The term critical infrastructure (CI) derives from a series of Presidential Executive Orders and ... more The term critical infrastructure (CI) derives from a series of Presidential Executive Orders and Policy Directives which evolved from July 1996 as a systematic way of defining the Nation's public and private infrastructures and protecting them from failure. The current iteration of those initiatives, titled as Presidential Policy Directive #21 (PPD-21), identifies the components of the Nation's 16 CI sectors, but does little to identify tools, techniques, or measures for implementing actionable protection for those infrastructures. The purpose of this paper was to survey the literature using a systematic review to determine whether sufficient guidance exists to manage the emerging CI domain. The survey found that governmental sources provided significant definitional information and general guidance, but provided little which would direct actual protection. In contrast, however, academic and practitioner evidence did suggest implementation strategies and tactics. Although never formally validated, High Reliability Theory (HRT) has been suggested as an implementation approach to CI protection (CIP). Resilience, one of the five hallmarks of HRT, was found to be the most frequently recommended mechanism, while the remaining four hallmarks were also frequently found, although described with varying semantic language. The contribution of this paper consists of showing that the progress of the work toward defining CI protection has validated HRT, and suggests that the separate research streams and independent progress toward defining HRT and CI have converged into a single construct which can be generalized to guide practitioners in developing and managing strategies, tools, and implementation techniques in either domain.
After the 1979 Three Mile Island nuclear plant meltdown, a claim was made that “accidents happen,... more After the 1979 Three Mile Island nuclear plant meltdown, a claim was made that “accidents happen,” suggesting that such catastrophes were inevitable. That concept was eventually labeled normal accident theory (NAT). Soon after, however, research into so-called “high reliability organizations” (HROs) began which disputed that claim and evolved into what became known as high reliability theory (HRT). This paper surveyed the literature published since 1979 to determine the level of continuing interest in the subject, and determine how it has been applied. Since 2004, it has been found a strong uptick in the number of publications which address HRO, suggesting that, interest in HRO theory, application, and tools remains strong. Coincident with this increase has been the creation and evolution of Presidential Policy Directive 21 (PPD/21) “Critical Infrastructure Security and Resilience,” one action of which was to update the national infrastructure protection program (NIPP). The objectiv...
The High Reliability Organization (HRO) literature contains numerous observations that the five H... more The High Reliability Organization (HRO) literature contains numerous observations that the five HRO hallmarks have not been empirically tested and are difficult to implement directly. One literature review focused on HRO in health care noted there is no evidence that practitioners have heeded suggestions made in the one article by Dr. Karlene Roberts that provided guidance for managers in HROs. This begs the question, why is HRO so easy to understand but difficult to quantify? One group of researchers noted that taking Roberts' advice may be as simple as applying standard Industrial Engineering and business tools with a focus on HRO; i.e., understand organizational culture and systems, apply tools such as economic analysis, simulation modeling, and performance management and measurement. This paper argues that quantitative measures for the qualitative hallmarks of HRO can be developed that will make organizations better able to implement HRO practices, track performance, and understand whether their vision to operate as an HRO is achievable. A framework that translates the qualitative HRO hallmarks into quantitative actions is desirable. The HRO Strategic Measurement Framework with notional strategies, objectives, measures, targets, and initiatives adaptable to any organization was developed for operationalized HRO hallmarks, including a sixth hallmark.
After the 1979 Three Mile Island nuclear plant meltdown, a claim was made that "accidents happen,... more After the 1979 Three Mile Island nuclear plant meltdown, a claim was made that "accidents happen," suggesting that such catastrophes were inevitable. That concept was eventually labeled normal accident theory (NAT). Soon after, however, research into so-called "high reliability organizations" (HROs) began which disputed that claim and evolved into what became known as high reliability theory (HRT). This paper surveyed the literature published since 1979 to determine the level of continuing interest in the subject, and determine how it has been applied. Since 2004, it has been found a strong uptick in the number of publications which address HRO, suggesting that, interest in HRO theory, application, and tools remains strong. Coincident with this increase has been the creation and evolution of Presidential Policy Directive 21 (PPD/21) "Critical Infrastructure Security and Resilience," one action of which was to update the national infrastructure protection program (NIPP). The objectives of PPD/21 closely parallel the underpinnings of HRT, including a focus on integrated systems, understanding threats, and a focus on resilience. The literature has suggested that HROs are relevant for mainstream organizations since they "provide insights to a distinctive set of processes that foster effectiveness under trying conditions." The survey found recent literature addressing the intersection of NIPP and HRO leading this research to the hypothesis that HRT has evolved to the point where it can significantly inform and advance the objectives of the PPD/21 toward protecting national critical infrastructure (CI) using an approach which emphasizes a more reliable, more resilient, organization.
The term critical infrastructure (CI) derives from a series of Presidential Executive Orders and ... more The term critical infrastructure (CI) derives from a series of Presidential Executive Orders and Policy Directives which evolved from July 1996 as a systematic way of defining the Nation's public and private infrastructures and protecting them from failure. The current iteration of those initiatives, titled as Presidential Policy Directive #21 (PPD-21), identifies the components of the Nation's 16 CI sectors, but does little to identify tools, techniques, or measures for implementing actionable protection for those infrastructures. The purpose of this paper was to survey the literature using a systematic review to determine whether sufficient guidance exists to manage the emerging CI domain. The survey found that governmental sources provided significant definitional information and general guidance, but provided little which would direct actual protection. In contrast, however, academic and practitioner evidence did suggest implementation strategies and tactics. Although never formally validated, High Reliability Theory (HRT) has been suggested as an implementation approach to CI protection (CIP). Resilience, one of the five hallmarks of HRT, was found to be the most frequently recommended mechanism, while the remaining four hallmarks were also frequently found, although described with varying semantic language. The contribution of this paper consists of showing that the progress of the work toward defining CI protection has validated HRT, and suggests that the separate research streams and independent progress toward defining HRT and CI have converged into a single construct which can be generalized to guide practitioners in developing and managing strategies, tools, and implementation techniques in either domain.
After the 1979 Three Mile Island nuclear plant meltdown, a claim was made that “accidents happen,... more After the 1979 Three Mile Island nuclear plant meltdown, a claim was made that “accidents happen,” suggesting that such catastrophes were inevitable. That concept was eventually labeled normal accident theory (NAT). Soon after, however, research into so-called “high reliability organizations” (HROs) began which disputed that claim and evolved into what became known as high reliability theory (HRT). This paper surveyed the literature published since 1979 to determine the level of continuing interest in the subject, and determine how it has been applied. Since 2004, it has been found a strong uptick in the number of publications which address HRO, suggesting that, interest in HRO theory, application, and tools remains strong. Coincident with this increase has been the creation and evolution of Presidential Policy Directive 21 (PPD/21) “Critical Infrastructure Security and Resilience,” one action of which was to update the national infrastructure protection program (NIPP). The objectiv...
The High Reliability Organization (HRO) literature contains numerous observations that the five H... more The High Reliability Organization (HRO) literature contains numerous observations that the five HRO hallmarks have not been empirically tested and are difficult to implement directly. One literature review focused on HRO in health care noted there is no evidence that practitioners have heeded suggestions made in the one article by Dr. Karlene Roberts that provided guidance for managers in HROs. This begs the question, why is HRO so easy to understand but difficult to quantify? One group of researchers noted that taking Roberts' advice may be as simple as applying standard Industrial Engineering and business tools with a focus on HRO; i.e., understand organizational culture and systems, apply tools such as economic analysis, simulation modeling, and performance management and measurement. This paper argues that quantitative measures for the qualitative hallmarks of HRO can be developed that will make organizations better able to implement HRO practices, track performance, and understand whether their vision to operate as an HRO is achievable. A framework that translates the qualitative HRO hallmarks into quantitative actions is desirable. The HRO Strategic Measurement Framework with notional strategies, objectives, measures, targets, and initiatives adaptable to any organization was developed for operationalized HRO hallmarks, including a sixth hallmark.
After the 1979 Three Mile Island nuclear plant meltdown, a claim was made that "accidents happen,... more After the 1979 Three Mile Island nuclear plant meltdown, a claim was made that "accidents happen," suggesting that such catastrophes were inevitable. That concept was eventually labeled normal accident theory (NAT). Soon after, however, research into so-called "high reliability organizations" (HROs) began which disputed that claim and evolved into what became known as high reliability theory (HRT). This paper surveyed the literature published since 1979 to determine the level of continuing interest in the subject, and determine how it has been applied. Since 2004, it has been found a strong uptick in the number of publications which address HRO, suggesting that, interest in HRO theory, application, and tools remains strong. Coincident with this increase has been the creation and evolution of Presidential Policy Directive 21 (PPD/21) "Critical Infrastructure Security and Resilience," one action of which was to update the national infrastructure protection program (NIPP). The objectives of PPD/21 closely parallel the underpinnings of HRT, including a focus on integrated systems, understanding threats, and a focus on resilience. The literature has suggested that HROs are relevant for mainstream organizations since they "provide insights to a distinctive set of processes that foster effectiveness under trying conditions." The survey found recent literature addressing the intersection of NIPP and HRO leading this research to the hypothesis that HRT has evolved to the point where it can significantly inform and advance the objectives of the PPD/21 toward protecting national critical infrastructure (CI) using an approach which emphasizes a more reliable, more resilient, organization.
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Papers by Stephen L Fritts