Since the 1970s, groundwater-fed irrigation has sustained the social and economic development of ... more Since the 1970s, groundwater-fed irrigation has sustained the social and economic development of La Mancha, Spain. Without much initial regulation and control, groundwater resources and aquifer levels decreased dramatically, threatening agriculture and also highly valuable groundwater- dependent wetland ecosystems. This paper presents a historical analysis of the different policy tools used to manage and regulate groundwater abstraction in the Western Mancha aquifer after Spain approved its 1985 Water Law. It analyzes, in chronological order, the evolution of the panoply of control and management instruments introduced by the state to counter the resource depletion trend. The case presented here is paradigmatic due to the variety of policy tools applied, and its attempted implementation at various political and administrative levels. The interplay between sticks and carrots used in La Mancha shows the necessity for regulatory bodies to complement soft management approaches based on incentives with the threat of sanctions and limitations. However, as this case study shows, each policy modality has its legal and practical loopholes, which can be negotiated and exploited by groundwater users to their own advantage. Moreover, the costs of most measures, if they are to be implemented fully, can also be financially prohibitive. The paper also studies the distribution of decision-making power and how local dynamics and individual behaviors are linked to higher level regulations and policies and their impacts on groundwater management, with an emphasis on the effectiveness and limitations of these tools. Thus, the lack of effective law enforcement, fragmented political realities and a difficult legal transition towards well licensing are all problems that remain unresolved. The political instrumentalization of water management in La Mancha, and the lack of trust and dialogue between users and the state, have created a stalemate detrimental to improving groundwater management. The recuperation of water table levels starting in 2010 seems to be linked to aquifer recharge, following an unprecedented wet cycle rather than the effectiveness of the policy tools.
The Nile Delta of Egypt is known for its large irrigated area supplied with water diverted from t... more The Nile Delta of Egypt is known for its large irrigated area supplied with water diverted from the Nile River, with a limited use of groundwater, largely for domestic and industrial use. Official statistics for the whole delta indicate that there are a few thousand individual wells used for agriculture by a population of over 2 million farmers. This study, however, shows that a phenomenon of groundwater development for irrigation has been unfolding over the last few years, largely below the radar of managers and researchers. A survey was carried out in the central part of the delta with the objective of (1) uncovering the actual situation of groundwater use in this part of the delta and (2) speculating on its implications. The results of the survey pointed to a recent and booming tube-well drilling industry, with well densities in some parts reaching one well every 2 ha. The development of groundwater abstraction in the central delta is strongly linked to inadequate and/or untimely availability of surface water in the canals. A technical, economic, and management characterization of wells complements the study, showing a continuum between purely private/individual ownership of wells and collective investments and management. Lastly, the article explores the implications of unchecked abstraction at the farm, local and delta scales.
Over recent decades, groundwater-fed irrigation has sustained the social and economic development... more Over recent decades, groundwater-fed irrigation has sustained the social and economic development of La Mancha, Spain. Without much initial regulation and control, groundwater resources and aquifer levels decreased dramatically, threatening agriculture and also highly valuable groundwater-dependant wetland ecosystems. This paper presents as a historical analysis of the different policy tools used to manage and regulate groundwater abstraction in the Western Mancha Aquifer after Spain approved its 1985 Water Law. It analyses the panoply of control and management instruments laid out by the state to counter the resource depletion trend, demonstrating the necessity by regulatory bodies to complement soft incentives (carrots) with the threat of sanctions and groundwater access limitations (sticks). As this case study shows however, each policy modality has its legal and practical loopholes which can be negotiated and exploited by groundwater users to their own advantage. Improvements in groundwater levels starting in 2010 seem to be linked to aquifer recharge following an unprecedented wet cycle rather than the effectiveness of the policy tools.
This article explores the creation of new groundwater-based irrigation communities as a result of... more This article explores the creation of new groundwater-based irrigation communities as a result of the internal colonisation projects of Franco's government in the 1950s in La Mancha, Central Spain. The literature on Spain's hydraulic mission has mainly focused on the use and mobilisation of large surface water projects as part of a state-driven modernisation mission promoting irrigation and water management infrastructure without much contextualisation or focus on its operationalisation at the local level. This paper complements this body of work by examining the local socio-political development of government-led irrigation plans in the colonisation town of Llanos del Caudillo. Moreover, the study of Spain's hydro-politics and colonisation efforts usually focuses on surface water infrastructure while the public promotion of groundwater use has always been relegated to a second place, as it was mainly driven by private initiative. This paper substantiates the role of groundwater within Spain's hydraulic mission and production of state-sponsored irrigated landscapes.
The ‘silent revolution’ is a phenomenon describing the individualistic behaviour of farmers in th... more The ‘silent revolution’ is a phenomenon describing the individualistic behaviour of farmers in the adoption of intensive groundwater abstraction technologies, which in some cases has led to groundwater overabstraction and environmental degradation in semiarid areas such as La Mancha, Spain. However, a lacuna exists as to the extent to which state politics have affected the development of groundwater abstraction technologies in Spain. With new quantitative and qualitative data from the irrigation community of Manzanares and public irrigation and colonisation plans, this report studies the adoption of groundwater abstraction technology and investigates the historical role of the state in the development of modern groundwater-fed irrigation socio-ecologies in the semiarid area of La Mancha in Spain.
This study examines the socioeconomic features that underpin the expansion of groundwater-depende... more This study examines the socioeconomic features that underpin the expansion of groundwater-dependent irrigation in Northern State, Sudan. Groundwater development in the region serves as an economic lifeline given the poor Nile-based irrigation infrastructure and future changes in Nile hydrology. Groundwater-dependent irrigation is found to be expanding in previously uncultivated regions increasingly distant from the Nile. The study finds these historically marginal lands are targeted for capital-intensive agricultural projects because landholding patterns in traditionally cultivated areas preclude new large developments and improved infrastructure has lowered farming costs in distant terraces. Private companies and large landholders have a history of successful agricultural ventures in Northern State and are reliant on easily accessible and reliable groundwater resources for these new farms.
The Moroccan government has used aquifer contracts as a management tool to control groundwater de... more The Moroccan government has used aquifer contracts as a management tool to control groundwater depletion. The first aquifer contract was signed in 2006 for the Souss region as a technical and financial non-binding contract between stakeholders and the government. The contract contemplated specific measures to be implemented across the Souss Massa-Draa Basin, including water fees and restriction of cultivated areas. This GRIPP Case Profile reviews the evolution of aquifer contracts in Morocco and the case of the Souss, examining the various social, political and institutional challenges surrounding its endorsement and implementation. Despite its innovative approach as a multi-user platform aiming to consolidate specific groundwater management activities on the ground, the voluntary nature of the aquifer contract limited the number of participating stakeholders. Also, the lack of institutional capacity and clarity of roles under the decentralization process prohibited its oversight and enforcement. The Case Profile illustrates the complexity of groundwater management within a context of increased resource dependence, and the necessity to enhance and sustain inclusive participatory arrangements. In order to improve the effectiveness of aquifer contracts, Morocco needs to solidify its decentralization of groundwater management, and clear up environmental, agricultural and irrigation policy inconsistencies. Better data to understand and manage groundwater resources in an integrated manner are also needed, as well as proper oversight and binding measures that encourage transparency and adherence to the water law
The Nile Delta of Egypt is known for its large irrigated area supplied with water diverted from t... more The Nile Delta of Egypt is known for its large irrigated area supplied with water diverted from the Nile River, with a limited use of groundwater, largely for domestic and industrial use. Official statistics for the whole delta indicate that there are a few thousand individual wells used for agriculture by a population of over 2 million farmers. This study, however, shows that a phenomenon of groundwater development
for irrigation has been unfolding over the last few years, largely below the radar of managers and researchers. A survey was carried out in the central part of the delta with the objective of (1) uncovering the actual situation of groundwater use in this part of the delta and (2) speculating on its implications. The results of the survey pointed to a recent and booming tube-well drilling industry, with well densities in some parts reaching one well every 2 ha. The development of groundwater abstraction in the central delta is strongly linked to inadequate and/or untimely availability of surface water in the canals. A technical, economic, and management characterization of wells complements the study, showing a continuum between purely private/individual ownership of wells and collective investments and management. Lastly, the article
explores the implications of unchecked abstraction at the farm, local and delta scales.
Avoiding the negative effects of intensive groundwater resource use is challenging, especially wh... more Avoiding the negative effects of intensive groundwater resource use is challenging, especially when the interactions and causal pathways between biophysical and socioeconomic processes are complex, and when users, management, and regulatory bodies are spatially dispersed. The plain of Haouaria, in north-eastern Tunisia, has witnessed an important development of groundwater abstraction, fueled by the multiplication of wells tapping the underlying shallow and deep aquifers. As the economic activities linked to such development are threatened by the degradation of groundwater quantity and quality, the aim of this paper is to investigate actors’ perceptions of these processes and to emphasize the undertaken mitigation measures. The study builds on semi-directive surveys with the different groundwater users and archive data in order to understand the technical, institutional and agricultural practices driving groundwater development. The paper starts by
investigating the historical context of groundwater development and the progressive degradation of the resource. Then, the paper identifies the main constraints and adaptation strategies of the various users (public and private), before examining the challenges faced by groundwater users. Results show varied patterns of actors' behavior, interest, and perception of the groundwater resource. This analysis show that farmers' lack of collective action, land tenure insecurity, labor shortage, the monopoly of production inputs by suppliers, and the cost of energy for pumping are the main challenges faced by groundwater users. The study finally explores different management and policy options that can lead to a more environmentally and socioeconomically sustainable socio-hydrological system.
The increasing demand for solar-powered irrigation systems in agriculture has spurred a race for ... more The increasing demand for solar-powered irrigation systems in agriculture has spurred a race for projects as it potentially offers a cost-effective and sustainable energy solution to off-grid farmers while helping food production and sustaining livelihoods. As a result, countries such as Morocco and Yemen have been promoting this technology for farmers and national plans with variable finance and subsidy schemes like in India have been put forward. By focusing on the application of solar photovoltaic (PV) pumping systems in groundwater-fed agriculture , this paper highlights the need to further study the impacts, opportunities and limitations of this technology within the Water-Energy-Food (WEF) nexus. It shows how most policies and projects promoting solar-based groundwater pumping for irrigation through subsidies and other incentives overlook the real financial and economic costs of this solution as well as the availability of water resources and the potential negative impacts on the environment caused by groundwater over-abstraction. There is a need to monitor groundwater abstraction, targeting subsidies and improving the knowledge and monitoring of resource use. Failing to address these issues could lead to further groundwater depletion, which could threaten the sustainability of this technology and dependent livelihoods in the future.
Since the 1970s, groundwater-fed irrigation has sustained the social and economic development of ... more Since the 1970s, groundwater-fed irrigation has sustained the social and economic development of La Mancha, Spain. Without much initial regulation and control, groundwater resources and aquifer levels decreased dramatically, threatening agriculture and also highly valuable groundwater- dependent wetland ecosystems. This paper presents a historical analysis of the different policy tools used to manage and regulate groundwater abstraction in the Western Mancha aquifer after Spain approved its 1985 Water Law. It analyzes, in chronological order, the evolution of the panoply of control and management instruments introduced by the state to counter the resource depletion trend. The case presented here is paradigmatic due to the variety of policy tools applied, and its attempted implementation at various political and administrative levels. The interplay between sticks and carrots used in La Mancha shows the necessity for regulatory bodies to complement soft management approaches based on incentives with the threat of sanctions and limitations. However, as this case study shows, each policy modality has its legal and practical loopholes, which can be negotiated and exploited by groundwater users to their own advantage. Moreover, the costs of most measures, if they are to be implemented fully, can also be financially prohibitive. The paper also studies the distribution of decision-making power and how local dynamics and individual behaviors are linked to higher level regulations and policies and their impacts on groundwater management, with an emphasis on the effectiveness and limitations of these tools. Thus, the lack of effective law enforcement, fragmented political realities and a difficult legal transition towards well licensing are all problems that remain unresolved. The political instrumentalization of water management in La Mancha, and the lack of trust and dialogue between users and the state, have created a stalemate detrimental to improving groundwater management. The recuperation of water table levels starting in 2010 seems to be linked to aquifer recharge, following an unprecedented wet cycle rather than the effectiveness of the policy tools.
The Nile Delta of Egypt is known for its large irrigated area supplied with water diverted from t... more The Nile Delta of Egypt is known for its large irrigated area supplied with water diverted from the Nile River, with a limited use of groundwater, largely for domestic and industrial use. Official statistics for the whole delta indicate that there are a few thousand individual wells used for agriculture by a population of over 2 million farmers. This study, however, shows that a phenomenon of groundwater development for irrigation has been unfolding over the last few years, largely below the radar of managers and researchers. A survey was carried out in the central part of the delta with the objective of (1) uncovering the actual situation of groundwater use in this part of the delta and (2) speculating on its implications. The results of the survey pointed to a recent and booming tube-well drilling industry, with well densities in some parts reaching one well every 2 ha. The development of groundwater abstraction in the central delta is strongly linked to inadequate and/or untimely availability of surface water in the canals. A technical, economic, and management characterization of wells complements the study, showing a continuum between purely private/individual ownership of wells and collective investments and management. Lastly, the article explores the implications of unchecked abstraction at the farm, local and delta scales.
Over recent decades, groundwater-fed irrigation has sustained the social and economic development... more Over recent decades, groundwater-fed irrigation has sustained the social and economic development of La Mancha, Spain. Without much initial regulation and control, groundwater resources and aquifer levels decreased dramatically, threatening agriculture and also highly valuable groundwater-dependant wetland ecosystems. This paper presents as a historical analysis of the different policy tools used to manage and regulate groundwater abstraction in the Western Mancha Aquifer after Spain approved its 1985 Water Law. It analyses the panoply of control and management instruments laid out by the state to counter the resource depletion trend, demonstrating the necessity by regulatory bodies to complement soft incentives (carrots) with the threat of sanctions and groundwater access limitations (sticks). As this case study shows however, each policy modality has its legal and practical loopholes which can be negotiated and exploited by groundwater users to their own advantage. Improvements in groundwater levels starting in 2010 seem to be linked to aquifer recharge following an unprecedented wet cycle rather than the effectiveness of the policy tools.
This article explores the creation of new groundwater-based irrigation communities as a result of... more This article explores the creation of new groundwater-based irrigation communities as a result of the internal colonisation projects of Franco's government in the 1950s in La Mancha, Central Spain. The literature on Spain's hydraulic mission has mainly focused on the use and mobilisation of large surface water projects as part of a state-driven modernisation mission promoting irrigation and water management infrastructure without much contextualisation or focus on its operationalisation at the local level. This paper complements this body of work by examining the local socio-political development of government-led irrigation plans in the colonisation town of Llanos del Caudillo. Moreover, the study of Spain's hydro-politics and colonisation efforts usually focuses on surface water infrastructure while the public promotion of groundwater use has always been relegated to a second place, as it was mainly driven by private initiative. This paper substantiates the role of groundwater within Spain's hydraulic mission and production of state-sponsored irrigated landscapes.
The ‘silent revolution’ is a phenomenon describing the individualistic behaviour of farmers in th... more The ‘silent revolution’ is a phenomenon describing the individualistic behaviour of farmers in the adoption of intensive groundwater abstraction technologies, which in some cases has led to groundwater overabstraction and environmental degradation in semiarid areas such as La Mancha, Spain. However, a lacuna exists as to the extent to which state politics have affected the development of groundwater abstraction technologies in Spain. With new quantitative and qualitative data from the irrigation community of Manzanares and public irrigation and colonisation plans, this report studies the adoption of groundwater abstraction technology and investigates the historical role of the state in the development of modern groundwater-fed irrigation socio-ecologies in the semiarid area of La Mancha in Spain.
This study examines the socioeconomic features that underpin the expansion of groundwater-depende... more This study examines the socioeconomic features that underpin the expansion of groundwater-dependent irrigation in Northern State, Sudan. Groundwater development in the region serves as an economic lifeline given the poor Nile-based irrigation infrastructure and future changes in Nile hydrology. Groundwater-dependent irrigation is found to be expanding in previously uncultivated regions increasingly distant from the Nile. The study finds these historically marginal lands are targeted for capital-intensive agricultural projects because landholding patterns in traditionally cultivated areas preclude new large developments and improved infrastructure has lowered farming costs in distant terraces. Private companies and large landholders have a history of successful agricultural ventures in Northern State and are reliant on easily accessible and reliable groundwater resources for these new farms.
The Moroccan government has used aquifer contracts as a management tool to control groundwater de... more The Moroccan government has used aquifer contracts as a management tool to control groundwater depletion. The first aquifer contract was signed in 2006 for the Souss region as a technical and financial non-binding contract between stakeholders and the government. The contract contemplated specific measures to be implemented across the Souss Massa-Draa Basin, including water fees and restriction of cultivated areas. This GRIPP Case Profile reviews the evolution of aquifer contracts in Morocco and the case of the Souss, examining the various social, political and institutional challenges surrounding its endorsement and implementation. Despite its innovative approach as a multi-user platform aiming to consolidate specific groundwater management activities on the ground, the voluntary nature of the aquifer contract limited the number of participating stakeholders. Also, the lack of institutional capacity and clarity of roles under the decentralization process prohibited its oversight and enforcement. The Case Profile illustrates the complexity of groundwater management within a context of increased resource dependence, and the necessity to enhance and sustain inclusive participatory arrangements. In order to improve the effectiveness of aquifer contracts, Morocco needs to solidify its decentralization of groundwater management, and clear up environmental, agricultural and irrigation policy inconsistencies. Better data to understand and manage groundwater resources in an integrated manner are also needed, as well as proper oversight and binding measures that encourage transparency and adherence to the water law
The Nile Delta of Egypt is known for its large irrigated area supplied with water diverted from t... more The Nile Delta of Egypt is known for its large irrigated area supplied with water diverted from the Nile River, with a limited use of groundwater, largely for domestic and industrial use. Official statistics for the whole delta indicate that there are a few thousand individual wells used for agriculture by a population of over 2 million farmers. This study, however, shows that a phenomenon of groundwater development
for irrigation has been unfolding over the last few years, largely below the radar of managers and researchers. A survey was carried out in the central part of the delta with the objective of (1) uncovering the actual situation of groundwater use in this part of the delta and (2) speculating on its implications. The results of the survey pointed to a recent and booming tube-well drilling industry, with well densities in some parts reaching one well every 2 ha. The development of groundwater abstraction in the central delta is strongly linked to inadequate and/or untimely availability of surface water in the canals. A technical, economic, and management characterization of wells complements the study, showing a continuum between purely private/individual ownership of wells and collective investments and management. Lastly, the article
explores the implications of unchecked abstraction at the farm, local and delta scales.
Avoiding the negative effects of intensive groundwater resource use is challenging, especially wh... more Avoiding the negative effects of intensive groundwater resource use is challenging, especially when the interactions and causal pathways between biophysical and socioeconomic processes are complex, and when users, management, and regulatory bodies are spatially dispersed. The plain of Haouaria, in north-eastern Tunisia, has witnessed an important development of groundwater abstraction, fueled by the multiplication of wells tapping the underlying shallow and deep aquifers. As the economic activities linked to such development are threatened by the degradation of groundwater quantity and quality, the aim of this paper is to investigate actors’ perceptions of these processes and to emphasize the undertaken mitigation measures. The study builds on semi-directive surveys with the different groundwater users and archive data in order to understand the technical, institutional and agricultural practices driving groundwater development. The paper starts by
investigating the historical context of groundwater development and the progressive degradation of the resource. Then, the paper identifies the main constraints and adaptation strategies of the various users (public and private), before examining the challenges faced by groundwater users. Results show varied patterns of actors' behavior, interest, and perception of the groundwater resource. This analysis show that farmers' lack of collective action, land tenure insecurity, labor shortage, the monopoly of production inputs by suppliers, and the cost of energy for pumping are the main challenges faced by groundwater users. The study finally explores different management and policy options that can lead to a more environmentally and socioeconomically sustainable socio-hydrological system.
The increasing demand for solar-powered irrigation systems in agriculture has spurred a race for ... more The increasing demand for solar-powered irrigation systems in agriculture has spurred a race for projects as it potentially offers a cost-effective and sustainable energy solution to off-grid farmers while helping food production and sustaining livelihoods. As a result, countries such as Morocco and Yemen have been promoting this technology for farmers and national plans with variable finance and subsidy schemes like in India have been put forward. By focusing on the application of solar photovoltaic (PV) pumping systems in groundwater-fed agriculture , this paper highlights the need to further study the impacts, opportunities and limitations of this technology within the Water-Energy-Food (WEF) nexus. It shows how most policies and projects promoting solar-based groundwater pumping for irrigation through subsidies and other incentives overlook the real financial and economic costs of this solution as well as the availability of water resources and the potential negative impacts on the environment caused by groundwater over-abstraction. There is a need to monitor groundwater abstraction, targeting subsidies and improving the knowledge and monitoring of resource use. Failing to address these issues could lead to further groundwater depletion, which could threaten the sustainability of this technology and dependent livelihoods in the future.
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Papers by Alvar Closas
The paper also studies the distribution of decision-making power and how local dynamics and individual behaviors are linked to higher level regulations and policies and their impacts on groundwater management, with an emphasis on the effectiveness and limitations of these tools. Thus, the lack of effective law enforcement, fragmented political realities and a difficult legal transition towards well licensing are all problems that remain unresolved. The political instrumentalization of water management in La Mancha, and the lack of trust and dialogue between users and the state, have created a stalemate detrimental to improving groundwater management. The recuperation of water table levels starting in 2010 seems to be linked to aquifer recharge, following an unprecedented wet cycle rather than the effectiveness of the policy tools.
surrounding its endorsement and implementation. Despite its innovative approach as a multi-user platform aiming to consolidate specific groundwater management activities on the ground, the voluntary nature of the aquifer contract limited the number of participating stakeholders. Also, the lack of institutional capacity and clarity of roles under the decentralization process prohibited its oversight and enforcement. The Case Profile illustrates the complexity of groundwater management
within a context of increased resource dependence, and the necessity to enhance and sustain inclusive participatory arrangements. In order to improve the effectiveness of aquifer contracts, Morocco needs to solidify its decentralization of groundwater management, and clear up environmental, agricultural and irrigation policy inconsistencies. Better data to understand and manage groundwater resources in an integrated manner are also needed, as well as proper oversight and binding measures that encourage transparency and adherence to the water law
for irrigation has been unfolding over the last few years, largely below the radar of managers and researchers. A survey was carried out in the central part of the delta with the objective of (1) uncovering the actual situation of groundwater use in this part of the delta and (2) speculating on its implications. The results of the survey pointed to a recent and booming tube-well drilling industry, with well densities in some parts reaching one well every 2 ha. The development of groundwater abstraction in the central delta is strongly linked to inadequate and/or untimely availability of surface water in the canals. A technical, economic, and management characterization of wells complements the study, showing a continuum between purely private/individual ownership of wells and collective investments and management. Lastly, the article
explores the implications of unchecked abstraction at the farm, local and delta scales.
investigating the historical context of groundwater development and the progressive degradation of the resource. Then, the paper identifies the main constraints and adaptation strategies of the various users (public and private), before examining the challenges faced by groundwater users. Results show varied patterns of actors' behavior, interest, and perception of the groundwater resource. This analysis show that farmers' lack of collective action, land tenure insecurity, labor shortage, the monopoly of production inputs by suppliers, and the cost of energy for pumping are the main challenges faced by groundwater users. The study finally explores different management and policy options that can lead to a more environmentally and socioeconomically sustainable socio-hydrological system.
The paper also studies the distribution of decision-making power and how local dynamics and individual behaviors are linked to higher level regulations and policies and their impacts on groundwater management, with an emphasis on the effectiveness and limitations of these tools. Thus, the lack of effective law enforcement, fragmented political realities and a difficult legal transition towards well licensing are all problems that remain unresolved. The political instrumentalization of water management in La Mancha, and the lack of trust and dialogue between users and the state, have created a stalemate detrimental to improving groundwater management. The recuperation of water table levels starting in 2010 seems to be linked to aquifer recharge, following an unprecedented wet cycle rather than the effectiveness of the policy tools.
surrounding its endorsement and implementation. Despite its innovative approach as a multi-user platform aiming to consolidate specific groundwater management activities on the ground, the voluntary nature of the aquifer contract limited the number of participating stakeholders. Also, the lack of institutional capacity and clarity of roles under the decentralization process prohibited its oversight and enforcement. The Case Profile illustrates the complexity of groundwater management
within a context of increased resource dependence, and the necessity to enhance and sustain inclusive participatory arrangements. In order to improve the effectiveness of aquifer contracts, Morocco needs to solidify its decentralization of groundwater management, and clear up environmental, agricultural and irrigation policy inconsistencies. Better data to understand and manage groundwater resources in an integrated manner are also needed, as well as proper oversight and binding measures that encourage transparency and adherence to the water law
for irrigation has been unfolding over the last few years, largely below the radar of managers and researchers. A survey was carried out in the central part of the delta with the objective of (1) uncovering the actual situation of groundwater use in this part of the delta and (2) speculating on its implications. The results of the survey pointed to a recent and booming tube-well drilling industry, with well densities in some parts reaching one well every 2 ha. The development of groundwater abstraction in the central delta is strongly linked to inadequate and/or untimely availability of surface water in the canals. A technical, economic, and management characterization of wells complements the study, showing a continuum between purely private/individual ownership of wells and collective investments and management. Lastly, the article
explores the implications of unchecked abstraction at the farm, local and delta scales.
investigating the historical context of groundwater development and the progressive degradation of the resource. Then, the paper identifies the main constraints and adaptation strategies of the various users (public and private), before examining the challenges faced by groundwater users. Results show varied patterns of actors' behavior, interest, and perception of the groundwater resource. This analysis show that farmers' lack of collective action, land tenure insecurity, labor shortage, the monopoly of production inputs by suppliers, and the cost of energy for pumping are the main challenges faced by groundwater users. The study finally explores different management and policy options that can lead to a more environmentally and socioeconomically sustainable socio-hydrological system.