Rajesh K U M A R Singh

This essay presents a snapshot of the year 465 CE. Place: South Asia with the Ajanta Cave 11 in focus. A history is narrated here to describe how the stupa-shrine (naos) of the Ajanta Cave 11 was conceived, and added to what was earlier a dormitory; how the Hunnic disturbance in Eurasia created migrations of people including the one when the Bactrian and Gandhāran people migrated towards Middle India and the Deccan on one hand and the Tarim / Taklamakan region on the other. The war refugees, I argue, introduced the concept of multi-functional or composite architecture in India. It was to bring under the same roof the three major functions of monastic architecture: dwelling, congregation, and worship. It was an experiment that resulted in the creation of Cave 11’s naos. It was a quadrant and flat-roofed naos. The idea was at once accepted across all the contemporary rockcut sites. The article shows how the displaced people the “foreigners” from Eastern Mediterranean, ancient Turkey, Iran, Bactria and Gandhāra, swiftly changed the Buddhism of Middle India and the Deccan from an earlier form of Śrāvakayāna that insisted on the stupa cult to a different one that insisted on the cultic worship of the Buddha and Bodhisattva figures. The latter was a confluence of the traditional Sarvāstivāda and Bodhisattvayāna, which acquired the name of Mūlasarvāstivāda towards the seventh century CE.

This article seeks to present a short overview of the astronomy of Sanchi and Udayagiri (near Vidisha), and a longer overview of the astronomy of the Ajanta caves 26 and 19. With regard to Sanchi and Udayagiri, it presents excerpts from the published researches in order to create a background and context for the main topic, that is, Ajanta on which subject fresh observations are being presented here for the first time to reveal a hitherto undisclosed dimension of the architecture of two magnificent monuments of Ajanta. Eventualy, the article seeks to convey that science and astronomy had a great role to play in the temple building activity in the fifth-century India.

The shrine antechamber is a standard component of the Indian temple architecture. It was originated in the Buddhist context, and the context was the rock-cut architecture of the Deccan and central India. The first antechamber was attempted in circa 125 CE in the Nasik Cave 17. It was patronised by Indrāgnidatta, a yavana , who possibly hailed from Bactria. The second antechamber was created in Bāgh Cave 2 in ca. late 466 CE. The patron remains unknown. The third antechamber was initiated in Ajanta Cave 16 within a few months. It was patronised by Varāhadeva, the Prime Minister of Vākāṭaka Mahārāj Hari Ṣeṇa. When the third antechamber was only half excavated, the plan was cancelled by the patron himself due to a sudden threat posed by the Alchon Hūṇs led by Mahā-Ṣāhi Khingila. The Nasik antechamber was inspired from Bactria, the Bāgh antechamber was inspired from the parrallels in the Greater Gandhāra region, whereas the Ajanta Cave 16 antechamber was inspired from Bāgh Cave 2.

Ajanta’s Evolution: From Sāvakayāna to Bodhisatvayāna amid Hunnic Turmoil offers a new scholarly exploration of the rock-cut caves, their sculpture and paintings, meticulously tracing the rise, transformation, and legacy of these architectural marvels.

The book takes an interdisciplinary approach, combining elements of historical, archaeological, artistic and Buddhist studies. Part I treats the grand epoch of Śrāvakayāna, discussing archaeological contexts, cave classification methodologies, and the emergence of rock-cut monasteries under the influence of King Hari Ṣeṇa. Against the backdrop of Hunnic upheaval and societal transformations, Part II delves into the Bodhisatvayāna era, chronicling the impact of Alchon or Alkhan Hun raids, migrations, and the evolution of the rock-cut monuments.

The principle aim is to contextualize the site of Ajanta within a new historical setting. It seeks to address the paradox of how the Early Alchon or Alkhan Hunnic invasions, despite causing significant challenges to the development of the fifth-century cave temples, also provided opportunities for innovation. Another noteworthy aspect is the introduction of a novel taxonomical approach to the monuments. A revised chart for the taxonomy and typological classification of Buddhist rock-cut monuments is presented, mapping the evolutionary trajectory of architectural development over time.

This is the second edition of earlier title of the same name (2013). The subtitle has been changed here a little. The book contains:

* Colour photographs of 70 Ajanta narrative paintings.
* * 84 abridged Buddhist legends.
* Elementary introduction to the Ajanta paintings.
* Information based on the current research.
* A window to deeper studies.
* References to the scholarly works that first identified the nearest textual sources of the painted legends.

This monograph proposes a reconstructive chronology of South Asia’s history in the late fifth century CE. It shows how the Gupta lands up to Yamuna and Narmada were encroached by Alchon Hun Khiṅgila, et al. Other powerful dynasties such as the Vākāṭaka, Aulikara, Parivrājaka, and Traikūṭaka were nearly destroyed in multiple invasions. A military history of India has been reconstructed here based on a pattern of deaths of many kings. The study shows how the development of contemporary rock-cut monuments was disrupted and abandoned.

This monograph is meant for advanced researchers of South Asian architecture of the ancient times.

Here you will find a novel periodisation system to better understand how the rock-cut architecture developed across time.

Many unknown and lesser known facts will be found here suggesting that the rock-cut monuments of India developed through eight periods and five intervals. Data and interpretations will be found that indicate that on several junctures the Deccani rock-cut art and architecture were inspired by some compelling Gandhāran ideas.

There were also some junctures when Deccani ideas inspired the developments in other lands, such as Kucha in Central Asia. It is also revealed how the early Kuchean ‘central pillar caves’ inspired the later developments in the Buddhist caves of Aurangabad and the Śaivite cave temples of Konkan and the Deccan.

The periodisation system may be useful when no other reliable data such as inscriptions are available.

This monograph is meant for researchers of South Asian studies with advanced interest in history of the late fifth-century CE.

The new study proposes a reconstructive chronology of the times. It clarifies that the fifth-century rock-cut monuments of India were all Buddhist with only a few exceptions. The excavations had begun in the peaceful times of ca. 461/462 CE. However, by ca. 480 CE all the cave temples were abandoned even before  completion. The study re-examines the cause of the abandonment and presents some new revelations.

It was ca. 465 CE when the Hephthalite Hūṇs attacked the Early Alchon Hūṇs in the Greater Gandhāra region forcing the Buddhist monks to disperse inter alia towards the Deccan, which was then peaceful. Many Buddhist rock-cut sites were flourishing there under the Gupta-Vākāṭaka-Traikūṭakas: Bagh, Ajanta, Ellora, Mahāḍ, Dhārāśiva (Jain), Banoṭī, Ghaṭotkaca, Nasik, Loṇāḍ, Kondavite, and Kanheri.

The ousted Alchons led by Mahāṣāhi Khīṅgīla (r. ca. 440 to 492–496 CE) advanced into India and came up to the Narmada-Tapti valleys. The new intrusions witnessed many battles, particularly those of ca. 469, 472, and 477 CE wherein many great Indian emperors and kings were perished: Kumāragupta I, Nāgabhaṭa, Ghaṭōtkacagupta, Skandagupta, Narasimhagupta, Narendra Sena, Ravisāmba, Kumāragupta II, Hari Ṣeṇa,
and Dahrasena.

These disturbances in India now forced the migrant Gandhāran and the resident Deccani monks to escape to distant lands including Kucha in Central Asia. Consequently, there was catalysed the Kuchean Period III, which witnessed the introduction of many Gandhāran and Deccani ideas.

Finally Buddhagupta ousted the Alchons in ca. 478 CE. The persistent defeat had taught the Alchons a lesson. They now imbibed the Indian values of liberalism as statecraft, which allowed them unobstructed rule for the next one century and two decades (ca. 479–ca. 600 CE) when they ruled from Greater Gandhāra to the Narmada valley.

The new picture comes out when we attempt to synchronise the known chronologies of the Early Alchons, Early Guptas, Vākāṭakas, Traikūṭakas, Gandhāra, and the rock-cut monuments of India and Kucha in the late 5th c. CE. It is revealed that the monasteries were abandoned due to the attacks by the Early Alchon Hūṇs.

The monograph contains 15 Buddhist legends painted on the walls of Ajanta Cave No. 1 of the late fifth centry CE. Each episode -- of each of the 14/15 painted narratives of Cave 1 -- is arranged here in the same way as the painters painted them.

It is a kind of catalogue showing each narrative scene by scene, episode by episode.

The monograph covers 14 of the total 15 narrative paintings of Cave 1. It has at least one photo of every episode of 14 narratives painted on the walls of the caves. The corpus is based on the latest research by Dieter Schlingloff.

There is also an abridged re-telling of the 15 Buddhist legends. The text of the stories are reproduced from the author's earlier works.

The nearest textual sources of the narratives are given in a table in the end of the book. The table is a preface to the bibliography of ancient texts or Buddhist scriptures in Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese, Tibetan, and Mongolian. The bibliography seeks to provides in brief relevant details about the ancient manuscripts, archives, repositories, critical editions, translations, or analytical works.

Devoted exclusively to the narrative paintings, this small book is an abridged edition of An Introduction to the Ajanta Caves: With Examples of Six Caves (Baroda: Hari Sena Press, 2012; ISBN 9788192510705) by the same author.

The monograph is aimed for students of higher education studying ancient Indian history and culture or Buddhist art and archaeology of the Indian subcontinent. The language is simple so that even such general readers who desire to understand the subject in detail would have no inconvenience.

You will find here the following contents within a single volume:

- A short introduction to the historical, religious, and political background of Ajanta, such that is based on the latest researches.
- Comprehensive, systematic, and summarized re-telling of the narratives based on the latest corpus by Dieter Schlingloff.
- Extensive photographic documentation of each of the extant narrative wall paintings. Exclusion: Caves 9 and 10 that could not be photographed due to poor state of the paintings.

The book contains a detailed study of the chronological development of four Ajanta caves. It also contains a comprehensive collection of the majority of the Buddhist legends that are painted on the walls of the Ajanta caves.

The history section includes the chronological development of four Ajanta caves: Caves 1, 2, 16 and 17. This is a new account of the chronology of the Ajanta caves based on the research carried out by the author.

The narrative sections include short summaries of 84 Buddhist legends that are painted on the walls of the Caves 1, 2, 9, and 17. The short summaries are based on the pioneering research work carried by Dieter Schlingloff and his predecessors. The descriptions follow the nearest known versions of the stories, many of them from still very obscure Buddhist scriptures.

At least one photograph of each of the preserved painted legends has been reproduced. In total there are 284 colour photographs, which also include some examples from architectural details, sculptures, inscriptions, ground plans, and motifs.

A short introduction of our current understanding about the prevailing political and cultural background is also given.

The book is intended for the advanced researchers, educators, students, and such general readers who seek an in-depth understanding of the history of the Ajanta caves and the paintings.