The Hakka language and identity enjoys full public recognition as one of the cultural groups in T... more The Hakka language and identity enjoys full public recognition as one of the cultural groups in Taiwan. Nonetheless, its usage appears to be in decline. In a series of interviews, the situation of the Hakka language was evaluated. Taiwanese Hakka has developed its own peculiarities and converges with Guoyu; code-switching with Guoyu is common. The intergenerational transmission seems to be difficult. General education promoting global/standard languages, inter-linguistic marriages, urbanisation, mass media, and the increased need for wider communication seem to be responsible for a general decline of smaller languages, even while receiving extensive preservation measures.
Hakkas from Meizhou who migrated to Calcutta established suc¬cessful businesses, and then, in the... more Hakkas from Meizhou who migrated to Calcutta established suc¬cessful businesses, and then, in the 1970s to the 1990s, moved on to settle in Vienna (and Toronto). Prac¬ticing a closed-group life both in Vienna and across continents, the Hakkas preserved their lan¬gua¬ge and culture while adapting both to India and Austria in various ways. In a series of open interviews with Vienna-based Hakkas, questions of identity and the preservation of a minority culture are raised. In dependence to age, the consultants have very different personal identities behind a shared social identity of being ‘Indian Hak¬ka¬s,’ which is, however, mostly borne out of practical considerations of mutual support and certain cultural practices. As mi¬grants, they can profit from close friendship and loyalty between group members, sharing the same pro¬fes¬sions, marrying inside the group, and speaking their own language. Questions of identity are most¬ly relevant for the younger generation which has to deal with...
Background In the multilingual situation of Malaysia, standard languages and spoken vernaculars a... more Background In the multilingual situation of Malaysia, standard languages and spoken vernaculars are interacting in intricate ways whereby various spoken languages share a pool of words from Malay, English and Mandarin. Structurally, all languages converge and influence the spoken varieties of the standard languages. Material and method This contribution observes the situation from the viewpoint of Hakka speakers. In an analysis of the communicative practices in an extended Hakka family and their non-Hakka friends, the interactions of the various languages in borrowing and code-switching have been analysed and later discussed with speakers. It is expected that standard languages influence language use over time. Analysis The adult generations of the family speak Hakka and effortlessly mix with other languages. Intergenerationally, language change (and possibly language loss) can be observed for Hakka. Mandarin is gaining importance for all speakers. At the same time, loanwords and lo...
Background. Malaysia as a multilingual country has creoles and semicreoles which derive from vary... more Background. Malaysia as a multilingual country has creoles and semicreoles which derive from varying competence in the various languages. One such variety is Malaysian (vernacular) English (ME), a semi-creole variant of English. While a similar variety of Singapore English ("Singlish"; SE) has been often described, ME has been more often omitted. However, the sociolinguistic situation of ME and SE is not the same. Material and method. Speakers of ME with Chinese L1 have been asked to produce sentences and dialogues. These data have been collected, transcribed and analyzed. This paper makes introductory remarks about the analysis. Analysis. ME diverges from English (EN) in many ways; substratal influences from Chinese languages (Ch.) and Malay (ML; including vernacular forms) can be identified. Conclusions. ME converges with local languages (Ch., ML) at all levels of grammar and blends into the Malaysian brand of Chinese languages and participates in what is called bahasa rojak (lit. language salad, language mixing). The actual realizations of ME utterances also depend on the level of linguistic competence in Standard English. The function of ME in multilingual Malaysia is that of a dialect and sociolect of English, providing a specific identity for multiethnic citizens, while Standard English is the educated, formal register. In this respect, ME is equivalent to Mandarin Chinese which partially adapted to the Malysian linguistic scenery and increasingly forms a roof language for the South Chinese languages .
Wenige Tage vor seiner Erneuerung bei den Wahlen am 29. September 2019, verabschiedete das österr... more Wenige Tage vor seiner Erneuerung bei den Wahlen am 29. September 2019, verabschiedete das österreichische Parlament einen Antrag, der das Thema des doppelten Passes für die deutsche und ladinische Minderheit in Südtirol bekräftigte. Bereits die frühere österreichische Regierung wollte der Südtiroler Minderheit neben ihrer italienischen Staatsbürgerschaft die Möglichkeit geben, die österreichische Staatsbürgerschaft zu erwerben. Der Vorschlag hat viel Polemik und Widerstand vor allem in Rom ausgelöst und riskiert damit zu scheitern - der nachstehende Beitrag schlägt eine Lösung vor. ABSTRACT ENGLISH: Austrian passport for South Tyroleans in Italy? The Austrian Federal Government under Chancellor Sebastian Kurz (Austrian People's Party, ÖVP) and Vice-Chancellor Heinz-Christian Strache (Freedom Party of Austria, FPÖ), which took office on 18 December 2017, wants for the South Tyrolean minority in Italy, in addition to their Italian citizenship, to enable the acquisition of Austria...
Hakkas from Meizhou who migrated to Calcutta established successful businesses, and then, in the ... more Hakkas from Meizhou who migrated to Calcutta established successful businesses, and then, in the 1970s to the 1990s, moved on to settle in Vienna (and Toronto). Practicing a closed-group life both in Vienna and across continents, the Hakkas preserved their language and culture while adapting both to India and Austria in various ways. In a series of open interviews with Vienna-based Hakkas, questions of identity and the preservation of a minority culture are raised. In dependence to age, the consultants have very different personal identities behind a shared social identity of being 'Indian Hakkas', which is, however, mostly borne out of practical considerations of mutual support and certain cultural practices. As migrants, they can profit from close friendship and loyalty between group members, sharing the same professions, marrying inside the group, and speaking their own language. Questions of identity are mostly relevant for the younger generation which has to deal with a...
Background. Malaysia as a multilingual country has creoles and semicreoles which derive from vary... more Background. Malaysia as a multilingual country has creoles and semicreoles which derive from varying competence in the various languages. One such variety is Malaysian (vernacular) English (ME), a semi-creole variant of English. While a similar variety of Singapore English ("Singlish"; SE) has been often described, ME has been more often omitted. However, the sociolinguistic situation of ME and SE is not the same. Material and method. Speakers of ME with Chinese L1 have been asked to produce sentences and dialogues. These data have been collected, transcribed and analyzed. This paper makes introductory remarks about the analysis. Analysis. ME diverges from English (EN) in many ways; substratal influences from Chinese languages (Ch.) and Malay (ML; including vernacular forms) can be identified. Conclusions. ME converges with local languages (Ch., ML) at all levels of grammar and blends into the Malaysian brand of Chinese languages and participates in what is called bahasa rojak (lit. language salad, language mixing). The actual realizations of ME utterances also depend on the level of linguistic competence in Standard English. The function of ME in multilingual Malaysia is that of a dialect and sociolect of English, providing a specific identity for multiethnic citizens, while Standard English is the educated, formal register. In this respect, ME is equivalent to Mandarin Chinese which partially adapted to the Malysian linguistic scenery and increasingly forms a roof language for the South Chinese languages .
In the multilingual situation of Malaysia, standard languages and spoken vernaculars are interact... more In the multilingual situation of Malaysia, standard languages and spoken vernaculars are interacting in intricate ways whereby various spoken languages share a pool of words from Malay, English and Mandarin. Structurally, all languages converge and influence the spoken varieties of the standard languages. This contribution observes the situation from the viewpoint of Hakka speakers. In an analysis of the communicative practices in an extended Hakka family and their non-Hakka friends, the interactions of the various languages in borrowing and code-switching have been analysed and later discussed with speakers. It is expected that standard languages influence language use over time. The adult generations of the family speak Hakka and effortlessly mix with other languages. Intergenerationally, language change (and possibly language loss) can be observed for Hakka. Mandarin is gaining importance for all speakers. At the same time, loanwords and loan translations from Malaysian, English and Mandarin are frequent. This Malaysian vocabulary is shared by all spoken languages, with only few differences in usage. Standard Chinese is gradually replacing old Hakka words in Hakka. As can be expected, the spoken languages such as Hakka are quickly losing traditional lexemes and phrases, while Mandarin Chinese as well as English and Malaysian words are used in Hakka; at the same time, spoken Mandarin and spoken English converges structurally with the substratic Chinese dialects.
Background. In multiethnic and multilingual Malaysia, four standardized languages (Malay, English... more Background. In multiethnic and multilingual Malaysia, four standardized languages (Malay, English, Chinese, Tamil) and a number of spoken languages (e.g. Hakka, Bahasa Pasar, Malaysian English) serve pluriglossic purposes. Today, Standard (Malaysian) Chinese is used by ethnic Chinese not only at the acrolectal, but also at the me-solectal (inter-group communication) and basilectal level (family, friends). Studies have observed language shift of the family language from a smaller Chinese language to Malaysian Mandarin. Material & method. This study investigates the language use in one Hakka family living in Peninsular Malaysia (KL, Penang) and mainland China. Specific focus lies on Hakka as the family language and its inter-generational development. Analysis. All family members are multilingual , the older and middle generations use various languages beside their family language, Hakka. The middle-aged speakers consider their own Hakka ʻimpureʼ; code-switching and multilingual conversations are a regular occurrence. Interethnic marriages and school education make Mandarin the most suitable language for communication even in the family. Thus, Hakka is no longer actively acquired by the youngest family members. Conclusions. Hakka is viewed as the family language and still widely used, but its position is substantially weakened in the youngest generation.
The Hakka language and identity enjoys full public recognition as one of the cultural groups in T... more The Hakka language and identity enjoys full public recognition as one of the cultural groups in Taiwan. Nonetheless, its usage appears to be in decline. In a series of interviews, the situation of the Hakka language was evaluated. Taiwanese Hakka has developed its own peculiarities and converges with Guoyu; code-switching with Guoyu is common. The intergenerational transmission seems to be difficult. General education promoting global/standard languages, inter-linguistic marriages, urbanisation, mass media, and the increased need for wider communication seem to be responsible for a general decline of smaller languages, even while receiving extensive preservation measures.
Hakkas from Meizhou who migrated to Calcutta established suc¬cessful businesses, and then, in the... more Hakkas from Meizhou who migrated to Calcutta established suc¬cessful businesses, and then, in the 1970s to the 1990s, moved on to settle in Vienna (and Toronto). Prac¬ticing a closed-group life both in Vienna and across continents, the Hakkas preserved their lan¬gua¬ge and culture while adapting both to India and Austria in various ways. In a series of open interviews with Vienna-based Hakkas, questions of identity and the preservation of a minority culture are raised. In dependence to age, the consultants have very different personal identities behind a shared social identity of being ‘Indian Hak¬ka¬s,’ which is, however, mostly borne out of practical considerations of mutual support and certain cultural practices. As mi¬grants, they can profit from close friendship and loyalty between group members, sharing the same pro¬fes¬sions, marrying inside the group, and speaking their own language. Questions of identity are most¬ly relevant for the younger generation which has to deal with...
Background In the multilingual situation of Malaysia, standard languages and spoken vernaculars a... more Background In the multilingual situation of Malaysia, standard languages and spoken vernaculars are interacting in intricate ways whereby various spoken languages share a pool of words from Malay, English and Mandarin. Structurally, all languages converge and influence the spoken varieties of the standard languages. Material and method This contribution observes the situation from the viewpoint of Hakka speakers. In an analysis of the communicative practices in an extended Hakka family and their non-Hakka friends, the interactions of the various languages in borrowing and code-switching have been analysed and later discussed with speakers. It is expected that standard languages influence language use over time. Analysis The adult generations of the family speak Hakka and effortlessly mix with other languages. Intergenerationally, language change (and possibly language loss) can be observed for Hakka. Mandarin is gaining importance for all speakers. At the same time, loanwords and lo...
Background. Malaysia as a multilingual country has creoles and semicreoles which derive from vary... more Background. Malaysia as a multilingual country has creoles and semicreoles which derive from varying competence in the various languages. One such variety is Malaysian (vernacular) English (ME), a semi-creole variant of English. While a similar variety of Singapore English ("Singlish"; SE) has been often described, ME has been more often omitted. However, the sociolinguistic situation of ME and SE is not the same. Material and method. Speakers of ME with Chinese L1 have been asked to produce sentences and dialogues. These data have been collected, transcribed and analyzed. This paper makes introductory remarks about the analysis. Analysis. ME diverges from English (EN) in many ways; substratal influences from Chinese languages (Ch.) and Malay (ML; including vernacular forms) can be identified. Conclusions. ME converges with local languages (Ch., ML) at all levels of grammar and blends into the Malaysian brand of Chinese languages and participates in what is called bahasa rojak (lit. language salad, language mixing). The actual realizations of ME utterances also depend on the level of linguistic competence in Standard English. The function of ME in multilingual Malaysia is that of a dialect and sociolect of English, providing a specific identity for multiethnic citizens, while Standard English is the educated, formal register. In this respect, ME is equivalent to Mandarin Chinese which partially adapted to the Malysian linguistic scenery and increasingly forms a roof language for the South Chinese languages .
Wenige Tage vor seiner Erneuerung bei den Wahlen am 29. September 2019, verabschiedete das österr... more Wenige Tage vor seiner Erneuerung bei den Wahlen am 29. September 2019, verabschiedete das österreichische Parlament einen Antrag, der das Thema des doppelten Passes für die deutsche und ladinische Minderheit in Südtirol bekräftigte. Bereits die frühere österreichische Regierung wollte der Südtiroler Minderheit neben ihrer italienischen Staatsbürgerschaft die Möglichkeit geben, die österreichische Staatsbürgerschaft zu erwerben. Der Vorschlag hat viel Polemik und Widerstand vor allem in Rom ausgelöst und riskiert damit zu scheitern - der nachstehende Beitrag schlägt eine Lösung vor. ABSTRACT ENGLISH: Austrian passport for South Tyroleans in Italy? The Austrian Federal Government under Chancellor Sebastian Kurz (Austrian People's Party, ÖVP) and Vice-Chancellor Heinz-Christian Strache (Freedom Party of Austria, FPÖ), which took office on 18 December 2017, wants for the South Tyrolean minority in Italy, in addition to their Italian citizenship, to enable the acquisition of Austria...
Hakkas from Meizhou who migrated to Calcutta established successful businesses, and then, in the ... more Hakkas from Meizhou who migrated to Calcutta established successful businesses, and then, in the 1970s to the 1990s, moved on to settle in Vienna (and Toronto). Practicing a closed-group life both in Vienna and across continents, the Hakkas preserved their language and culture while adapting both to India and Austria in various ways. In a series of open interviews with Vienna-based Hakkas, questions of identity and the preservation of a minority culture are raised. In dependence to age, the consultants have very different personal identities behind a shared social identity of being 'Indian Hakkas', which is, however, mostly borne out of practical considerations of mutual support and certain cultural practices. As migrants, they can profit from close friendship and loyalty between group members, sharing the same professions, marrying inside the group, and speaking their own language. Questions of identity are mostly relevant for the younger generation which has to deal with a...
Background. Malaysia as a multilingual country has creoles and semicreoles which derive from vary... more Background. Malaysia as a multilingual country has creoles and semicreoles which derive from varying competence in the various languages. One such variety is Malaysian (vernacular) English (ME), a semi-creole variant of English. While a similar variety of Singapore English ("Singlish"; SE) has been often described, ME has been more often omitted. However, the sociolinguistic situation of ME and SE is not the same. Material and method. Speakers of ME with Chinese L1 have been asked to produce sentences and dialogues. These data have been collected, transcribed and analyzed. This paper makes introductory remarks about the analysis. Analysis. ME diverges from English (EN) in many ways; substratal influences from Chinese languages (Ch.) and Malay (ML; including vernacular forms) can be identified. Conclusions. ME converges with local languages (Ch., ML) at all levels of grammar and blends into the Malaysian brand of Chinese languages and participates in what is called bahasa rojak (lit. language salad, language mixing). The actual realizations of ME utterances also depend on the level of linguistic competence in Standard English. The function of ME in multilingual Malaysia is that of a dialect and sociolect of English, providing a specific identity for multiethnic citizens, while Standard English is the educated, formal register. In this respect, ME is equivalent to Mandarin Chinese which partially adapted to the Malysian linguistic scenery and increasingly forms a roof language for the South Chinese languages .
In the multilingual situation of Malaysia, standard languages and spoken vernaculars are interact... more In the multilingual situation of Malaysia, standard languages and spoken vernaculars are interacting in intricate ways whereby various spoken languages share a pool of words from Malay, English and Mandarin. Structurally, all languages converge and influence the spoken varieties of the standard languages. This contribution observes the situation from the viewpoint of Hakka speakers. In an analysis of the communicative practices in an extended Hakka family and their non-Hakka friends, the interactions of the various languages in borrowing and code-switching have been analysed and later discussed with speakers. It is expected that standard languages influence language use over time. The adult generations of the family speak Hakka and effortlessly mix with other languages. Intergenerationally, language change (and possibly language loss) can be observed for Hakka. Mandarin is gaining importance for all speakers. At the same time, loanwords and loan translations from Malaysian, English and Mandarin are frequent. This Malaysian vocabulary is shared by all spoken languages, with only few differences in usage. Standard Chinese is gradually replacing old Hakka words in Hakka. As can be expected, the spoken languages such as Hakka are quickly losing traditional lexemes and phrases, while Mandarin Chinese as well as English and Malaysian words are used in Hakka; at the same time, spoken Mandarin and spoken English converges structurally with the substratic Chinese dialects.
Background. In multiethnic and multilingual Malaysia, four standardized languages (Malay, English... more Background. In multiethnic and multilingual Malaysia, four standardized languages (Malay, English, Chinese, Tamil) and a number of spoken languages (e.g. Hakka, Bahasa Pasar, Malaysian English) serve pluriglossic purposes. Today, Standard (Malaysian) Chinese is used by ethnic Chinese not only at the acrolectal, but also at the me-solectal (inter-group communication) and basilectal level (family, friends). Studies have observed language shift of the family language from a smaller Chinese language to Malaysian Mandarin. Material & method. This study investigates the language use in one Hakka family living in Peninsular Malaysia (KL, Penang) and mainland China. Specific focus lies on Hakka as the family language and its inter-generational development. Analysis. All family members are multilingual , the older and middle generations use various languages beside their family language, Hakka. The middle-aged speakers consider their own Hakka ʻimpureʼ; code-switching and multilingual conversations are a regular occurrence. Interethnic marriages and school education make Mandarin the most suitable language for communication even in the family. Thus, Hakka is no longer actively acquired by the youngest family members. Conclusions. Hakka is viewed as the family language and still widely used, but its position is substantially weakened in the youngest generation.
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Multilingualism in Malaysia by TekWooi Soon