Research on media and information literacy has been growing exponentially over the past years, bu... more Research on media and information literacy has been growing exponentially over the past years, but it has focused more on the examination of media practices than on the assessment of media and information literacy skills. In this paper we describe the process of designing and implementing a Media and Information Literacy Test comprising 20 items. We present the results of the analysis carried out to validate the items and to construct a scale of media and information literacy skills using Item Response Theory (IRT). Findings indicate that the conceptual framework adopted is adequate to measure media and information literacy and that the test has good discrimination and difficulty parameters. The test is based on a more comprehensive framework used to assess media and information literacy skills than those used in previous studies and can be used on an item-by-item basis. In this sense, it is a novel contribution to current efforts to measure media and information literacy skills. Keywords: media and information literacy, direct assessment of media and information literacy skills, Item Response Theory
This study investigates how reading achievement relates to student and
school characteristics in ... more This study investigates how reading achievement relates to student and school characteristics in countries with different reading scores at the fourth grade level. Data comes from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2011 for Denmark, Sweden, and France and the multilevel analysis includes two levels: student/home and schools. The school effectiveness and the home literacy models informed the selection of the independent variables. Results show that students’ early literacy skills, home literacy practices and resources, and reading behavior are associated with reading scores in all countries. Furthermore, across different countries there are student/home universals and school particulars that explain variation in reading achievement. Educational policies should address home and school literacy skills and practices, school climate, and school composition to improve students’ reading ability.
RESUMO: Neste trabalho pretende-se obter as estimativas dos parâmetros dos itens e dos factores l... more RESUMO: Neste trabalho pretende-se obter as estimativas dos parâmetros dos itens e dos factores latentes do modelo da Teoria de Resposta ao Item multidimensional logístico de dois parâmetros conjugando a estimação bayesiana com o uso de métodos de simulação ...
The analyses presented in this report indicate that in several Member States (MS) 15 year-old stu... more The analyses presented in this report indicate that in several Member States (MS) 15 year-old students in vocational-oriented programmes (VET) perform better in digital reading than in print reading in PISA 2012. When differentiated by programme of study – VET versus general education programmes – VET students perform better in digital than in print reading in Belgium, France, Italy, Portugal and the Slovak Republic. Moreover, VET students display specific patterns of ICT-related practices. For example, they have more access to computers at school than at home and their engagement in frequent browsing of the internet for school work is associated with higher digital reading achievement. Results suggest that schools should help VET students develop further digital skills to support their learning.
The purpose of this technical brief is to assess current methodologies for the collection and cal... more The purpose of this technical brief is to assess current methodologies for the collection and calculation of teacher costs in European Union (EU) Member States in view of improving data series and indicators related to teacher salaries and teacher costs. To this end, CRELL compares the Eurydice collection on teacher salaries with the similar Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) data collection and calculates teacher costs based on the methodology established by Statistics Canada as explained in Indicator B7 in Education at a Glance (OECD, 2014). This indicator allows for analysing the different factors that influence teacher costs: teacher salaries, teaching time, instruction hours and student/teacher ratios, as well as class size. The analyses will provide specific information on the contribution of the different factors used to derive the Salary Cost of Teachers per Student (CCS) and how they might depend on the way data for the different factors are collected. On the basis of assessing the different data collections with similar methodologies, suggestions for development work that could be undertaken to align the Eurydice and OECD data collections are offered.
Page 1. MEDIÇÃO DA COMPETÊNCIA DOS ALUNOS DO ENSINO BÁSICO EM MATEMÁTICA: 3EMAT, UMA PROPOSTA Mar... more Page 1. MEDIÇÃO DA COMPETÊNCIA DOS ALUNOS DO ENSINO BÁSICO EM MATEMÁTICA: 3EMAT, UMA PROPOSTA Maria Eugénia Ferrão, Patrícia Costa, Vera Marisa Navio, Vera Mónica Dias (Universidade da Beira Interior) ...
This work studies the psychometric properties of the multiple choice tests used to assess skills ... more This work studies the psychometric properties of the multiple choice tests used to assess skills in Statistics in the Integrated Masters Degree in Engineering and Industrial Management of the University of Minho. The results show the importance of measuring the quality of the instruments to a fair assessment of the students. Moreover, in the Bologna Process context, multiple choice tests in combination with other learning assessment methods are an alternative for the practical implementation of a continuous assessment. The Classical Test Theory approach and Item Response Models were applied to the data obtained in the tests administered to students enrolled in the academic years 2006/2007 and 2007/2008. The statistics considered are: item discrimination and difficulty, reliability (internal consistency), information function and standard error of measurement. With the aim of improving the items that compose the instrument, we present the poor items and analyse them in terms of speci...
The two-parameter logistic item response model is a latent variable model which is widely used bo... more The two-parameter logistic item response model is a latent variable model which is widely used both in educational and psychological data analysis. We propose an extension of the marginal maximum likelihood estimation using a wavelet density estimator for the latent variable instead of assuming a normal distribution. The approach can be straightforward applied to the Rasch model and to the three parameter logistic model. Illustrations with simulated and real data are given. Several statistics such as mean absolute error, mean square error, integrated squared error and chi-square goodness-of-fit test, are used to compare the results obtained.
In this work, the psychometric properties of a multiple choice questions test are used to assess ... more In this work, the psychometric properties of a multiple choice questions test are used to assess skills on Statistics in the Master of Management and Industrial Engineering of the University of Minho. Data has been collected from two consecutive academic years, 2006/2007 and 2007/2008, involving 158 students. The results show the importance of measuring the quality of the instruments to a fair assessment of the students. The Bologna Declaration brought reforms into higher education that implies changes both on learning and teaching approaches and in methods for assessment. In this sense, multiple choice tests in combination with other learning assessment methods are an alternative for the practical implementation of a continuous assessment and thus, framing the student learning. The approach that is being used is the Item Response Models (IRM) (Birnbaum, 1968; Hambleton, Swaminathan and Rogers, 1991; Costa and Ferrão, 2005). The statistics that have been considered are: estimates fo...
This report offers a detailed description of teaching practices at the primary and secondary scho... more This report offers a detailed description of teaching practices at the primary and secondary school levels and it explores some relationships between teaching practices and other factors such as student achievement and class size. The latest data from several large-scale assessments in education is used for these purposes, namely TIMSS & PIRLS 2011, PISA 2012 and TALIS 2013. The focus of the report is on the mapping of the frequency of different teaching practices across European Member States (EU MS) at ISCED levels 1 and 2 as measured in TIMSS/PIRLS at the fourth grade level, in PISA for 15-year olds and in TALIS for teachers in ISCED level 2.
In this report we used the European Survey on Language Competences (ESLC) in order to identify fa... more In this report we used the European Survey on Language Competences (ESLC) in order to identify factors specific factors to language learning that affect secondary school students´ proficiency according to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). We considered variables related to the school in terms of system level policies, variables related to students´ perception of the nature and quality of their lessons, the usefulness they attach to learning the target language and their exposure to it out of school. We used a multinomial regression model to compare students in the Pre-A1 level with the Basic User level (combination of CEFR levels A1 and A2), and the latter with the Independent User level (which includes levels B1 and B2). We ran the analysis for 13 adjudicated entities that participated in the ESLC and have English as their first foreign language. We found that there is wide variation across countries, but that it is worth considering the contribution of variables related to internal system-level policies and external learning conditions. Likewise, we verified that some variables related to classroom methodology and student motivation also contribute to explain achievement. Results indicate that, in general, students´ perceived difficulty level of lessons, students´ perception of the usefulness of language learning for entertainment and the frequency with which they watch movies in the original version explains achievement. In addition, in most countries, parents´ knowledge of the foreign language has a positive effect in students’ achievement. Among the most important school factors that impact students´ attainment, we found that the earlier the onset of language learning the higher the attained language proficiency.
It has widely been acknowledged that education is a major source of economic prosperity and socia... more It has widely been acknowledged that education is a major source of economic prosperity and social well-being. Education is not only an important factor in the productivity and innovative capacity of an economy, but is also a prerequisite for social and cultural changes in patterns of consumption and leisure behaviour to achieve a sustainable lifestyle. It puts people in a position to take well-informed decisions about the future, to assume responsibility for these decisions and to judge how their personal behaviour will affect future generations. Thus, we are then well aware that education gives access to knowledge that helps individuals and society to be more stable and resilient in times of change. These social returns can take the form of “market outcomes” such as productivity or earnings and “non-market outcomes” such as health, civic participation and more generally social capital. Deeper understanding of the contribution of education to the provision of these social outcomes is a desirable goal. While the educational system is the primary agent for the acquisition of such knowledge, learning may also take place in the family, the workplace and among our social acquaintances all throughout our live. Nowadays, constant changes taking place in society encourage individuals that besides grasping occupation-specific skills they must also stock some other various information processing skills to help them cope with this rapid changing environment, especially in the labor market. The Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) was designed to provide information on some these key skills in society. It directly measures proficiency in several information-processing skills –namely literacy, numeracy and problem solving in technology-rich environment. Simultaneously, it provides insights on key social outcomes such as the level of trust in others, participation in associative, religious, political or charity activities (volunteering), political efficacy or the sense of influence on the political process, and self-assessed health status. The main findings on the relationship between education in its different forms (years of attainment, skills and adult lifelong learning) and the different social outcomes are presented in this report.
This report reviews evidence regarding the foreign language competences of European citizens and ... more This report reviews evidence regarding the foreign language competences of European citizens and presents new findings about the relationship between foreign language skills and the likelihood of being in employment. In view of providing research evidence that can inform European Union (EU) policy initiatives, it reviews studies that frame knowledge of languages as a form of human capital, presents descriptive statistics about language knowledge and investigates whether this knowledge is related to employment chances. Using data from the Adult Education Survey (AES 2011) the analyses show how many languages adults know and their proficiency level in the two best known languages in the 25 Member States. To understand the relationship between language knowledge and employment status, for Member States was used to examine whether skills in foreign languages increase the employment rates of 25-64 year-old adults. In addition, the analyses capture different relationships between language skills and employment for specific languages - English, French, German, Russian and Spanish – and age groups (25-40 and 41-64). Findings indicate that knowing foreign languages and being proficient in them is an important factor for being employed. This is the case in 17 Member States, although different patterns emerge in different Member States in relation to specific languages, proficiency levels and age groups.
The purpose of this technical brief is to assess current methodologies for the collection and cal... more The purpose of this technical brief is to assess current methodologies for the collection and calculation of teacher costs in European Union (EU) Member States in view of improving data series and indicators related to teacher salaries and teacher costs. To this end, CRELL compares the Eurydice collection on teacher salaries with the similar Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) data collection and calculates teacher costs based on the methodology established by Statistics Canada as explained in Indicator B7 in Education at a Glance (OECD, 2014). This indicator allows for analysing the different factors that influence teacher costs: teacher salaries, teaching time, instruction hours and student/teacher ratios, as well as class size. The analyses will provide specific information on the contribution of the different factors used to derive the Salary Cost of Teachers per Student (CCS) and how they might depend on the way data for the different factors are collected. On the basis of assessing the different forms of data collection with the same methodology, suggestions for development work that could be undertaken to align the Eurydice and OECD data collections are offered.
Research on media and information literacy has been growing exponentially over the past years, bu... more Research on media and information literacy has been growing exponentially over the past years, but it has focused more on the examination of media practices than on the assessment of media and information literacy skills. In this paper we describe the process of designing and implementing a Media and Information Literacy Test comprising 20 items. We present the results of the analysis carried out to validate the items and to construct a scale of media and information literacy skills using Item Response Theory (IRT). Findings indicate that the conceptual framework adopted is adequate to measure media and information literacy and that the test has good discrimination and difficulty parameters. The test is based on a more comprehensive framework used to assess media and information literacy skills than those used in previous studies and can be used on an item-by-item basis. In this sense, it is a novel contribution to current efforts to measure media and information literacy skills. Keywords: media and information literacy, direct assessment of media and information literacy skills, Item Response Theory
This study investigates how reading achievement relates to student and
school characteristics in ... more This study investigates how reading achievement relates to student and school characteristics in countries with different reading scores at the fourth grade level. Data comes from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2011 for Denmark, Sweden, and France and the multilevel analysis includes two levels: student/home and schools. The school effectiveness and the home literacy models informed the selection of the independent variables. Results show that students’ early literacy skills, home literacy practices and resources, and reading behavior are associated with reading scores in all countries. Furthermore, across different countries there are student/home universals and school particulars that explain variation in reading achievement. Educational policies should address home and school literacy skills and practices, school climate, and school composition to improve students’ reading ability.
RESUMO: Neste trabalho pretende-se obter as estimativas dos parâmetros dos itens e dos factores l... more RESUMO: Neste trabalho pretende-se obter as estimativas dos parâmetros dos itens e dos factores latentes do modelo da Teoria de Resposta ao Item multidimensional logístico de dois parâmetros conjugando a estimação bayesiana com o uso de métodos de simulação ...
The analyses presented in this report indicate that in several Member States (MS) 15 year-old stu... more The analyses presented in this report indicate that in several Member States (MS) 15 year-old students in vocational-oriented programmes (VET) perform better in digital reading than in print reading in PISA 2012. When differentiated by programme of study – VET versus general education programmes – VET students perform better in digital than in print reading in Belgium, France, Italy, Portugal and the Slovak Republic. Moreover, VET students display specific patterns of ICT-related practices. For example, they have more access to computers at school than at home and their engagement in frequent browsing of the internet for school work is associated with higher digital reading achievement. Results suggest that schools should help VET students develop further digital skills to support their learning.
The purpose of this technical brief is to assess current methodologies for the collection and cal... more The purpose of this technical brief is to assess current methodologies for the collection and calculation of teacher costs in European Union (EU) Member States in view of improving data series and indicators related to teacher salaries and teacher costs. To this end, CRELL compares the Eurydice collection on teacher salaries with the similar Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) data collection and calculates teacher costs based on the methodology established by Statistics Canada as explained in Indicator B7 in Education at a Glance (OECD, 2014). This indicator allows for analysing the different factors that influence teacher costs: teacher salaries, teaching time, instruction hours and student/teacher ratios, as well as class size. The analyses will provide specific information on the contribution of the different factors used to derive the Salary Cost of Teachers per Student (CCS) and how they might depend on the way data for the different factors are collected. On the basis of assessing the different data collections with similar methodologies, suggestions for development work that could be undertaken to align the Eurydice and OECD data collections are offered.
Page 1. MEDIÇÃO DA COMPETÊNCIA DOS ALUNOS DO ENSINO BÁSICO EM MATEMÁTICA: 3EMAT, UMA PROPOSTA Mar... more Page 1. MEDIÇÃO DA COMPETÊNCIA DOS ALUNOS DO ENSINO BÁSICO EM MATEMÁTICA: 3EMAT, UMA PROPOSTA Maria Eugénia Ferrão, Patrícia Costa, Vera Marisa Navio, Vera Mónica Dias (Universidade da Beira Interior) ...
This work studies the psychometric properties of the multiple choice tests used to assess skills ... more This work studies the psychometric properties of the multiple choice tests used to assess skills in Statistics in the Integrated Masters Degree in Engineering and Industrial Management of the University of Minho. The results show the importance of measuring the quality of the instruments to a fair assessment of the students. Moreover, in the Bologna Process context, multiple choice tests in combination with other learning assessment methods are an alternative for the practical implementation of a continuous assessment. The Classical Test Theory approach and Item Response Models were applied to the data obtained in the tests administered to students enrolled in the academic years 2006/2007 and 2007/2008. The statistics considered are: item discrimination and difficulty, reliability (internal consistency), information function and standard error of measurement. With the aim of improving the items that compose the instrument, we present the poor items and analyse them in terms of speci...
The two-parameter logistic item response model is a latent variable model which is widely used bo... more The two-parameter logistic item response model is a latent variable model which is widely used both in educational and psychological data analysis. We propose an extension of the marginal maximum likelihood estimation using a wavelet density estimator for the latent variable instead of assuming a normal distribution. The approach can be straightforward applied to the Rasch model and to the three parameter logistic model. Illustrations with simulated and real data are given. Several statistics such as mean absolute error, mean square error, integrated squared error and chi-square goodness-of-fit test, are used to compare the results obtained.
In this work, the psychometric properties of a multiple choice questions test are used to assess ... more In this work, the psychometric properties of a multiple choice questions test are used to assess skills on Statistics in the Master of Management and Industrial Engineering of the University of Minho. Data has been collected from two consecutive academic years, 2006/2007 and 2007/2008, involving 158 students. The results show the importance of measuring the quality of the instruments to a fair assessment of the students. The Bologna Declaration brought reforms into higher education that implies changes both on learning and teaching approaches and in methods for assessment. In this sense, multiple choice tests in combination with other learning assessment methods are an alternative for the practical implementation of a continuous assessment and thus, framing the student learning. The approach that is being used is the Item Response Models (IRM) (Birnbaum, 1968; Hambleton, Swaminathan and Rogers, 1991; Costa and Ferrão, 2005). The statistics that have been considered are: estimates fo...
This report offers a detailed description of teaching practices at the primary and secondary scho... more This report offers a detailed description of teaching practices at the primary and secondary school levels and it explores some relationships between teaching practices and other factors such as student achievement and class size. The latest data from several large-scale assessments in education is used for these purposes, namely TIMSS & PIRLS 2011, PISA 2012 and TALIS 2013. The focus of the report is on the mapping of the frequency of different teaching practices across European Member States (EU MS) at ISCED levels 1 and 2 as measured in TIMSS/PIRLS at the fourth grade level, in PISA for 15-year olds and in TALIS for teachers in ISCED level 2.
In this report we used the European Survey on Language Competences (ESLC) in order to identify fa... more In this report we used the European Survey on Language Competences (ESLC) in order to identify factors specific factors to language learning that affect secondary school students´ proficiency according to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). We considered variables related to the school in terms of system level policies, variables related to students´ perception of the nature and quality of their lessons, the usefulness they attach to learning the target language and their exposure to it out of school. We used a multinomial regression model to compare students in the Pre-A1 level with the Basic User level (combination of CEFR levels A1 and A2), and the latter with the Independent User level (which includes levels B1 and B2). We ran the analysis for 13 adjudicated entities that participated in the ESLC and have English as their first foreign language. We found that there is wide variation across countries, but that it is worth considering the contribution of variables related to internal system-level policies and external learning conditions. Likewise, we verified that some variables related to classroom methodology and student motivation also contribute to explain achievement. Results indicate that, in general, students´ perceived difficulty level of lessons, students´ perception of the usefulness of language learning for entertainment and the frequency with which they watch movies in the original version explains achievement. In addition, in most countries, parents´ knowledge of the foreign language has a positive effect in students’ achievement. Among the most important school factors that impact students´ attainment, we found that the earlier the onset of language learning the higher the attained language proficiency.
It has widely been acknowledged that education is a major source of economic prosperity and socia... more It has widely been acknowledged that education is a major source of economic prosperity and social well-being. Education is not only an important factor in the productivity and innovative capacity of an economy, but is also a prerequisite for social and cultural changes in patterns of consumption and leisure behaviour to achieve a sustainable lifestyle. It puts people in a position to take well-informed decisions about the future, to assume responsibility for these decisions and to judge how their personal behaviour will affect future generations. Thus, we are then well aware that education gives access to knowledge that helps individuals and society to be more stable and resilient in times of change. These social returns can take the form of “market outcomes” such as productivity or earnings and “non-market outcomes” such as health, civic participation and more generally social capital. Deeper understanding of the contribution of education to the provision of these social outcomes is a desirable goal. While the educational system is the primary agent for the acquisition of such knowledge, learning may also take place in the family, the workplace and among our social acquaintances all throughout our live. Nowadays, constant changes taking place in society encourage individuals that besides grasping occupation-specific skills they must also stock some other various information processing skills to help them cope with this rapid changing environment, especially in the labor market. The Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) was designed to provide information on some these key skills in society. It directly measures proficiency in several information-processing skills –namely literacy, numeracy and problem solving in technology-rich environment. Simultaneously, it provides insights on key social outcomes such as the level of trust in others, participation in associative, religious, political or charity activities (volunteering), political efficacy or the sense of influence on the political process, and self-assessed health status. The main findings on the relationship between education in its different forms (years of attainment, skills and adult lifelong learning) and the different social outcomes are presented in this report.
This report reviews evidence regarding the foreign language competences of European citizens and ... more This report reviews evidence regarding the foreign language competences of European citizens and presents new findings about the relationship between foreign language skills and the likelihood of being in employment. In view of providing research evidence that can inform European Union (EU) policy initiatives, it reviews studies that frame knowledge of languages as a form of human capital, presents descriptive statistics about language knowledge and investigates whether this knowledge is related to employment chances. Using data from the Adult Education Survey (AES 2011) the analyses show how many languages adults know and their proficiency level in the two best known languages in the 25 Member States. To understand the relationship between language knowledge and employment status, for Member States was used to examine whether skills in foreign languages increase the employment rates of 25-64 year-old adults. In addition, the analyses capture different relationships between language skills and employment for specific languages - English, French, German, Russian and Spanish – and age groups (25-40 and 41-64). Findings indicate that knowing foreign languages and being proficient in them is an important factor for being employed. This is the case in 17 Member States, although different patterns emerge in different Member States in relation to specific languages, proficiency levels and age groups.
The purpose of this technical brief is to assess current methodologies for the collection and cal... more The purpose of this technical brief is to assess current methodologies for the collection and calculation of teacher costs in European Union (EU) Member States in view of improving data series and indicators related to teacher salaries and teacher costs. To this end, CRELL compares the Eurydice collection on teacher salaries with the similar Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) data collection and calculates teacher costs based on the methodology established by Statistics Canada as explained in Indicator B7 in Education at a Glance (OECD, 2014). This indicator allows for analysing the different factors that influence teacher costs: teacher salaries, teaching time, instruction hours and student/teacher ratios, as well as class size. The analyses will provide specific information on the contribution of the different factors used to derive the Salary Cost of Teachers per Student (CCS) and how they might depend on the way data for the different factors are collected. On the basis of assessing the different forms of data collection with the same methodology, suggestions for development work that could be undertaken to align the Eurydice and OECD data collections are offered.
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Papers by Patricia Costa
school characteristics in countries with different reading scores at the
fourth grade level. Data comes from the Progress in International
Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2011 for Denmark, Sweden, and France
and the multilevel analysis includes two levels: student/home and
schools. The school effectiveness and the home literacy models
informed the selection of the independent variables. Results show that
students’ early literacy skills, home literacy practices and resources, and
reading behavior are associated with reading scores in all countries.
Furthermore, across different countries there are student/home
universals and school particulars that explain variation in reading
achievement. Educational policies should address home and school
literacy skills and practices, school climate, and school composition to
improve students’ reading ability.
specific factors to language learning that affect secondary school students´ proficiency according to the
Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). We considered variables related to the school in terms of
system level policies, variables related to students´ perception of the nature and quality of their lessons, the
usefulness they attach to learning the target language and their exposure to it out of school. We used a
multinomial regression model to compare students in the Pre-A1 level with the Basic User level (combination of
CEFR levels A1 and A2), and the latter with the Independent User level (which includes levels B1 and B2). We ran
the analysis for 13 adjudicated entities that participated in the ESLC and have English as their first foreign
language. We found that there is wide variation across countries, but that it is worth considering the
contribution of variables related to internal system-level policies and external learning conditions. Likewise, we
verified that some variables related to classroom methodology and student motivation also contribute to
explain achievement. Results indicate that, in general, students´ perceived difficulty level of lessons, students´
perception of the usefulness of language learning for entertainment and the frequency with which they watch
movies in the original version explains achievement. In addition, in most countries, parents´ knowledge of the
foreign language has a positive effect in students’ achievement. Among the most important school factors that
impact students´ attainment, we found that the earlier the onset of language learning the higher the attained
language proficiency.
school characteristics in countries with different reading scores at the
fourth grade level. Data comes from the Progress in International
Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2011 for Denmark, Sweden, and France
and the multilevel analysis includes two levels: student/home and
schools. The school effectiveness and the home literacy models
informed the selection of the independent variables. Results show that
students’ early literacy skills, home literacy practices and resources, and
reading behavior are associated with reading scores in all countries.
Furthermore, across different countries there are student/home
universals and school particulars that explain variation in reading
achievement. Educational policies should address home and school
literacy skills and practices, school climate, and school composition to
improve students’ reading ability.
specific factors to language learning that affect secondary school students´ proficiency according to the
Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). We considered variables related to the school in terms of
system level policies, variables related to students´ perception of the nature and quality of their lessons, the
usefulness they attach to learning the target language and their exposure to it out of school. We used a
multinomial regression model to compare students in the Pre-A1 level with the Basic User level (combination of
CEFR levels A1 and A2), and the latter with the Independent User level (which includes levels B1 and B2). We ran
the analysis for 13 adjudicated entities that participated in the ESLC and have English as their first foreign
language. We found that there is wide variation across countries, but that it is worth considering the
contribution of variables related to internal system-level policies and external learning conditions. Likewise, we
verified that some variables related to classroom methodology and student motivation also contribute to
explain achievement. Results indicate that, in general, students´ perceived difficulty level of lessons, students´
perception of the usefulness of language learning for entertainment and the frequency with which they watch
movies in the original version explains achievement. In addition, in most countries, parents´ knowledge of the
foreign language has a positive effect in students’ achievement. Among the most important school factors that
impact students´ attainment, we found that the earlier the onset of language learning the higher the attained
language proficiency.