Papers by Seweryn Malawski
BAROK, Historia-Literatura-Sztuka, 2024
Although the history of cultivation of citrus plants in Europe dates to ancient times, the first ... more Although the history of cultivation of citrus plants in Europe dates to ancient times, the first collections of these plants were recorded in the Renaissance period. At that time, they were also important symbolically, as citrus fruits had been associated with the mythical golden apples of
the Hesperides Garden. In the Baroque period lemon, citron and orange trees in pots became an important element of garden décor. Due to the hardships of growing them in specially erected buildings - conservatories, they were valuable and expensive plants, grown mainly in the gardens
of the European elites. As symbols of wealth and splendour, citrus plants were a common motif of the royal gardens. Citrus plants have been cultivated in Poland at least since the times of the Vasa dynasty. King
John III possessed the first documented collection of various types and varieties of citrus. However, the true flourishing of citrus growing took place in the 18th century, during the Polish-Saxon Union. Citrus plants were an important element in the gardens of the last Polish king Stanislav II Augustus. They decorated the gardens of the Royal Castle in Warsaw as well as the newly established gardens of the Royal Baths (Łazienki Królewskie). Orange and lemon trees in pots decorated the terrace of the Palace on the Isle, the garden of the Hermitage and of the "White House". Due to the lack of wintering rooms for the collection, the king built a great orangery. Several versions of the design were prepared by architects Simon Gottlieb Zug and Domenico Merlini. Around 1791, the king exchanged some of the orange trees for a painting that was to decorate the Royal Palace. The transaction was concluded with the Grand Hetman of Lithuania, Michał Kazimierz Ogiński. The painting was The Polish Rider (ca. 1655) by Rembrandt van Rijn. The details of the transaction are known from an undated letter from Ogiński to the king. Unfortunately, the exact number of the trees given to Ogiński is unknown. However, it can be estimated that Hetman received from the king about 40 orange trees.
The painting which incorrectly had been called "Lisowczyk" has since been the subject of research for years. Over the years, both Rembrandt's authorship and whether the image is a portrait of a real person, or just a representation has been questioned. Some scholars believed the figure in the painting was an East European soldier in type of a Miles Christianus, the Polish nobleman and Unitarian Jonas Szlichtyng or one of several biblical characters. An in-depth analysis of the clothes, weapons, horse, and its harness, as well as the mounting method itself, allowed to define him as undoubtedly a citizen of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Further research allowed us to deduce that the portrayed character is one of the members of the Ogiński family, who at that time studied in the Netherlands. The most probable person is Marcjan Ogiński (1632-1690), whose likeness attributed to Ferdinand Bol is very similar to the man portrayed by Rembrandt. This unusual transaction of exchanging the painting for plants seems to be an unprecedented occurrence at that time.
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Techne Texnh/Techne. Seria Nowa, Dec 31, 2023
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TECHNE. Seria Nowa, Tom 2 Nr 12 , 2023
Moda na kolekcjonowanie rzadkich roślin sięga w Europie czasów renesansu. W XVIII wieku oranżerie... more Moda na kolekcjonowanie rzadkich roślin sięga w Europie czasów renesansu. W XVIII wieku oranżerie i znajdujące się w nich kolekcje roślin egzotycznych stanowiły istotny składnik siedzib polskiej arystokracji. Bogate kolekcje utrzymywali nie tylko królowie na czele z Janem III Sobieskim, Augustem II czy Stanisławem Augustem, był one także domeną wielu rodów magnackich. Wiedzy o ówczesnych kolekcjach roślin oranżeryjnych dostarczają m.in. zachowane inwentarze ogrodów. Znane są spisy roślin z oranżerii w Wilanowie z czasów Elżbiety Sieniawskiej (1729), rezydencji Radziwiłłów w Albie (1738, 1758) i Nieświeżu (1776) oraz w Białej Podlaskiej (1781), Nieborowie w dobrach Heleny i Michała Radziwiłłów (1784), w rezydencji Branickich w Białymstoku (1771–1772) czy rezydencji Potulickich w Przemykowie (1778, 1789). Najczęściej uprawianymi roślinami były cytrusy (Citrus L.), przede wszystkim C. aurantium L. i C. limon (L.) Osbeck, a także wawrzyn (Lauru nobilis L.). W większości kolekcji odnotowano także takie gatunki, jak: Genista hispanica L., Myrtus communis L., Prunus laurocerasus L., Punica grantum L., Rosmarinus officinalis L. Często pojawiającymi się gatunkami były: Ficus carica L., Buxus sempervirens L., Cupressus sempervirens L., Aloe sp. i Teucrium marum L. Ponad połowa przeanalizowanych inwentarzy odnotowała obecność: Dianthus caryophyllus L., Yucca gloriosa L. i Taxus baccata L. Rzadziej pojawiały się: Viburnum tinus L., A Adenanthera pavonina L., Nerium oleander L. czy Erysimum × cheiri (L.) Crantz. Nie wszystkie gatunki udało się zidentyfikować, ale bogaty zasób i powszechność oranżerii świadczy o popularności i randze roślin egzotycznych w XVIII-wiecznych ogrodach.
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Agronomy Science, Jul 21, 2021
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Acta Agrobotanica, Sep 30, 2019
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Roczniki Humanistyczne, 2023
Ever since the Medieval era, Cistercian monasteries have been the centres of architecture, hortic... more Ever since the Medieval era, Cistercian monasteries have been the centres of architecture, horticulture, art and craft. Their abbeys were also distinguished by a rich theological program. Within the larger monastic complexes, the abbot occupied a representative building, surrounded by an ornamental garden. In the 15th century, the Abbot’s Palace was erected at the Abbey in Oliwa, which had been founded in 1178. The abbot’s seat was repeatedly expanded by successive abbots, including Kasper Geschkau, Dawid Konarski, Jan Grabiński, Aleksander Kęsowski, and Franciszek Zaleski. Józef Jacek Rybiński in particular made some notable achievements, including building a new Rococo palace surrounded by a Baroque garden, which was characterised by a rich program referring to Christian symbolism. After 1772, Cistercian goods and properties were confiscated by Prussia. In 1782, Prince Karl von Hohenzollern-Hechingen, and then his nephew Prince Joseph, became the new abbots. With the help of the g...
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Roczniki Humanistyczne, May 18, 2017
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Roczniki Humanistyczne, 2019
The stylish difference of the Rococo in the garden art is still the topic of the researchers’ dis... more The stylish difference of the Rococo in the garden art is still the topic of the researchers’ discussion. The Rococo, which was in opposition to the formal and rhetorical art of the Baroque, brought a new value to the eighteenth-century gardens. This value was expressed primarily in the elements of the composition, asymmetry, irregularity, wavy line, fragmentation of form and ornamentation, as well as in relation to nature and specific mood.France is considered to be the fatherland of the Rococo style, from where this new, light style has spread to other European countries. The dissemination of new ideas was favored by print theoretical dissertations and collections of projects. The works by authors such as L. Liger, J-F. Blondel, J-B-A. le Blond, F. de Cuvilliés, M-A. Laugier, G-L. Le Rouge, W. Chambers, S. Switzer and B. Langley enjoyed particular popularity.Many impressive gardens with Rococo features were created especially in Germany and Poland. Their special flourishing in Pol...
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Roczniki Humanistyczne, 2015
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Agronomy Science, 2021
Artykuł ma formę pracy przeglądowej, której celem jest zaprezentowanie historii i dawnych technik... more Artykuł ma formę pracy przeglądowej, której celem jest zaprezentowanie historii i dawnych technik uprawy roślin z rodzaju Citrus L. w Europie, w tym w Polsce. Metodyka badawcza polegała na analizie materiałów archiwalnych, obejmujących historyczne traktaty z zakresu ogrodnictwa i rolnictwa. Należą do nich rozprawy powstałe na przestrzeni XVI-XVIII w. m.in. autorstwa: G. B. Ferrariego, J. Commelina, J. van der Groena, J. Ch. Volkamera, J. S. Elsholtza, oraz W. Sierakowskiego, A. P. Jabłonowskiej czy J. K. Kluka. Opisano nowożytne dzieje hodowli roślin cytrusowych w Europie oraz przedstawione w traktatach metody, obejmujące uprawę w gruncie oraz w pojemnikach i sposoby zimowania. Scharakteryzowano także rodzaje wznoszonych w tym celu drewnianych i murowanych oranżerii oraz wykorzystywanych donic.
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Acta Agrobotanica
Historical urban parks are particularly valuable in terms of their ecology, as they offer habitat... more Historical urban parks are particularly valuable in terms of their ecology, as they offer habitats to many valuable flora and fauna. A study was conducted in Felin Manor Park, Lublin, southeastern Poland, dating back to the end of the nineteenth and the first half of twentieth century. The aim of the study was to assess the suitability of this type of urban park for the proecological design of urban green areas that will comply with the legal requirements for historic gardens. The investigation demonstrate that long-living native tree species (e.g., Tilia cordata, Quercus robur, and Fraxinus excelsior) are the best preserved plants in this park. The dendroflora of the park is, however, characterized by a great variety of species flowering between early spring and fall. These reward species ensure continuity of the food base for insects throughout the vegetation season. A floristic inventory facilitated development of a concept for the restoration of the park combining cultural (hist...
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Agronomy Science, vol 76 Nr 2 (2021), 2021
Artykuł ma formę pracy przeglądowej, której celem jest zaprezentowanie historii i dawnych technik... more Artykuł ma formę pracy przeglądowej, której celem jest zaprezentowanie historii i dawnych technik uprawy roślin z rodzaju Citrus L. w Europie, w tym w Polsce. Metodyka badawcza polegała na analizie materiałów archiwalnych, obejmujących historyczne traktaty z zakresu ogrodnictwa i rolnictwa. Należą do nich rozprawy powstałe na przestrzeni XVI-XVIII w. m.in. autorstwa: G. B. Ferrariego, J. Commelina, J. van der Groena, J. Ch. Volkamera, J. S. Elsholtza, oraz W. Sierakowskiego, A. P. Jabłonowskiej czy J. K. Kluka. Opisano nowożytne dzieje hodowli roślin cytrusowych w Europie oraz przedstawione w traktatach metody, obejmujące uprawę w gruncie oraz w pojemnikach i sposoby zimowania. Scharakteryzowano także rodzaje wznoszonych w tym celu drewnianych i murowanych oranżerii oraz wykorzystywanych donic.
Summary.
The aim of the article is to disseminate the knowledge contained in historical horticultural treatises which focused on the methods of citrus plants growing in Europe. The article has the form of a review, the aim of which was to present the old techniques of cultivating plants of the genus Citrus L. The research methodology was based on the analysis of the archival materials including historical literature, i.e. the dissertations by: G. B. Ferrari, J. Commelin, J. van der Groen,
J. Ch. Volkamer, J. S. Elsholtz as well as W. Sierakowski, A. P. Jabłonowska and J. K. Kluk. Works of contemporary authors were also used. The history of citrus cultivation in Europe and traditional cultivation methods, including cultivation in the ground and cultivation in containers, which dominate in northern latitudes, were described as well as the types of pots (ceramic, wooden) and the substrate. The attention was paid to the recommendations of historical authors regarding watering, overwintering and reproduction of citrus plants in conservatory cultivation.
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Roczniki Humanistyczne, 2019
The stylish difference of the Rococo in the garden art is still the topic of the researchers’ dis... more The stylish difference of the Rococo in the garden art is still the topic of the researchers’ discussion. The Rococo, which was in opposition to the formal and rhetorical art of the Baroque, brought a new value to the eighteenth-century gardens. This value was expressed primarily in the elements of the composition, asymmetry, irregularity, wavy line, fragmentation of form and ornamentation, as well as in relation to nature and specific mood.
France is considered to be the fatherland of the Rococo style, from where this new, light style has spread to other European countries. The dissemination of new ideas was favored by print theoretical dissertations and collections of projects. The works by authors such as L. Liger, J-F. Blondel, J-B-A. le Blond, F. de Cuvilliés, M-A. Laugier, G-L. Le Rouge, W. Chambers, S. Switzer and B. Langley enjoyed particular popularity.
Many impressive gardens with Rococo features were created especially in Germany and Poland. Their special flourishing in Poland fell on the times of the Polish-Saxon Union, and especially during the reign of Augusts III in the years 1733-1763.
Special attention should be paid to the projects related to the patronage of the first minister H. Brühl. Rococo features can be found in several of his gardens, such as garden at Nowy Świat in Warsaw, garden in Wola, the unfinished garden project for the former Sanguszko palace or a garden in Brody (Pförten). Rococo compositions were also created in the gardens of Prince Adam Poniński at Żyzna street in Warsaw and in Górce. In 1966, the concept of a magnificent royal garden at the Ujazdów Castle was created. Noteworthy is also the arrangement of gardens in Puławy from the times of Zofia and August Czartoryski as well as Flemming in Terespol. The designers of many Polish gardens of that period were Saxon architects, such as: J.D. von Jauch, J.F. Knöbel, C.F. Pöppelmann, E. Schröger or J.Ch. Knöffel. From the 1770s, Rococo creations in Poland began to give way to landscape concepts.
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ROCZNIKI HUMANISTYCZNE, 2015
The history of growing citrus plants dates back to ancient times but in the Renaissance era they ... more The history of growing citrus plants dates back to ancient times but in the Renaissance era they gained particular importance as an element of garden art. At that time they became popular for their decorative and symbolic significance, as well as their originally intended purpose.
The first documented use of citrus fruit as “garden art” took place in the garden of the Medici at Castello near Florence. During this period, citrus fruits were identified with the mythical “golden apples” of Hesperides. This fact was used by the Medici family in the garden to create a political message. The great collection of container plants including citrus was also held in Versailles, by French King Louis XIV. From that time the conservatory and orange parterre have become a significant element of garden composition and program. The Elector of Saxony and the King of Poland – August II the Strong was also a great lover of citrus fruits. Similar to Cosimo I de’ Medici, he identified himself with the mythical Heracles, and in his gardens in Dresden and Warsaw amassed huge collections of those plants – especially the bitter oranges which bear “golden” fruits. The last Polish king, Stanisław August Poniatowski, was fascinated by citrus cultivation, as was Tsar Alexander II, who repurchased part of August II collection and built a new orangery in Łazienki Park in Warsaw for its maintenance.
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Books by Seweryn Malawski
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Papers by Seweryn Malawski
the Hesperides Garden. In the Baroque period lemon, citron and orange trees in pots became an important element of garden décor. Due to the hardships of growing them in specially erected buildings - conservatories, they were valuable and expensive plants, grown mainly in the gardens
of the European elites. As symbols of wealth and splendour, citrus plants were a common motif of the royal gardens. Citrus plants have been cultivated in Poland at least since the times of the Vasa dynasty. King
John III possessed the first documented collection of various types and varieties of citrus. However, the true flourishing of citrus growing took place in the 18th century, during the Polish-Saxon Union. Citrus plants were an important element in the gardens of the last Polish king Stanislav II Augustus. They decorated the gardens of the Royal Castle in Warsaw as well as the newly established gardens of the Royal Baths (Łazienki Królewskie). Orange and lemon trees in pots decorated the terrace of the Palace on the Isle, the garden of the Hermitage and of the "White House". Due to the lack of wintering rooms for the collection, the king built a great orangery. Several versions of the design were prepared by architects Simon Gottlieb Zug and Domenico Merlini. Around 1791, the king exchanged some of the orange trees for a painting that was to decorate the Royal Palace. The transaction was concluded with the Grand Hetman of Lithuania, Michał Kazimierz Ogiński. The painting was The Polish Rider (ca. 1655) by Rembrandt van Rijn. The details of the transaction are known from an undated letter from Ogiński to the king. Unfortunately, the exact number of the trees given to Ogiński is unknown. However, it can be estimated that Hetman received from the king about 40 orange trees.
The painting which incorrectly had been called "Lisowczyk" has since been the subject of research for years. Over the years, both Rembrandt's authorship and whether the image is a portrait of a real person, or just a representation has been questioned. Some scholars believed the figure in the painting was an East European soldier in type of a Miles Christianus, the Polish nobleman and Unitarian Jonas Szlichtyng or one of several biblical characters. An in-depth analysis of the clothes, weapons, horse, and its harness, as well as the mounting method itself, allowed to define him as undoubtedly a citizen of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Further research allowed us to deduce that the portrayed character is one of the members of the Ogiński family, who at that time studied in the Netherlands. The most probable person is Marcjan Ogiński (1632-1690), whose likeness attributed to Ferdinand Bol is very similar to the man portrayed by Rembrandt. This unusual transaction of exchanging the painting for plants seems to be an unprecedented occurrence at that time.
Summary.
The aim of the article is to disseminate the knowledge contained in historical horticultural treatises which focused on the methods of citrus plants growing in Europe. The article has the form of a review, the aim of which was to present the old techniques of cultivating plants of the genus Citrus L. The research methodology was based on the analysis of the archival materials including historical literature, i.e. the dissertations by: G. B. Ferrari, J. Commelin, J. van der Groen,
J. Ch. Volkamer, J. S. Elsholtz as well as W. Sierakowski, A. P. Jabłonowska and J. K. Kluk. Works of contemporary authors were also used. The history of citrus cultivation in Europe and traditional cultivation methods, including cultivation in the ground and cultivation in containers, which dominate in northern latitudes, were described as well as the types of pots (ceramic, wooden) and the substrate. The attention was paid to the recommendations of historical authors regarding watering, overwintering and reproduction of citrus plants in conservatory cultivation.
France is considered to be the fatherland of the Rococo style, from where this new, light style has spread to other European countries. The dissemination of new ideas was favored by print theoretical dissertations and collections of projects. The works by authors such as L. Liger, J-F. Blondel, J-B-A. le Blond, F. de Cuvilliés, M-A. Laugier, G-L. Le Rouge, W. Chambers, S. Switzer and B. Langley enjoyed particular popularity.
Many impressive gardens with Rococo features were created especially in Germany and Poland. Their special flourishing in Poland fell on the times of the Polish-Saxon Union, and especially during the reign of Augusts III in the years 1733-1763.
Special attention should be paid to the projects related to the patronage of the first minister H. Brühl. Rococo features can be found in several of his gardens, such as garden at Nowy Świat in Warsaw, garden in Wola, the unfinished garden project for the former Sanguszko palace or a garden in Brody (Pförten). Rococo compositions were also created in the gardens of Prince Adam Poniński at Żyzna street in Warsaw and in Górce. In 1966, the concept of a magnificent royal garden at the Ujazdów Castle was created. Noteworthy is also the arrangement of gardens in Puławy from the times of Zofia and August Czartoryski as well as Flemming in Terespol. The designers of many Polish gardens of that period were Saxon architects, such as: J.D. von Jauch, J.F. Knöbel, C.F. Pöppelmann, E. Schröger or J.Ch. Knöffel. From the 1770s, Rococo creations in Poland began to give way to landscape concepts.
The first documented use of citrus fruit as “garden art” took place in the garden of the Medici at Castello near Florence. During this period, citrus fruits were identified with the mythical “golden apples” of Hesperides. This fact was used by the Medici family in the garden to create a political message. The great collection of container plants including citrus was also held in Versailles, by French King Louis XIV. From that time the conservatory and orange parterre have become a significant element of garden composition and program. The Elector of Saxony and the King of Poland – August II the Strong was also a great lover of citrus fruits. Similar to Cosimo I de’ Medici, he identified himself with the mythical Heracles, and in his gardens in Dresden and Warsaw amassed huge collections of those plants – especially the bitter oranges which bear “golden” fruits. The last Polish king, Stanisław August Poniatowski, was fascinated by citrus cultivation, as was Tsar Alexander II, who repurchased part of August II collection and built a new orangery in Łazienki Park in Warsaw for its maintenance.
Books by Seweryn Malawski
the Hesperides Garden. In the Baroque period lemon, citron and orange trees in pots became an important element of garden décor. Due to the hardships of growing them in specially erected buildings - conservatories, they were valuable and expensive plants, grown mainly in the gardens
of the European elites. As symbols of wealth and splendour, citrus plants were a common motif of the royal gardens. Citrus plants have been cultivated in Poland at least since the times of the Vasa dynasty. King
John III possessed the first documented collection of various types and varieties of citrus. However, the true flourishing of citrus growing took place in the 18th century, during the Polish-Saxon Union. Citrus plants were an important element in the gardens of the last Polish king Stanislav II Augustus. They decorated the gardens of the Royal Castle in Warsaw as well as the newly established gardens of the Royal Baths (Łazienki Królewskie). Orange and lemon trees in pots decorated the terrace of the Palace on the Isle, the garden of the Hermitage and of the "White House". Due to the lack of wintering rooms for the collection, the king built a great orangery. Several versions of the design were prepared by architects Simon Gottlieb Zug and Domenico Merlini. Around 1791, the king exchanged some of the orange trees for a painting that was to decorate the Royal Palace. The transaction was concluded with the Grand Hetman of Lithuania, Michał Kazimierz Ogiński. The painting was The Polish Rider (ca. 1655) by Rembrandt van Rijn. The details of the transaction are known from an undated letter from Ogiński to the king. Unfortunately, the exact number of the trees given to Ogiński is unknown. However, it can be estimated that Hetman received from the king about 40 orange trees.
The painting which incorrectly had been called "Lisowczyk" has since been the subject of research for years. Over the years, both Rembrandt's authorship and whether the image is a portrait of a real person, or just a representation has been questioned. Some scholars believed the figure in the painting was an East European soldier in type of a Miles Christianus, the Polish nobleman and Unitarian Jonas Szlichtyng or one of several biblical characters. An in-depth analysis of the clothes, weapons, horse, and its harness, as well as the mounting method itself, allowed to define him as undoubtedly a citizen of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Further research allowed us to deduce that the portrayed character is one of the members of the Ogiński family, who at that time studied in the Netherlands. The most probable person is Marcjan Ogiński (1632-1690), whose likeness attributed to Ferdinand Bol is very similar to the man portrayed by Rembrandt. This unusual transaction of exchanging the painting for plants seems to be an unprecedented occurrence at that time.
Summary.
The aim of the article is to disseminate the knowledge contained in historical horticultural treatises which focused on the methods of citrus plants growing in Europe. The article has the form of a review, the aim of which was to present the old techniques of cultivating plants of the genus Citrus L. The research methodology was based on the analysis of the archival materials including historical literature, i.e. the dissertations by: G. B. Ferrari, J. Commelin, J. van der Groen,
J. Ch. Volkamer, J. S. Elsholtz as well as W. Sierakowski, A. P. Jabłonowska and J. K. Kluk. Works of contemporary authors were also used. The history of citrus cultivation in Europe and traditional cultivation methods, including cultivation in the ground and cultivation in containers, which dominate in northern latitudes, were described as well as the types of pots (ceramic, wooden) and the substrate. The attention was paid to the recommendations of historical authors regarding watering, overwintering and reproduction of citrus plants in conservatory cultivation.
France is considered to be the fatherland of the Rococo style, from where this new, light style has spread to other European countries. The dissemination of new ideas was favored by print theoretical dissertations and collections of projects. The works by authors such as L. Liger, J-F. Blondel, J-B-A. le Blond, F. de Cuvilliés, M-A. Laugier, G-L. Le Rouge, W. Chambers, S. Switzer and B. Langley enjoyed particular popularity.
Many impressive gardens with Rococo features were created especially in Germany and Poland. Their special flourishing in Poland fell on the times of the Polish-Saxon Union, and especially during the reign of Augusts III in the years 1733-1763.
Special attention should be paid to the projects related to the patronage of the first minister H. Brühl. Rococo features can be found in several of his gardens, such as garden at Nowy Świat in Warsaw, garden in Wola, the unfinished garden project for the former Sanguszko palace or a garden in Brody (Pförten). Rococo compositions were also created in the gardens of Prince Adam Poniński at Żyzna street in Warsaw and in Górce. In 1966, the concept of a magnificent royal garden at the Ujazdów Castle was created. Noteworthy is also the arrangement of gardens in Puławy from the times of Zofia and August Czartoryski as well as Flemming in Terespol. The designers of many Polish gardens of that period were Saxon architects, such as: J.D. von Jauch, J.F. Knöbel, C.F. Pöppelmann, E. Schröger or J.Ch. Knöffel. From the 1770s, Rococo creations in Poland began to give way to landscape concepts.
The first documented use of citrus fruit as “garden art” took place in the garden of the Medici at Castello near Florence. During this period, citrus fruits were identified with the mythical “golden apples” of Hesperides. This fact was used by the Medici family in the garden to create a political message. The great collection of container plants including citrus was also held in Versailles, by French King Louis XIV. From that time the conservatory and orange parterre have become a significant element of garden composition and program. The Elector of Saxony and the King of Poland – August II the Strong was also a great lover of citrus fruits. Similar to Cosimo I de’ Medici, he identified himself with the mythical Heracles, and in his gardens in Dresden and Warsaw amassed huge collections of those plants – especially the bitter oranges which bear “golden” fruits. The last Polish king, Stanisław August Poniatowski, was fascinated by citrus cultivation, as was Tsar Alexander II, who repurchased part of August II collection and built a new orangery in Łazienki Park in Warsaw for its maintenance.