I am an archaeologist and ancient historian, and have spent time working as both a lecturer and field-archaeologist. I have published several articles and a monograph on religion in the Roman World, with a particular emphasis on the development and disappearance of the cult of Mithras. More recently, I have been working on the portrayal of Roman Britain in modern media, including the works of Rudyard Kipling and Rosemary Sutcliff. I have also presented a podcast, in which I discuss with guests their work on the Roman World.
Among the works of Rudyard Kipling, there are several short stories set in the Roman World that f... more Among the works of Rudyard Kipling, there are several short stories set in the Roman World that feature characters who are members of the cult of Mithras. These stories also involve Christian characters, but while the Mithraic initiates are loyal servants of the Roman Empire, the Christians create and attract disorder. The aim of this article is to explore why Kipling chose to make the heroic characters of these stories Mithraic initiates, and present the Christians in a less positive light. It will be argued that Kipling was attacking Christian evangelicals, who he disliked due to his experiences at the hands of one as a child, and also because of the difficult relationship between Christian missionaries and British imperial administrators, especially in the aftermath of the 1857 Indian Mutiny. In contrast, Kipling’s Mithras cult acknowledges that there are ‘many ways to the light’, and, moreover, by inferring that there are many similarities between the cult of Mithras and Christianity, Kipling hoped to urge evangelical Christians to moderate their behaviour and use his depiction of the Mithras cult as an example of how to better approach religious diversity within the Empire.
Much has been written on the religious aspects of life in the Roman military community, but the r... more Much has been written on the religious aspects of life in the Roman military community, but the role of soldiers as temple patrons has rarely been discussed, even though temples and shrines have been found at military settlements across the Roman empire and many temples situated in urban areas have produced evidence of financial support from soldiers. Thus, exploring the relationship between military communities and temples is important for our understanding of the religious dimension of these communities and, moreover, of wider developments in temple-based worship in the Roman empire. Indeed, the emperors of the late third century CE came from this social milieu, and their disposition toward temples would have been affected by their experiences during military service. I demonstrate here how and why support for temple construction, repair, and expansion among the military communities in two of the most militarized provinces, Britain and Pannonia, decreased dramatically after the early third century and why certain temples (Mithraea and Dolichena) did not similarly decline. This examination also reveals how the changing relationship between military communities and temples influenced the attitudes of late third-century emperors toward temple construction and repair.
In recent decades, archaeologists in regions such as Germany, Italy, and France have developed an... more In recent decades, archaeologists in regions such as Germany, Italy, and France have developed an increasingly robust approach to the identification of early churches and thus dismissed a number of formerly misidentified examples in the process. In Britain, however, various supposed “churches” discovered in the twentieth century continue to be referred to as such despite a lack of strong evidence to substantiate this. One such example is a structure found at Butt Road, Colchester. In this article, the issues surrounding the interpretation of this building as a church are revisited and enhanced, while it is illustrated why other interpretations, such as a “pagan funerary banqueting hall,” are also unlikely. Following this, the possibility that the building served as a mithraeum is put forward, for mithraea offer stronger parallels that account for the building’s size and structure, as well as its faunal and small-find assemblages. As such, it will highlight the need to revisit other previously identified “churches” from Roman Britain and to apply a more rigorous analysis, which may yield alternative conclusions.
A number of inscriptions from the Tetrarchic period indicate that various Mithraic communities re... more A number of inscriptions from the Tetrarchic period indicate that various Mithraic communities received the patronage of governors, duces and even the emperors themselves. Such support for a so-called mystery cult is striking given that in other cases the imperial government failed to restore the temples of more traditional cults that had fallen into decay. In this paper I will demonstrate that such anomalous building activity associated with mithraea is evident in proceeding generations, for while the construction and repair of temples generally declined significantly in the third century mithraea continued to be erected and maintained unabated throughout this period. I then go on to argue that there is evidence to indicate Mithraic congregations took the conscious decision to divide upon reaching a certain number followers, hence why newly constructed mithraea continued to remain small in size and are often to be found in close proximity to pre-existing mithraea. By applying sociological theory, it is clear that such circumstances provided the ideal situation in which to foster a particularly high level of commitment among the Mithraists, thus making them willing to continue contributing to the construction and repair of mithraea even when resources became scarce, while other cults that had a popular, but less committed following, saw their temples fall into disrepair. When the imperial government provided for support for various Mithraic communities in the Tetrarchic period this was not due to any religious reasons, but rather as a political move designed to channel this commitment into support for their own rule.
The abandonment and destruction of temples in late antiquity has become the subject of widespread... more The abandonment and destruction of temples in late antiquity has become the subject of widespread discussion in recent years, but this has centered largely on the provinces of the East and around Mediterranean at the expense of other areas, such as the Danubian region. This article seeks to add new data and observations to this debate by determining a number of points regarding the temples of Noricum and Pannonia, including when a decline in their construction becomes evident, how sources of temple benefaction alter over time and how this compares to the building work undertaken in the wider civic sphere. It also looks at the abandonment of temples, focusing particularly on when they became common sources of spolia for other building projects, what evidence there is for the violent closure of temples and who might have been responsible for this. What will be demonstrated is that the construction of temples went into decline in the early third century, while temple architecture became increasingly utilized as spolia from the Tetrarchic period onward. It will also be shown that examples of alleged Christian iconoclasm are dubious in nature and that other possible alternatives could be used to explain this evidence.
In The Cult of Mithras in Late Antiquity David Walsh explores how the cult of Mithras developed a... more In The Cult of Mithras in Late Antiquity David Walsh explores how the cult of Mithras developed across the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. and why by the early 5th century the cult had completely disappeared. Contrary to the traditional narrative that the cult was violently persecuted out of existence by Christians, Walsh demonstrates that the cult’s decline was a far more gradual process that resulted from a variety of factors. He also challenges the popular image of the cult as a monolithic entity, highlighting how by the 4th century Mithras had come to mean different things to different people in different places.
Among the works of Rudyard Kipling, there are several short stories set in the Roman World that f... more Among the works of Rudyard Kipling, there are several short stories set in the Roman World that feature characters who are members of the cult of Mithras. These stories also involve Christian characters, but while the Mithraic initiates are loyal servants of the Roman Empire, the Christians create and attract disorder. The aim of this article is to explore why Kipling chose to make the heroic characters of these stories Mithraic initiates, and present the Christians in a less positive light. It will be argued that Kipling was attacking Christian evangelicals, who he disliked due to his experiences at the hands of one as a child, and also because of the difficult relationship between Christian missionaries and British imperial administrators, especially in the aftermath of the 1857 Indian Mutiny. In contrast, Kipling’s Mithras cult acknowledges that there are ‘many ways to the light’, and, moreover, by inferring that there are many similarities between the cult of Mithras and Christianity, Kipling hoped to urge evangelical Christians to moderate their behaviour and use his depiction of the Mithras cult as an example of how to better approach religious diversity within the Empire.
Much has been written on the religious aspects of life in the Roman military community, but the r... more Much has been written on the religious aspects of life in the Roman military community, but the role of soldiers as temple patrons has rarely been discussed, even though temples and shrines have been found at military settlements across the Roman empire and many temples situated in urban areas have produced evidence of financial support from soldiers. Thus, exploring the relationship between military communities and temples is important for our understanding of the religious dimension of these communities and, moreover, of wider developments in temple-based worship in the Roman empire. Indeed, the emperors of the late third century CE came from this social milieu, and their disposition toward temples would have been affected by their experiences during military service. I demonstrate here how and why support for temple construction, repair, and expansion among the military communities in two of the most militarized provinces, Britain and Pannonia, decreased dramatically after the early third century and why certain temples (Mithraea and Dolichena) did not similarly decline. This examination also reveals how the changing relationship between military communities and temples influenced the attitudes of late third-century emperors toward temple construction and repair.
In recent decades, archaeologists in regions such as Germany, Italy, and France have developed an... more In recent decades, archaeologists in regions such as Germany, Italy, and France have developed an increasingly robust approach to the identification of early churches and thus dismissed a number of formerly misidentified examples in the process. In Britain, however, various supposed “churches” discovered in the twentieth century continue to be referred to as such despite a lack of strong evidence to substantiate this. One such example is a structure found at Butt Road, Colchester. In this article, the issues surrounding the interpretation of this building as a church are revisited and enhanced, while it is illustrated why other interpretations, such as a “pagan funerary banqueting hall,” are also unlikely. Following this, the possibility that the building served as a mithraeum is put forward, for mithraea offer stronger parallels that account for the building’s size and structure, as well as its faunal and small-find assemblages. As such, it will highlight the need to revisit other previously identified “churches” from Roman Britain and to apply a more rigorous analysis, which may yield alternative conclusions.
A number of inscriptions from the Tetrarchic period indicate that various Mithraic communities re... more A number of inscriptions from the Tetrarchic period indicate that various Mithraic communities received the patronage of governors, duces and even the emperors themselves. Such support for a so-called mystery cult is striking given that in other cases the imperial government failed to restore the temples of more traditional cults that had fallen into decay. In this paper I will demonstrate that such anomalous building activity associated with mithraea is evident in proceeding generations, for while the construction and repair of temples generally declined significantly in the third century mithraea continued to be erected and maintained unabated throughout this period. I then go on to argue that there is evidence to indicate Mithraic congregations took the conscious decision to divide upon reaching a certain number followers, hence why newly constructed mithraea continued to remain small in size and are often to be found in close proximity to pre-existing mithraea. By applying sociological theory, it is clear that such circumstances provided the ideal situation in which to foster a particularly high level of commitment among the Mithraists, thus making them willing to continue contributing to the construction and repair of mithraea even when resources became scarce, while other cults that had a popular, but less committed following, saw their temples fall into disrepair. When the imperial government provided for support for various Mithraic communities in the Tetrarchic period this was not due to any religious reasons, but rather as a political move designed to channel this commitment into support for their own rule.
The abandonment and destruction of temples in late antiquity has become the subject of widespread... more The abandonment and destruction of temples in late antiquity has become the subject of widespread discussion in recent years, but this has centered largely on the provinces of the East and around Mediterranean at the expense of other areas, such as the Danubian region. This article seeks to add new data and observations to this debate by determining a number of points regarding the temples of Noricum and Pannonia, including when a decline in their construction becomes evident, how sources of temple benefaction alter over time and how this compares to the building work undertaken in the wider civic sphere. It also looks at the abandonment of temples, focusing particularly on when they became common sources of spolia for other building projects, what evidence there is for the violent closure of temples and who might have been responsible for this. What will be demonstrated is that the construction of temples went into decline in the early third century, while temple architecture became increasingly utilized as spolia from the Tetrarchic period onward. It will also be shown that examples of alleged Christian iconoclasm are dubious in nature and that other possible alternatives could be used to explain this evidence.
In The Cult of Mithras in Late Antiquity David Walsh explores how the cult of Mithras developed a... more In The Cult of Mithras in Late Antiquity David Walsh explores how the cult of Mithras developed across the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. and why by the early 5th century the cult had completely disappeared. Contrary to the traditional narrative that the cult was violently persecuted out of existence by Christians, Walsh demonstrates that the cult’s decline was a far more gradual process that resulted from a variety of factors. He also challenges the popular image of the cult as a monolithic entity, highlighting how by the 4th century Mithras had come to mean different things to different people in different places.
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