fuzzy analyses to natural language conjunctions and disjunctions. To this end, this paper discusses preliminary results based on a questionnaire eliciting judgments from 35 Hebrew speakers. The results suggest that, counter the predictions of fuzzy analyses, comparative and equative morphemes cannot apply to conjunctions and disjunctions of gradable adjectives.
This book presents a study of the connections between vagueness and gradability, and their differ... more This book presents a study of the connections between vagueness and gradability, and their different manifestations in adjectives (morphological gradability effects) and nouns (typicality effects). It addresses two opposing theoretical approaches from within formal semantics and cognitive psychology.
This book presents a study of the connections between vagueness and gradability, and their differ... more This book presents a study of the connections between vagueness and gradability, and their different manifestations in adjectives (morphological gradability effects) and nouns (typicality effects). It addresses two opposing theoretical approaches from within formal semantics and cognitive psychology.
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