Timuor Khajdarov is a historian of medieval Russia, the Golden Horde and the Tatar khanates. The main topic of the study is medieval epidemics. In recent years, his main interest is associated with the "Black death" in Russia, the study of written sources in Russian, Latin and Tatar languages. Phone: +79600319921 Address: 420008, Russian Federation, Kazan, Kremlin Str., 18
Bulletin of Kazan State University of Culture and Arts. , 2024
The article is devoted to the little-studied part of Pushkin’s “eastern” journey to the places of... more The article is devoted to the little-studied part of Pushkin’s “eastern” journey to the places of the Pugachev uprising. Particular attention is paid to Pushkin’s stay in the Sviyazhsky district of the Kazan province. As a result of the study, the authors come to the conclusion that Pushkin had two possible travel routes in the Sviyazhsk district, two possible crossing points to the left bank of the Volga. It is impossible to confirm or deny Pushkin’s visit to the district town of Sviyazhsk due to the lack of written evidence.
The article discusses a book by one of the largest modern experts in the field of studying the hi... more The article discusses a book by one of the largest modern experts in the field of studying the history of the Black Death, Ole J. Benedictow's "The Complete History of the Black Death" (2021). This study is the second and expanded edition, published in 2004, of his other major monograph "The Black Death 1346-1352: A Complete History". As in the first book, the Norwegian historian seeks to reconstruct the overall picture of the course of this disaster in the western part of the Old World. Combining the data of modern paleogenetic studies of the DNA of the plague bacterium Yersinia pestis with newly discovered written sources from Russia, Central and Eastern Europe, Ole J. Benedictow shows the integrity of the process of the plague epidemic in 1346-1353. At the same time, he emphasizes the role and place in this process of the territory of the Golden Horde and European colonies of black rats. Appearing against the background of the COVID-19 pandemic, this study marks an important milestone in the development of modern historical science. It is quite obvious that the data obtained from laboratory studies of paleogenetic studies will be seriously criticized by historians. The old prevailing theories of social relations will be subject to revision and reconsideration.
At the turning point of history: epidemics and catastrophes in the countries of the East: A collective monograph / Bashkuev V. Yu., Bibikova O. P., Vasiliev A.D., Glushkova I. P. [et al.] ; ed. by Yu. I. Drobyshev; Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences — Moscow: IV RAS, 2023. — 368 p., 2023
The purpose of the article was to comprehend the large epidemic outbreaks of plague that took pla... more The purpose of the article was to comprehend the large epidemic outbreaks of plague that took place in the space of the future Horde-Russian polity. Based on the data obtained in the course of paleogenetic, paleoclimatological and archaeological studies, as well as a critical textological analysis of previously published narrative sources and previous-ly cited chronological data of large epidemic outbreaks in the Afro-Eurasian space, a comprehensive reconstruction of events in the prehistoric and historical epoch is carried out. In light of the COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic in 2020, many issues related to major epidemic outbreaks of the past have been at the center of a wide scientific discourse. At the same time, most of the facts cited were often not subjected to deep critical analysis. Due to a sharp increase in paleogenetic research in recent years, a negative tendency has developed to somewhat belittle the achievements of historiography in the study of epidemics in the historical past. This was especially clearly manifested when considering plague epidemics in the historical past. The accumulated criticism on this topic demanded a comprehensive rethinking of this topic. The author seeks to answer a number of questions about the origin of large epidemic outbreaks in the pre-historic and historical era, based on the achievements of the domestic theory of foci of epidemic diseases and foreign paleo- and phylogenetic studies. The subsequent reconstruction of events is built on the basis of the principle of histori-cism and geographical determinism. The information obtained in this way is somewhat at odds with the interpretation of the events of the historical past based on the linear-stage approach.
ЗОЛОТООРДЫНСКОЕ НАСЛЕДИЕ: Материалы VIΙ Международного Золотоордынского Форума «Цивилизационное значение принятия Ислама Волжской Булгарией и Золотой Ордой: интеграционные процессы в средневековой истории России», Казань, 14–16 декабря 2022 г. Выпуск 5. , 2023
Research objective: In the light of recent discoveries in the field of studying the genome of Yer... more Research objective: In the light of recent discoveries in the field of studying the genome of Yersinia pestis, epidemiology and previously published texts of written sources, it is proposed to clarify some points in the emergence and subsequent spread of the Black Death on the territory of the Ulus of Jochi. Research materials: As the main sources, along with laboratory data of paleogenetic studies, the latest publications of domestic and foreign authors have been widely used, one way or another touching on the voiced topic. The main reconstruction of the events was based on the data obtained from textual analysis of written sources in Russian, Persian, Latin and Arabic. Results and novelty of the research: The conducted research made it possible to understand the basic algorithm of the spread of plague epidemics in the historical past, to determine the place and role of the territory of the Ulus of Jochi in this process. The visible result was the reconstruction of the chronological sequence of events. Moreover, the historical facts known to the general public of outbreaks of the plague epidemic near Lake Issyk-Kul in 1338/1339, as well as in the Genoese colony in the Crimea Kafa in 1346/1347, have found their confirmation. The available direct and indirect evidence of medieval outbreaks suggested an earlier manifestation of the plague in the Volga region (IX–XIII centuries), a longer 15-year course of the Black Death in the Ulus of Jochi.
Миргалеев И.М. (ред.) Золотоордынская цивилизация. Вып. 5 Сборник статей. — Казань: Фолиант; Институт истории им. Ш.Марджани АН РТ, 2012. — 440 с. , 2012
In article the system of the relations which have developed between the Golden Horde and the Hans... more In article the system of the relations which have developed between the Golden Horde and the Hanseatic union during the period between 1262–1357 is considered. On the basis of the data containing in various sources and works of domestic and European researchers, functioning of trading system of Hansa and the Golden Horde are analyzed and reconstructed. Especially the place in article occupies judgement evolution of Hansa and a place occupied with Russian cities in system of trade relations of Hansa and the Golden Horde. On the basis of the reading and writing of 1470, the author specifies in the status of the basic suppliers of east goods kept for the Tatar merchants to Northern Europe.
The era of the Middle Ages brought to light many variants of associations and structures based on... more The era of the Middle Ages brought to light many variants of associations and structures based on a previously unknown corporate culture. In the conditions of the general crisis of state-building of the developed Middle Ages, such unions were able to become cultural centers, places of attraction of people, capitals and goods in the shortest possible time. This was most clearly expressed at the end of the XI century. during the general political crisis of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation (Germany), the direct result of which was the formation of the Hanseatic League in the Baltic-North Sea region. Until now, in Russian historiography, due to ignorance of the primary sources in Old German and Latin, the activity of this trade association is rather one-sided, which often leads to factual errors. The article traces the evolution of the Hansa on the basis of a textual analysis of concepts and concludes that it should be considered primarily as a corporation of the Lubeck merchant class, striving to obtain the greatest profit and protect its economic interests. Эпоха Средних веков явила на свет множество вариантов объединений и структур, имевших в основе ранее не известную корпоративную культуру. В условиях общего кризиса государственного строительства развитого средневековья такие союзы смогли в кратчайшие сроки стать культурными центрами, местами притяжения людей, капита-лов и товаров. Наиболее ярко это выразилось в конце XI в. во время общеполитическо-го кризиса Священной Римской империи германской нации (Германии), прямым ре-зультатом чего явилось становление в балтийско-северноморском регионе Ганзейского союза. До сих пор в отечественной историографии вследствие незнания первоисточни-ков на старонемецком и латинском языках достаточно однобоко оценивается деятель-ность данного торгового объединения, что зачастую приводит к фактологическим ошибкам. В статье на основе текстологического анализа понятий прослежена эволю-ция Ганзы и сделан вывод о том, что ее необходимо рассматривать в первую очередь как корпорацию любекского купечества, стремившуюся к получению наибольшей вы-годы и защите своих экономических интересов.
The article analyzes the process of the «Black Death» in the spaces of Eurasia and Russia. In the... more The article analyzes the process of the «Black Death» in the spaces of Eurasia and Russia. In the light of the latest advances in Yersinia pestis paleogenetics, epidemiology, climatology, and the study of historical sources, a host of scientific questions were resolved. This first affected a number of well-established historical facts since the bombing by troops of the Golden Horde Khan of Janibik in 1346 of the besieged Italian colony in the Crimea of Kafa. Many of them, despite all the scientific advances that have been made to date, have received little critical consideration. At the same time, the biggest shortcomings of the study of the Black Death until recently were the lack of a unified theoretical point of view. The article therefore focused on the convergence of the existing concepts of the emergence and spread of the second plague pandemic in Eurasia in the middle Ages. The study identified in pandemic processes the role of different types of plague hotspots, climate chan...
Objective: to examine the main works and theories of foreign and domestic authors, which has cons... more Objective: to examine the main works and theories of foreign and domestic authors, which has considered the theme of “Black death” on the territory of the ulus of Jochi in 1814–2016. Research materials: at the present stage of development of historical science the way out from methodological crisis is the most pressing issue. As international experience shows, progress towards the knowledge of the past is only possible through interaction with other disciplines, such as genetics or biology. At the moment, the epidemic of “Black Death” is rightfully considered one of these research topics. This event was of great importance in the history. Raged for several hundreds of years and killed up to a third of the then population, the plague significantly changed the face of human societies, accelerated the transition to a new economic system, to the culture and philosophy of Modern times. However, until recently research on this topic mainly focused on studying either biology of the plague, or the study of reality emerged after the “Black Death”. In these circumstances, the transition to interdisciplinarity, which occurred in recent years in Western science, allowed not only more comprehensive approach to the study of this topic, but to expand the regions under study and to include among them, in the first instance, Northern Eurasia and its most important part – Juchid ulus. In general, Western historiography had not yet developed an unambiguous assessment of the “Black Death” in this region. This is partly due to lack of experience with written sources in the Tatar and Russian languages as well as due to not long period of work with archaeological sources. At the same time, domestic science has more than 200 years of experience in understanding of this problem, but it suffers from several disadvantages. Results and novelty of the research: on the basis of historiographical material, the article manages to conclude that despite a thorough theoretical study of a subject in the field of biology of the plague, a historical study on the “Black Death in Russia” is extremely inconsistent and did not yet form a united research school. Against this background, the historiography of the epidemic “Black Death” in the Juchid ulus is situated in a better position than the research on the plague in the North-Western Rus’.
DIALOGUE WITH TIME INTELLECTUAL HISTORY REVIEW, 2022
В статье анализируются взгляды современных западных исследователей на крупные эпидемические вспыш... more В статье анализируются взгляды современных западных исследователей на крупные эпидемические вспышки чумы, происходившие в прошлом. Особое внимание уделено практике работы с косвенными данными, взятыми из палеогенетики, а также теории вероятности, социологии и климатологии. Осмысление полученных данных позволило не только перейти к макрорегиональным исследованиям, но и значительно расширить источниковую базу темы. Полученные таким образом результаты позволили историкам (Н.В. ДеВитт, М. Грин, М.Б.С. Кэмпбелл) решить ряд наиболее спорных вопросов. Главные из них касались: региона происхождения и дат крупных чумных эпидемий; факторов, способствовавших их распространению; хронологических и географических границ изучаемого объекта; основных изменений в социально-экономических и общественно-политических отношениях изучаемых макрорегионов. Речь идет о начале процесса кардинального пересмотра устоявшихся со Средних веков представлений о крупных чумных эпидемиях прошлого.
The article analyzes the process of the «Black Death» in the spaces of Eurasia and Russia. In lig... more The article analyzes the process of the «Black Death» in the spaces of Eurasia and Russia. In light of the latest advances in Yersinia pestis paleogenetics, epidemiology, climatology, and the study of historical sources, many scientific questions were resolved. This first affected some well-established historical facts since the bombing by troops of the Golden Horde Khan of Janibik in 1346 of the besieged Italian colony in the Crimea of Kafa. Many of them, despite all the scientific advances that have been made to date, has received little critical consideration. At the same time, the biggest shortcomings of the study of the Black Death until recently were the lack of a unified theoretical point of view. The article therefore focused on the convergence of the existing concepts of the emergence and spread of the second plague pandemic in Eurasia in the middle Ages. The study identified in pandemic processes the role of different types of plague hotspots, climate change, anthropogenic factors, urban development in densely populated areas and the road network of the Eurasian space. The poly variate start and implementation of the pandemic waves «Black Death» was recognized. The data thus obtained have allowed the author to rethink some of the issues related to the chronological interpretation of the events of the second plague pandemic. Keywords: Yersinia pestis paleogenetics; zero plague pandemic; Plague of Justinian; Black Death; second plague in the 15th-18th centuries. [es] Algunos comentarios sobre la difusión de la Peste Negra en Rusia y Eurasia Resumen: El artículo analiza el proceso de la «Peste Negra» en los espacios de Eurasia y Rusia. A la luz de los últimos avances en paleogenética, epidemiología, climatología y estudio de fuentes históricas sobre la Yersinia pestis, se resolvieron una serie de cuestiones científicas. Esto afectó primero a una serie de hechos históricos bien establecidos desde el bombardeo de la colonia italiana sitiada en Crimea de Kafa por las tropas de la Horda Dorada del Khan de Janibik en 1346. Muchos de esos hechos, a pesar de todos los avances científicos que se han realizado hasta la fecha, han recibido poca consideración crítica. Al mismo tiempo, las mayores deficiencias en el estudio de la Peste Negra hasta hace poco tiempo fueron la falta de un punto de vista teórico unificado. Por lo tanto, el artículo se centró en la convergencia de los conceptos existentes sobre el surgimiento y la propagación de la segunda pandemia de peste en Eurasia en la Edad Media. El estudio identificó en los procesos pandémicos el papel de diferentes tipos de focos de plaga, el cambio climático, los factores antropogénicos, el desarrollo urbano en áreas densamente pobladas y la red viaria del espacio euroasiático. Se reconoció el polivariante inicio e implementación de las ondas pandémicas de la «Peste Negra». Los datos así obtenidos han permitido al autor repensar algunas de las cuestiones relacionadas con la interpretación cronológica de los hechos de la segunda pandemia de la peste.
Research objectives: To analyze the main research trends of the last thirty years in the national... more Research objectives: To analyze the main research trends of the last thirty years in the national historiography on the topic of the Black Death and major epidemic outbreaks of plague in the historical past. Research materials: The historiographic analysis was conducted based on both original domestic studies of the topic and those written in co-authorship with Western colleagues. To outline the main theoretical base of the topic, the author used major works on the historical theory, demography, climatology, paleogenetics, and phylogenetics of the plague bacterium Yersinia pestis. Results and novelty of the research: The analysis showed that until the 1980s, the views of Russian historians on the epidemics of the historical past were based on the study of a major German epidemiologist in the second half of nineteenth century, H. Häser. At the same time, the main directions in the research of domestic historians on the topic were developed within the framework of an order from domest...
The purpose of the article was to comprehend the large epidemic outbreaks of plague that took pla... more The purpose of the article was to comprehend the large epidemic outbreaks of plague that took place in the space of the future Horde-Russian polity. Based on the data obtained in the course of paleogenetic, paleoclimatological and archaeological studies, as well as a critical textological analysis of previously published narrative sources and previous-ly cited chronological data of large epidemic outbreaks in the Afro-Eurasian space, a comprehensive reconstruction of events in the prehistoric and historical epoch is carried out. In light of the COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic in 2020, many issues related to major epidemic outbreaks of the past have been at the center of a wide scientific discourse. At the same time, most of the facts cited were often not subjected to deep critical analysis. Due to a sharp increase in paleogenetic research in recent years, a negative tendency has developed to somewhat belittle the achievements of historiography in the study of epidemics in the historical past. This was especially clearly manifested when considering plague epidemics in the historical past. The accumulated criticism on this topic demanded a comprehensive rethinking of this topic. The author seeks to answer a number of questions about the origin of large epidemic outbreaks in the pre-historic and historical era, based on the achievements of the domestic theory of foci of epidemic diseases and foreign paleo- and phylogenetic studies. The subsequent reconstruction of events is built on the basis of the principle of histori-cism and geographical determinism. The information obtained in this way is somewhat at odds with the interpretation of the events of the historical past based on the linear-stage approach.
At many times in their history, humans have faced major epidemics. The “Black Death”, which broke... more At many times in their history, humans have faced major epidemics. The “Black Death”, which broke out in the middle of the 14th century, is believed to be the deadliest one. The total number of the deceased population and the scale in many ways had a dramatic impact on the course of subsequent historical events. Until recently, the myths dating back to the Middle Ages have prevailed in scientific circles. They have remained unrevised despite the latest achievements in the research on the plague bacterium Yersinia pestis, the history of climate and medicine, and the extensive published data, making it of an interest to both reconsider certain established dogmas and reconstruct the algorithm of the course of major plague epidemics from the historical past using the results of the available paleogenetic, epidemiological, and climatological studies. This triggered our discussion on the nonlinear nature of the course of plague pandemics. The analysis of the historical sources showed that...
Древняя Русь: во времени, в личностях, в идеях Palaiorwsia: en cronw, en proswpw, en eidei Выпуск... more Древняя Русь: во времени, в личностях, в идеях Palaiorwsia: en cronw, en proswpw, en eidei Выпуск 8 2017 страницы 304-309 304 Хайдаров Т. Ф. Новгородский мор «лета 6925-6928» С самого начала своего существования как независимого государственно-го образования, Новгородская земля старалась при построении государственных отношений совместить как традиционные древнерусские традиции управления, так и привнесённые из близлежащий городских центров Северной Европы. В ре-зультате, уже к началу XII в. в самом Новгороде между различными властными структурами сформировалась уникальная для Руси система сдержек и противо-речий. В общих чертах данная система была близка к возникшей в захваченных немецкими феодалами городах балтийских славян и прибалтийских племён (Любек, Щецин, Гданьск, Рига, Ревель и др.). Стержнем данной системы являлся возглавляемый небольшим кругом отцов города городской совет. Для Новгорода подобной структурой считался «Совет господ», куда входили как представители наиболее влиятельных боярских родов, так и новгородского владыки, и пригла-шённого из Владимирской земли князя. Несомненно, сильной стороной функционирование подобных систем го-родского управления следует признать скорость и гибкость в принятии решений. Однако, в целом эффективность последней зачастую зависело от консенсуса всех представителей городского совета, что в условиях военного противостояния с внешними контрагентами или ухудшения общеэкономического положения приводило к возникновению масштабных городских волнений. Новгород эти социальные бедствия также не обошли стороной. Наиболее крупные городские восстание произошли гг. Как видно из представленных хронологических дат, все восстания в го-роде вписываются, как и в средневековой Европе в два четко выраженных хро-нологических периода: 1) XII-XIII вв.; 2) XV в. Причём если для начала город-ских волнений первого периода основными причинами становились, чисто эко-номические требования восставших. То для городских восстаний XV в. опреде-ление первопричин представляет достаточно сложный процесс, так как именно в этот период Новгородская земля, как и остальные государственные образова-ния на пространствах Евразийского континента переживали очень сложный этап перехода к формированию новых экономических, социальных и государ-ственных отношений. Одну из главных ролей в этих тектонических изменениях сыграла насту-пившая в середине XIV в. вторая пандемия чумы, более известная, как «Чёрная смерть». Зародившейся в глубинах Центральной Азии на рубеже 1330-х г., эпи-демическая волна, посредством бежавших из осаждённой войсками золотор-дынского правителя Джанибека Кафы генуэзских галер, смогла достичь в конце 1347 г. Генуи и Марселя 1. Обогнув за пять лет весь европейский континент, эпи-демия чумы первый раз в 1352 г. достигла придела Новгородской земли. Второй 1 Benedictow O.
Latar Belakang: Penggunaan Rekam Medis Elektronik (RME) di banyak pelayanan kesehatan diharapkan ... more Latar Belakang: Penggunaan Rekam Medis Elektronik (RME) di banyak pelayanan kesehatan diharapkan dapat menggantikan Rekam Medis Manual karena Rekam Medis Elektronik dianggap lebih efektif dan efisien dalam penggunaannya, banyak rumah sakit yang sudah mulai menggantikan Rekam Medis Manual (RMM) dengan Rekam Medis Elektronik (RME) termasuk Rumah Sakit X. Tujuan: Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui seberapa pengaruh penerapan Rekam Medis Elektronik (RME) terhadap peningkatan efektivitas khususnya pada pelayanan Rawat Jalan Rumah Sakit X. Metode: Penelitian ini dilakukan pada tanggal 5 – 8 Juli 2021. Dengan menggunakan metode penelitian kuantitatif pendekatan deskriptif dengan desain penelitian korelasional. Penelitian dilakukan dengan menyebarkan kuesioner pada 30 Perekam Medis dan Informasi Kesehatan yang mengisi posisi tenaga kesehatan Rekam Medis Rumah Sakit X. Hasil: Hasil penelitian menunjukan persentase dari aspek 4 Aspek efektivitas yang diteliti suatu program dalam hal in...
The article analyzes views of Western researchers on major epidemic outbreaks of plague that occu... more The article analyzes views of Western researchers on major epidemic outbreaks of plague that occurred in the historical past. Special attention is paid to the practice of work with indirect data taken from paleogenetics, as well as probability theory, sociology and climatology. Understanding the data obtained allowed us not only to move to macro-regional studies, but also to significantly expand the source base of the topic. The results obtained in this way allowed historians (N.V. Devitt, M. Green, M.B.S. Campbell) to resolve a number of the most controversial questions. The main ones concerned: the region of origin and date of major plague epidemics; factors that contributed to the spread of these disasters; chronological and geographical boundaries; the main changes in the socio-economic and socio-political relations of the studied macro-regions. In fact, we are talking about the beginning of a process of radical revision of the dogmas and ideas that have been established since the Middle ages about major plague epidemics in the historical past.
Bulletin of Kazan State University of Culture and Arts. , 2024
The article is devoted to the little-studied part of Pushkin’s “eastern” journey to the places of... more The article is devoted to the little-studied part of Pushkin’s “eastern” journey to the places of the Pugachev uprising. Particular attention is paid to Pushkin’s stay in the Sviyazhsky district of the Kazan province. As a result of the study, the authors come to the conclusion that Pushkin had two possible travel routes in the Sviyazhsk district, two possible crossing points to the left bank of the Volga. It is impossible to confirm or deny Pushkin’s visit to the district town of Sviyazhsk due to the lack of written evidence.
The article discusses a book by one of the largest modern experts in the field of studying the hi... more The article discusses a book by one of the largest modern experts in the field of studying the history of the Black Death, Ole J. Benedictow's "The Complete History of the Black Death" (2021). This study is the second and expanded edition, published in 2004, of his other major monograph "The Black Death 1346-1352: A Complete History". As in the first book, the Norwegian historian seeks to reconstruct the overall picture of the course of this disaster in the western part of the Old World. Combining the data of modern paleogenetic studies of the DNA of the plague bacterium Yersinia pestis with newly discovered written sources from Russia, Central and Eastern Europe, Ole J. Benedictow shows the integrity of the process of the plague epidemic in 1346-1353. At the same time, he emphasizes the role and place in this process of the territory of the Golden Horde and European colonies of black rats. Appearing against the background of the COVID-19 pandemic, this study marks an important milestone in the development of modern historical science. It is quite obvious that the data obtained from laboratory studies of paleogenetic studies will be seriously criticized by historians. The old prevailing theories of social relations will be subject to revision and reconsideration.
At the turning point of history: epidemics and catastrophes in the countries of the East: A collective monograph / Bashkuev V. Yu., Bibikova O. P., Vasiliev A.D., Glushkova I. P. [et al.] ; ed. by Yu. I. Drobyshev; Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences — Moscow: IV RAS, 2023. — 368 p., 2023
The purpose of the article was to comprehend the large epidemic outbreaks of plague that took pla... more The purpose of the article was to comprehend the large epidemic outbreaks of plague that took place in the space of the future Horde-Russian polity. Based on the data obtained in the course of paleogenetic, paleoclimatological and archaeological studies, as well as a critical textological analysis of previously published narrative sources and previous-ly cited chronological data of large epidemic outbreaks in the Afro-Eurasian space, a comprehensive reconstruction of events in the prehistoric and historical epoch is carried out. In light of the COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic in 2020, many issues related to major epidemic outbreaks of the past have been at the center of a wide scientific discourse. At the same time, most of the facts cited were often not subjected to deep critical analysis. Due to a sharp increase in paleogenetic research in recent years, a negative tendency has developed to somewhat belittle the achievements of historiography in the study of epidemics in the historical past. This was especially clearly manifested when considering plague epidemics in the historical past. The accumulated criticism on this topic demanded a comprehensive rethinking of this topic. The author seeks to answer a number of questions about the origin of large epidemic outbreaks in the pre-historic and historical era, based on the achievements of the domestic theory of foci of epidemic diseases and foreign paleo- and phylogenetic studies. The subsequent reconstruction of events is built on the basis of the principle of histori-cism and geographical determinism. The information obtained in this way is somewhat at odds with the interpretation of the events of the historical past based on the linear-stage approach.
ЗОЛОТООРДЫНСКОЕ НАСЛЕДИЕ: Материалы VIΙ Международного Золотоордынского Форума «Цивилизационное значение принятия Ислама Волжской Булгарией и Золотой Ордой: интеграционные процессы в средневековой истории России», Казань, 14–16 декабря 2022 г. Выпуск 5. , 2023
Research objective: In the light of recent discoveries in the field of studying the genome of Yer... more Research objective: In the light of recent discoveries in the field of studying the genome of Yersinia pestis, epidemiology and previously published texts of written sources, it is proposed to clarify some points in the emergence and subsequent spread of the Black Death on the territory of the Ulus of Jochi. Research materials: As the main sources, along with laboratory data of paleogenetic studies, the latest publications of domestic and foreign authors have been widely used, one way or another touching on the voiced topic. The main reconstruction of the events was based on the data obtained from textual analysis of written sources in Russian, Persian, Latin and Arabic. Results and novelty of the research: The conducted research made it possible to understand the basic algorithm of the spread of plague epidemics in the historical past, to determine the place and role of the territory of the Ulus of Jochi in this process. The visible result was the reconstruction of the chronological sequence of events. Moreover, the historical facts known to the general public of outbreaks of the plague epidemic near Lake Issyk-Kul in 1338/1339, as well as in the Genoese colony in the Crimea Kafa in 1346/1347, have found their confirmation. The available direct and indirect evidence of medieval outbreaks suggested an earlier manifestation of the plague in the Volga region (IX–XIII centuries), a longer 15-year course of the Black Death in the Ulus of Jochi.
Миргалеев И.М. (ред.) Золотоордынская цивилизация. Вып. 5 Сборник статей. — Казань: Фолиант; Институт истории им. Ш.Марджани АН РТ, 2012. — 440 с. , 2012
In article the system of the relations which have developed between the Golden Horde and the Hans... more In article the system of the relations which have developed between the Golden Horde and the Hanseatic union during the period between 1262–1357 is considered. On the basis of the data containing in various sources and works of domestic and European researchers, functioning of trading system of Hansa and the Golden Horde are analyzed and reconstructed. Especially the place in article occupies judgement evolution of Hansa and a place occupied with Russian cities in system of trade relations of Hansa and the Golden Horde. On the basis of the reading and writing of 1470, the author specifies in the status of the basic suppliers of east goods kept for the Tatar merchants to Northern Europe.
The era of the Middle Ages brought to light many variants of associations and structures based on... more The era of the Middle Ages brought to light many variants of associations and structures based on a previously unknown corporate culture. In the conditions of the general crisis of state-building of the developed Middle Ages, such unions were able to become cultural centers, places of attraction of people, capitals and goods in the shortest possible time. This was most clearly expressed at the end of the XI century. during the general political crisis of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation (Germany), the direct result of which was the formation of the Hanseatic League in the Baltic-North Sea region. Until now, in Russian historiography, due to ignorance of the primary sources in Old German and Latin, the activity of this trade association is rather one-sided, which often leads to factual errors. The article traces the evolution of the Hansa on the basis of a textual analysis of concepts and concludes that it should be considered primarily as a corporation of the Lubeck merchant class, striving to obtain the greatest profit and protect its economic interests. Эпоха Средних веков явила на свет множество вариантов объединений и структур, имевших в основе ранее не известную корпоративную культуру. В условиях общего кризиса государственного строительства развитого средневековья такие союзы смогли в кратчайшие сроки стать культурными центрами, местами притяжения людей, капита-лов и товаров. Наиболее ярко это выразилось в конце XI в. во время общеполитическо-го кризиса Священной Римской империи германской нации (Германии), прямым ре-зультатом чего явилось становление в балтийско-северноморском регионе Ганзейского союза. До сих пор в отечественной историографии вследствие незнания первоисточни-ков на старонемецком и латинском языках достаточно однобоко оценивается деятель-ность данного торгового объединения, что зачастую приводит к фактологическим ошибкам. В статье на основе текстологического анализа понятий прослежена эволю-ция Ганзы и сделан вывод о том, что ее необходимо рассматривать в первую очередь как корпорацию любекского купечества, стремившуюся к получению наибольшей вы-годы и защите своих экономических интересов.
The article analyzes the process of the «Black Death» in the spaces of Eurasia and Russia. In the... more The article analyzes the process of the «Black Death» in the spaces of Eurasia and Russia. In the light of the latest advances in Yersinia pestis paleogenetics, epidemiology, climatology, and the study of historical sources, a host of scientific questions were resolved. This first affected a number of well-established historical facts since the bombing by troops of the Golden Horde Khan of Janibik in 1346 of the besieged Italian colony in the Crimea of Kafa. Many of them, despite all the scientific advances that have been made to date, have received little critical consideration. At the same time, the biggest shortcomings of the study of the Black Death until recently were the lack of a unified theoretical point of view. The article therefore focused on the convergence of the existing concepts of the emergence and spread of the second plague pandemic in Eurasia in the middle Ages. The study identified in pandemic processes the role of different types of plague hotspots, climate chan...
Objective: to examine the main works and theories of foreign and domestic authors, which has cons... more Objective: to examine the main works and theories of foreign and domestic authors, which has considered the theme of “Black death” on the territory of the ulus of Jochi in 1814–2016. Research materials: at the present stage of development of historical science the way out from methodological crisis is the most pressing issue. As international experience shows, progress towards the knowledge of the past is only possible through interaction with other disciplines, such as genetics or biology. At the moment, the epidemic of “Black Death” is rightfully considered one of these research topics. This event was of great importance in the history. Raged for several hundreds of years and killed up to a third of the then population, the plague significantly changed the face of human societies, accelerated the transition to a new economic system, to the culture and philosophy of Modern times. However, until recently research on this topic mainly focused on studying either biology of the plague, or the study of reality emerged after the “Black Death”. In these circumstances, the transition to interdisciplinarity, which occurred in recent years in Western science, allowed not only more comprehensive approach to the study of this topic, but to expand the regions under study and to include among them, in the first instance, Northern Eurasia and its most important part – Juchid ulus. In general, Western historiography had not yet developed an unambiguous assessment of the “Black Death” in this region. This is partly due to lack of experience with written sources in the Tatar and Russian languages as well as due to not long period of work with archaeological sources. At the same time, domestic science has more than 200 years of experience in understanding of this problem, but it suffers from several disadvantages. Results and novelty of the research: on the basis of historiographical material, the article manages to conclude that despite a thorough theoretical study of a subject in the field of biology of the plague, a historical study on the “Black Death in Russia” is extremely inconsistent and did not yet form a united research school. Against this background, the historiography of the epidemic “Black Death” in the Juchid ulus is situated in a better position than the research on the plague in the North-Western Rus’.
DIALOGUE WITH TIME INTELLECTUAL HISTORY REVIEW, 2022
В статье анализируются взгляды современных западных исследователей на крупные эпидемические вспыш... more В статье анализируются взгляды современных западных исследователей на крупные эпидемические вспышки чумы, происходившие в прошлом. Особое внимание уделено практике работы с косвенными данными, взятыми из палеогенетики, а также теории вероятности, социологии и климатологии. Осмысление полученных данных позволило не только перейти к макрорегиональным исследованиям, но и значительно расширить источниковую базу темы. Полученные таким образом результаты позволили историкам (Н.В. ДеВитт, М. Грин, М.Б.С. Кэмпбелл) решить ряд наиболее спорных вопросов. Главные из них касались: региона происхождения и дат крупных чумных эпидемий; факторов, способствовавших их распространению; хронологических и географических границ изучаемого объекта; основных изменений в социально-экономических и общественно-политических отношениях изучаемых макрорегионов. Речь идет о начале процесса кардинального пересмотра устоявшихся со Средних веков представлений о крупных чумных эпидемиях прошлого.
The article analyzes the process of the «Black Death» in the spaces of Eurasia and Russia. In lig... more The article analyzes the process of the «Black Death» in the spaces of Eurasia and Russia. In light of the latest advances in Yersinia pestis paleogenetics, epidemiology, climatology, and the study of historical sources, many scientific questions were resolved. This first affected some well-established historical facts since the bombing by troops of the Golden Horde Khan of Janibik in 1346 of the besieged Italian colony in the Crimea of Kafa. Many of them, despite all the scientific advances that have been made to date, has received little critical consideration. At the same time, the biggest shortcomings of the study of the Black Death until recently were the lack of a unified theoretical point of view. The article therefore focused on the convergence of the existing concepts of the emergence and spread of the second plague pandemic in Eurasia in the middle Ages. The study identified in pandemic processes the role of different types of plague hotspots, climate change, anthropogenic factors, urban development in densely populated areas and the road network of the Eurasian space. The poly variate start and implementation of the pandemic waves «Black Death» was recognized. The data thus obtained have allowed the author to rethink some of the issues related to the chronological interpretation of the events of the second plague pandemic. Keywords: Yersinia pestis paleogenetics; zero plague pandemic; Plague of Justinian; Black Death; second plague in the 15th-18th centuries. [es] Algunos comentarios sobre la difusión de la Peste Negra en Rusia y Eurasia Resumen: El artículo analiza el proceso de la «Peste Negra» en los espacios de Eurasia y Rusia. A la luz de los últimos avances en paleogenética, epidemiología, climatología y estudio de fuentes históricas sobre la Yersinia pestis, se resolvieron una serie de cuestiones científicas. Esto afectó primero a una serie de hechos históricos bien establecidos desde el bombardeo de la colonia italiana sitiada en Crimea de Kafa por las tropas de la Horda Dorada del Khan de Janibik en 1346. Muchos de esos hechos, a pesar de todos los avances científicos que se han realizado hasta la fecha, han recibido poca consideración crítica. Al mismo tiempo, las mayores deficiencias en el estudio de la Peste Negra hasta hace poco tiempo fueron la falta de un punto de vista teórico unificado. Por lo tanto, el artículo se centró en la convergencia de los conceptos existentes sobre el surgimiento y la propagación de la segunda pandemia de peste en Eurasia en la Edad Media. El estudio identificó en los procesos pandémicos el papel de diferentes tipos de focos de plaga, el cambio climático, los factores antropogénicos, el desarrollo urbano en áreas densamente pobladas y la red viaria del espacio euroasiático. Se reconoció el polivariante inicio e implementación de las ondas pandémicas de la «Peste Negra». Los datos así obtenidos han permitido al autor repensar algunas de las cuestiones relacionadas con la interpretación cronológica de los hechos de la segunda pandemia de la peste.
Research objectives: To analyze the main research trends of the last thirty years in the national... more Research objectives: To analyze the main research trends of the last thirty years in the national historiography on the topic of the Black Death and major epidemic outbreaks of plague in the historical past. Research materials: The historiographic analysis was conducted based on both original domestic studies of the topic and those written in co-authorship with Western colleagues. To outline the main theoretical base of the topic, the author used major works on the historical theory, demography, climatology, paleogenetics, and phylogenetics of the plague bacterium Yersinia pestis. Results and novelty of the research: The analysis showed that until the 1980s, the views of Russian historians on the epidemics of the historical past were based on the study of a major German epidemiologist in the second half of nineteenth century, H. Häser. At the same time, the main directions in the research of domestic historians on the topic were developed within the framework of an order from domest...
The purpose of the article was to comprehend the large epidemic outbreaks of plague that took pla... more The purpose of the article was to comprehend the large epidemic outbreaks of plague that took place in the space of the future Horde-Russian polity. Based on the data obtained in the course of paleogenetic, paleoclimatological and archaeological studies, as well as a critical textological analysis of previously published narrative sources and previous-ly cited chronological data of large epidemic outbreaks in the Afro-Eurasian space, a comprehensive reconstruction of events in the prehistoric and historical epoch is carried out. In light of the COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic in 2020, many issues related to major epidemic outbreaks of the past have been at the center of a wide scientific discourse. At the same time, most of the facts cited were often not subjected to deep critical analysis. Due to a sharp increase in paleogenetic research in recent years, a negative tendency has developed to somewhat belittle the achievements of historiography in the study of epidemics in the historical past. This was especially clearly manifested when considering plague epidemics in the historical past. The accumulated criticism on this topic demanded a comprehensive rethinking of this topic. The author seeks to answer a number of questions about the origin of large epidemic outbreaks in the pre-historic and historical era, based on the achievements of the domestic theory of foci of epidemic diseases and foreign paleo- and phylogenetic studies. The subsequent reconstruction of events is built on the basis of the principle of histori-cism and geographical determinism. The information obtained in this way is somewhat at odds with the interpretation of the events of the historical past based on the linear-stage approach.
At many times in their history, humans have faced major epidemics. The “Black Death”, which broke... more At many times in their history, humans have faced major epidemics. The “Black Death”, which broke out in the middle of the 14th century, is believed to be the deadliest one. The total number of the deceased population and the scale in many ways had a dramatic impact on the course of subsequent historical events. Until recently, the myths dating back to the Middle Ages have prevailed in scientific circles. They have remained unrevised despite the latest achievements in the research on the plague bacterium Yersinia pestis, the history of climate and medicine, and the extensive published data, making it of an interest to both reconsider certain established dogmas and reconstruct the algorithm of the course of major plague epidemics from the historical past using the results of the available paleogenetic, epidemiological, and climatological studies. This triggered our discussion on the nonlinear nature of the course of plague pandemics. The analysis of the historical sources showed that...
Древняя Русь: во времени, в личностях, в идеях Palaiorwsia: en cronw, en proswpw, en eidei Выпуск... more Древняя Русь: во времени, в личностях, в идеях Palaiorwsia: en cronw, en proswpw, en eidei Выпуск 8 2017 страницы 304-309 304 Хайдаров Т. Ф. Новгородский мор «лета 6925-6928» С самого начала своего существования как независимого государственно-го образования, Новгородская земля старалась при построении государственных отношений совместить как традиционные древнерусские традиции управления, так и привнесённые из близлежащий городских центров Северной Европы. В ре-зультате, уже к началу XII в. в самом Новгороде между различными властными структурами сформировалась уникальная для Руси система сдержек и противо-речий. В общих чертах данная система была близка к возникшей в захваченных немецкими феодалами городах балтийских славян и прибалтийских племён (Любек, Щецин, Гданьск, Рига, Ревель и др.). Стержнем данной системы являлся возглавляемый небольшим кругом отцов города городской совет. Для Новгорода подобной структурой считался «Совет господ», куда входили как представители наиболее влиятельных боярских родов, так и новгородского владыки, и пригла-шённого из Владимирской земли князя. Несомненно, сильной стороной функционирование подобных систем го-родского управления следует признать скорость и гибкость в принятии решений. Однако, в целом эффективность последней зачастую зависело от консенсуса всех представителей городского совета, что в условиях военного противостояния с внешними контрагентами или ухудшения общеэкономического положения приводило к возникновению масштабных городских волнений. Новгород эти социальные бедствия также не обошли стороной. Наиболее крупные городские восстание произошли гг. Как видно из представленных хронологических дат, все восстания в го-роде вписываются, как и в средневековой Европе в два четко выраженных хро-нологических периода: 1) XII-XIII вв.; 2) XV в. Причём если для начала город-ских волнений первого периода основными причинами становились, чисто эко-номические требования восставших. То для городских восстаний XV в. опреде-ление первопричин представляет достаточно сложный процесс, так как именно в этот период Новгородская земля, как и остальные государственные образова-ния на пространствах Евразийского континента переживали очень сложный этап перехода к формированию новых экономических, социальных и государ-ственных отношений. Одну из главных ролей в этих тектонических изменениях сыграла насту-пившая в середине XIV в. вторая пандемия чумы, более известная, как «Чёрная смерть». Зародившейся в глубинах Центральной Азии на рубеже 1330-х г., эпи-демическая волна, посредством бежавших из осаждённой войсками золотор-дынского правителя Джанибека Кафы генуэзских галер, смогла достичь в конце 1347 г. Генуи и Марселя 1. Обогнув за пять лет весь европейский континент, эпи-демия чумы первый раз в 1352 г. достигла придела Новгородской земли. Второй 1 Benedictow O.
Latar Belakang: Penggunaan Rekam Medis Elektronik (RME) di banyak pelayanan kesehatan diharapkan ... more Latar Belakang: Penggunaan Rekam Medis Elektronik (RME) di banyak pelayanan kesehatan diharapkan dapat menggantikan Rekam Medis Manual karena Rekam Medis Elektronik dianggap lebih efektif dan efisien dalam penggunaannya, banyak rumah sakit yang sudah mulai menggantikan Rekam Medis Manual (RMM) dengan Rekam Medis Elektronik (RME) termasuk Rumah Sakit X. Tujuan: Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui seberapa pengaruh penerapan Rekam Medis Elektronik (RME) terhadap peningkatan efektivitas khususnya pada pelayanan Rawat Jalan Rumah Sakit X. Metode: Penelitian ini dilakukan pada tanggal 5 – 8 Juli 2021. Dengan menggunakan metode penelitian kuantitatif pendekatan deskriptif dengan desain penelitian korelasional. Penelitian dilakukan dengan menyebarkan kuesioner pada 30 Perekam Medis dan Informasi Kesehatan yang mengisi posisi tenaga kesehatan Rekam Medis Rumah Sakit X. Hasil: Hasil penelitian menunjukan persentase dari aspek 4 Aspek efektivitas yang diteliti suatu program dalam hal in...
The article analyzes views of Western researchers on major epidemic outbreaks of plague that occu... more The article analyzes views of Western researchers on major epidemic outbreaks of plague that occurred in the historical past. Special attention is paid to the practice of work with indirect data taken from paleogenetics, as well as probability theory, sociology and climatology. Understanding the data obtained allowed us not only to move to macro-regional studies, but also to significantly expand the source base of the topic. The results obtained in this way allowed historians (N.V. Devitt, M. Green, M.B.S. Campbell) to resolve a number of the most controversial questions. The main ones concerned: the region of origin and date of major plague epidemics; factors that contributed to the spread of these disasters; chronological and geographical boundaries; the main changes in the socio-economic and socio-political relations of the studied macro-regions. In fact, we are talking about the beginning of a process of radical revision of the dogmas and ideas that have been established since the Middle ages about major plague epidemics in the historical past.
ВЕСТНИК УДМУРТСКОГО УНИВЕРСИТЕТА. СЕРИЯ ИСТОРИЯ И ФИЛОЛОГИЯ. Т. 33, вып. 5 , 2023
The article discusses a book by one of the largest modern experts in the field of studying the hi... more The article discusses a book by one of the largest modern experts in the field of studying the history of the Black Death, Ole J. Benedictow's "The Complete History of the Black Death" (2021). This study is the second and expanded edition, published in 2004, of his other major monograph "The Black Death 1346-1352: A Complete History". As in the first book, the Norwegian historian seeks to reconstruct the overall picture of the course of this disaster in the western part of the Old World. Combining the data of modern paleogenetic studies of the DNA of the plague bacterium Yersinia pestis with newly discovered written sources from Russia, Central and Eastern Europe, Ole J. Benedictow shows the integrity of the process of the plague epidemic in 1346-1353. At the same time, he emphasizes the role and place in this process of the territory of the Golden Horde and European colonies of black rats. Appearing against the background of the COVID-19 pandemic, this study marks an important milestone in the development of modern historical science. It is quite obvious that the data obtained from laboratory studies of paleogenetic studies will be seriously criticized by historians. The old prevailing theories of social relations will be subject to revision and reconsideration.
ЭПИДЕМИИ И ПРИРОДНЫЕ КАТАКЛИЗМЫ В ЗОЛОТОЙ ОРДЕ И НА СОПРЕДЕЛЬНЫХ ТЕРРИТОРИЯХ (XIII–XVI ВВ.), 2018
В предлагаемом сборнике публикуются материалы круглого стола «Экологический и эпидемический факто... more В предлагаемом сборнике публикуются материалы круглого стола «Экологический и эпидемический фактор в средневековой Евразии», прошедшего в рамках V Международного Золотоордынского Форума «История Золотой Орды и татарских ханств» (Казань, 15–18 марта 2017 г.), и статьи, собранные специально для этого сборника, а также стенограмма Международного круглого стола «Черная смерть в Золотой Орде» (Казань, 28 апреля 2016 г.).
At the turning point of history: epidemics and catastrophes in the countries of the East : Collective monograph / Bashkuev V. Yu., Bibikova O. P., Vasiliev A.D., Glushkova I. P. [et al.] ; ed. Yu. I. Drobyshev; Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences — M.: IV RAS, 2023. —..., 2023
The article analyzes the role of the territory of Russia in the course of large epidemic outbreak... more The article analyzes the role of the territory of Russia in the course of large epidemic outbreaks of plague in the historical past. The main purpose of the article: reconstruction, taking into account the data of paleogenetics and written sources, to reconstruct the general picture of the course of the epidemic of plague in the spaces of Russia and the CIS countries. The article uses the most popular scientific research methods in modern historical science: the method of logical analysis and deconstruction, comparative historical, problem-chronological and retrospective method. The use of the latter made it possible to combine the data of paleogenetic analysis with previously published texts of historical sources. The difficulty took place in the fact that until the beginning of the XXI century. in scientific circles, there was no holistic assessment of the course of major epidemics in the historical past in these territories. As a result, it was possible to reconstruct the course of the plague during three major epidemic crises (the Plague of the Bronze Age, the Plague of Justinian, the Black Death). Moreover, if in the case of the Black Death and even the plague of the Bronze Age there was a certain idea, then there were practically no ideas about the plague of Justinian, as well as for the period preceding and following the "Black Death" on the territory of Russia. As a result, we were able to reconstruct these periods.
Эпоха «Черной смерти» в Золотой Орде и прилегающих регионах (конец XIII – первая половина XV вв.) , 2018
Работа посвящена одной из актуальных тем для отечественной исторической науки – Второй пандемии ч... more Работа посвящена одной из актуальных тем для отечественной исторической науки – Второй пандемии чумы («Черной смерти») на территории Золотой Орды и прилегающих регионов, в ней представлены достижения зарубежных и отечественных исследователей по данной тематике. В работе последовательно освещаются наиболее крупные эпидемии конца XIII – первой половины XV вв. На основе арабо-мусульманских, персидских, латинских, русских, литовских и византийских источников показываются узловые моменты татарской и русской истории. Издание предназначено для историков, специалистов, занимающихся историей Золотой Орды, Европы, средневековой Руси и «Черной смерти», преподавателей и студентов, а также для широкого круга читателей.
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COVID-19 pandemic, this study marks an important milestone in the development of modern historical science. It is quite obvious that the data obtained from laboratory studies of paleogenetic studies will be seriously criticized by historians.
The old prevailing theories of social relations will be subject to revision and reconsideration.
Research materials: As the main sources, along with laboratory data of paleogenetic studies, the latest publications of domestic and foreign authors have been widely used, one way or another touching on the voiced topic. The main reconstruction of the events was based on the data obtained from textual analysis of written sources in Russian, Persian, Latin and Arabic.
Results and novelty of the research: The conducted research made it possible to understand the basic algorithm of the spread of plague epidemics in the historical past, to determine the place and role of the territory of the Ulus of Jochi in this process. The visible result was the reconstruction of the chronological sequence of events. Moreover, the historical facts known to the general public of outbreaks of the plague epidemic near Lake Issyk-Kul in 1338/1339, as well as in the Genoese colony in the Crimea Kafa in 1346/1347, have found their confirmation. The available direct and indirect evidence of medieval outbreaks suggested an earlier manifestation of the plague in the Volga region (IX–XIII centuries), a longer 15-year course of the Black Death in the Ulus of Jochi.
author specifies in the status of the basic suppliers of east goods kept for the Tatar merchants to Northern Europe.
Эпоха Средних веков явила на свет множество вариантов объединений и структур, имевших в основе ранее не известную корпоративную культуру. В условиях общего кризиса государственного строительства развитого средневековья такие союзы смогли в кратчайшие сроки стать культурными центрами, местами притяжения людей, капита-лов и товаров. Наиболее ярко это выразилось в конце XI в. во время общеполитическо-го кризиса Священной Римской империи германской нации (Германии), прямым ре-зультатом чего явилось становление в балтийско-северноморском регионе Ганзейского союза. До сих пор в отечественной историографии вследствие незнания первоисточни-ков на старонемецком и латинском языках достаточно однобоко оценивается деятель-ность данного торгового объединения, что зачастую приводит к фактологическим ошибкам. В статье на основе текстологического анализа понятий прослежена эволю-ция Ганзы и сделан вывод о том, что ее необходимо рассматривать в первую очередь как корпорацию любекского купечества, стремившуюся к получению наибольшей вы-годы и защите своих экономических интересов.
COVID-19 pandemic, this study marks an important milestone in the development of modern historical science. It is quite obvious that the data obtained from laboratory studies of paleogenetic studies will be seriously criticized by historians.
The old prevailing theories of social relations will be subject to revision and reconsideration.
Research materials: As the main sources, along with laboratory data of paleogenetic studies, the latest publications of domestic and foreign authors have been widely used, one way or another touching on the voiced topic. The main reconstruction of the events was based on the data obtained from textual analysis of written sources in Russian, Persian, Latin and Arabic.
Results and novelty of the research: The conducted research made it possible to understand the basic algorithm of the spread of plague epidemics in the historical past, to determine the place and role of the territory of the Ulus of Jochi in this process. The visible result was the reconstruction of the chronological sequence of events. Moreover, the historical facts known to the general public of outbreaks of the plague epidemic near Lake Issyk-Kul in 1338/1339, as well as in the Genoese colony in the Crimea Kafa in 1346/1347, have found their confirmation. The available direct and indirect evidence of medieval outbreaks suggested an earlier manifestation of the plague in the Volga region (IX–XIII centuries), a longer 15-year course of the Black Death in the Ulus of Jochi.
author specifies in the status of the basic suppliers of east goods kept for the Tatar merchants to Northern Europe.
Эпоха Средних веков явила на свет множество вариантов объединений и структур, имевших в основе ранее не известную корпоративную культуру. В условиях общего кризиса государственного строительства развитого средневековья такие союзы смогли в кратчайшие сроки стать культурными центрами, местами притяжения людей, капита-лов и товаров. Наиболее ярко это выразилось в конце XI в. во время общеполитическо-го кризиса Священной Римской империи германской нации (Германии), прямым ре-зультатом чего явилось становление в балтийско-северноморском регионе Ганзейского союза. До сих пор в отечественной историографии вследствие незнания первоисточни-ков на старонемецком и латинском языках достаточно однобоко оценивается деятель-ность данного торгового объединения, что зачастую приводит к фактологическим ошибкам. В статье на основе текстологического анализа понятий прослежена эволю-ция Ганзы и сделан вывод о том, что ее необходимо рассматривать в первую очередь как корпорацию любекского купечества, стремившуюся к получению наибольшей вы-годы и защите своих экономических интересов.
COVID-19 pandemic, this study marks an important milestone in the development of modern historical science. It is quite obvious that the data obtained from laboratory studies of paleogenetic studies will be seriously criticized by historians. The old prevailing theories of social relations will be subject to revision and reconsideration.
истории. Издание предназначено для историков, специалистов, занимающихся историей Золотой Орды, Европы, средневековой Руси и «Черной смерти», преподавателей и студентов, а также для широкого круга читателей.