Countless juristic works have been composed on the Hajj and the Umrah—the major and minor Islamic... more Countless juristic works have been composed on the Hajj and the Umrah—the major and minor Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca—with meticulous attention to the proper manner of performing their rites in keeping with the relevant legal rulings derived from the Qur’an and the Prophetic Sunnah. Far fewer works, however, have been devoted to the inner meanings of these rituals and the spiritual benefit and significance they hold for the pilgrim. Approaching the topic through an etymological and historical analysis of the words used to describe the pilgrimage rites, and tracing the semantic links among relevant terms as they appear in the Jewish, Christian, and Islamic scriptures, this insightful and fascinating study seeks to unlock some of the mysteries hidden within the Hajj rituals. In so doing, it shows that, far from being mere re-enactments of stories from antiquity and their exoteric meanings, these rites function as symbols of inner realities, both earthly and heavenly, and as stages in the pilgrim’s spiritual journey from death to resurrection and hence, to spiritual enlightenment.
Through extensive textual analysis, this book reveals how various passages of the Qur'an define d... more Through extensive textual analysis, this book reveals how various passages of the Qur'an define death and resurrection spiritually or metaphorically.
While the Day of Resurrection is a major theme of the Qur'an, resurrection has largely been interpreted as physical, which is defined as bones leaving their graves. However, this book shows that the Qur'an sometimes alludes to death and resurrection in a metaphoric manner – for example, rebuilding a desolate town, typically identified as Jerusalem, and bringing the Israelite exiles back; thus, suggesting awareness and engagement with Jewish liturgy. Many times, the Qur'an even speaks of non-believers as spiritually dead, those who live in this world, but are otherwise zombies.
The author presents an innovative theory of interpretation, contextualizing the Qur'an within Late Antiquity and traces the Qur'anic passages back to their Biblical, extra-biblical and rabbinic subtexts and traditions.
Qurʾanic Hermeneutics argues for the importance of understanding the polysemous nature of the wor... more Qurʾanic Hermeneutics argues for the importance of understanding the polysemous nature of the words in the Qurʾan and outlines a new method of Qurʾanic exegesis called intertextual polysemy. By interweaving science, history, and religious studies, Abdulla Galadari introduces a linguistic approach which draws on neuropsychology.
This book features examples of intertextual polysemy within the Qurʾan, as well as between the Qurʾan and the Bible. It provides examples that intimately engage with Christological concepts of the Gospels, in addition to examples of allegorical interpretation through inner-Qurʾanic allusions. Galadari reveals how new creative insights are possible, and argues that the Qurʾan did not come to denounce the Gospel – which is one of the stumbling blocks between Islam and Christianity – but only to interpret it in its own words.
There is a debate among academic and religious scholars alike on the reliability of classical Qurʾanic exegesis for interpretation. This book proposes a new and innovative method of Qurʾanic exegesis called intertextual polysemy, using provocative examples. It breaks away the shackles of classical exegesis and tries to demystify the concept of Muhammad’s revelation and allegories by adopting concepts of neuropsychology. It introduces Psychological Qurʾanic Criticism as a field, similar to that found in Biblical Studies.
The book proposes a method that argues the importance of understanding the polysemous nature of the words in the Qurʾan and uses intertextuality between the Qurʾan and itself, as well as between the Qurʾan and the Bible to identify how words and their various morphologies are used. It also gives insightful but controversial examples using this methodology.
To argue in favour of such a method, the book touches very crucial and sometimes controversial subjects. An example of such, contrary to recent scholarly debates, the book argues that “taḥrīf,” according to the Qurʾan, perhaps means turning away (inḥirāf) from Scriptures, and not necessarily changing either the words or their meanings. This is a diverging thought from existing literature that did not look at this as a possible definition of the term.
The book also presents few working examples of intertextual polysemy for Qurʾanic hermeneutics. It gives examples for intertextualizing the Qurʾan with itself, as well as between the Qurʾan and the Bible. Many of the stumbling blocks between Christianity and Islam when it comes to Christology and the theology are completely reinterpreted showing that in fact the Qurʾan did not come to denounce the Gospel, but only interpret it in its own words. With those examples, it shows how new creative insights on understanding possible deeper meanings to the Qurʾan along with its Biblical subtext. As examples adopted in the book, it shows how the term Ibn Allah in the Qurʾan is defining the Temple of God, not actually the Son. It also mentions how the concept that God neither begets nor is begotten in the Qurʾan is an attempt to interpret the Logos in the Gospel of John and not denying it, as it is currently assumed by both academic and religious scholars.
This book is very different than existing literature in Qurʾanic studies in that it proposes and argues in favour of a new method of Qurʾanic hermeneutics using a linguistic approach that is not found in any other books in the field, stemming from a possible neuropsychological basis.
The Qurʾānic term, 'ẓann,' is usually understood and translated as conjecture. However, I argue t... more The Qurʾānic term, 'ẓann,' is usually understood and translated as conjecture. However, I argue that the Qurʾān uses 'ẓann' to mean dogmatic zeal or, in other words, being zealous to a certain belief. For conjecture, the Qurʾān uses the root 'ḥ-s-b,' such as, 'ayaḥsabu.' Although the Qurʾān may criticize some people's conjectures, it does not criticize the act of formulating opinions with the root 'ḥ-s-b.' However, the Qurʾān does criticize the act of 'ẓann.' This further emphasizes the distinction between conjecture and 'ẓann,' according to the Qurʾān. The main emphasis is that when the Qurʾān requires people to shun most 'ẓann,' it is argued that it is asking to shun zealous beliefs and dogmas, and it is not asking to shun the formulation of conjectures. The method used is philological, in which the cognates are analyzed in their contexts and compared with their uses in the Qurʾān. Defining 'ẓann' as dogmatic zeal rather than conjecture has far-reaching implications in understanding Qurʾānic epistemology and the epistemic process it expects its audience to have.
While the traditional view of Islamic law (sharīah) and jurisprudence is to consider the Qur’an a... more While the traditional view of Islamic law (sharīah) and jurisprudence is to consider the Qur’an as the starting point for legal matters, followed by the prophetic tradition, and then resorting to various forms of “ijtihād”, it is argued here that the Qur’an was not really held in a position of legal supremacy. Since the time of the earliest Muslim community, it is “ijtihād” that has created the criteria by which Qur’anic and even prophetic rules are to be kept, suspended, and contradicted. Therefore, the Qur’an is not viewed historically as having legal supremacy for Islamic law and is not considered similar to some constitutions, against which laws are measured. Hence, in modern-day Islamic legal discourse, it would not be unreasonable to argue that “ijtihād” has supremacy in Islamic law, giving some flexibility to Muslim communities in the evolution of such laws.
Emerging Horizons: 21st Century Approaches to the Study of Midrash, 2021
The Qurʾanic narrative of the red cow appears to combine elements from Numbers 19 and Deuteronomy... more The Qurʾanic narrative of the red cow appears to combine elements from Numbers 19 and Deuteronomy 21. However, it also included elements from rabbinic commentary, such as the debate on the age of the cow and the importance of having a homogenous colour, in which the rabbis disqualified the cow if there were even as much as two hairs that are of a different colour. Also, the Qurʾan states that the Israelites called this precept "ḥaqq," which parallels the rabbinic tradition stating that this is a "ḥoq." While no one understands its paradoxical rationale, where impurity is used to purify and everyone involved in the ritual becomes impure with the same elements that eventually purify, it is a "ḥoq," because they are to obey it due to its divine edict, as it is also echoed in Midrash Tanḥuma and Bamidbar Rabbah.
Although the Qurʾan shows full awareness of the Jewish tradition, there is one major difference in that the Qurʾan puts the narrative in the context of resurrection or bringing life out of the dead, while in Jewish tradition it is a purification ritual. Yet, the paradox is similar, in which the red cow’s ritual brings purity from impurity is understood from Bamidbar Rabbah just like Abraham (pure) coming out from Terah (impure), Hezekiah (pure) from Ahaz (impure), Israel (pure) from the nations of the world (impure), and the world to come (pure) from this world (impure).
After the cow’s narrative, the Qurʾan speaks of the event in Meribah, similar to Numbers 20. The Qurʾan explains that the Israelites’ hearts were like stone or harder, which holds similarity to how Bamidbar Rabbah explains as one of the meanings of “mōrîm” as disobediently stubborn. As such, the Qurʾan appears to be aware of the rabbinic tradition pertaining to the red cow and directly engaging with it.
While the context of the Qurʾan appears to be on resurrection instead of purification, it is argued that the Qurʾan understands resurrection in the cow narrative as purification from “ṭumʾah” or death. Yet, this death does not necessarily have to be even physical death. It holds its similarity with Adam’s sin, who lost his opportunity to immortality, and became spiritually dead. Similarly, as the Talmud states that the Israelites became immortal for accepting the Torah, but lost this immortality due to the sin of the golden calf. As such, perhaps the Qurʾan understands this as spiritual death, with which the red cow is undoing the sin of the golden calf that caused such spiritual death, as later Jewish midrashim also emphasize.
The Qur’an often compares its own inspiration and revelation with previous scriptures to its audi... more The Qur’an often compares its own inspiration and revelation with previous scriptures to its audience. However, the Jews and Christians in Late Antiquity had manifold understandings of the inspiration and revelation of scripture. The rabbinic tradition posits various degrees of inspiration behind canonical scriptures: the Torah was dictated by God to Moses, while other prophets had lesser degrees of divine inspiration. Many Christian churches typically held a dual authorship concept, where the human author wrote under the inspiration of a divine author. Many Muslim traditions held various understandings of the agency, or lack thereof, of Muḥammad in the utterances of the Qur’an. Nonetheless, the Qur’an claims that its own inspiration is no different from some biblical books. Since the rabbinic and Christian views differ, it is imperative to understand the Qur’anic concept of itself on inspiration and revelation (waḥy and tanzīl), especially since it compares itself with other scriptures. Additionally, it is argued that the Qur’an’s self-referentiality as a “kitāb” that descends does not necessarily denote a “book” (neither heavenly nor earthly), but an order or commandment, which is more loyal to the root definition.
(Islamic Studies in Contemporary World) مطالعات اسلامي در جهان اسلام, 2020
مترجم: نسيم حسني
استعاره عبور شتر از سوراخ سوزن در انجیلهای همنوا (متی، باب نوزدهم آیه ۲... more مترجم: نسيم حسني
استعاره عبور شتر از سوراخ سوزن در انجیلهای همنوا (متی، باب نوزدهم آیه ۲۴؛ مرقس، باب دهم آیه ۲۵؛ لوقا، باب هجدهم آیه ۲۵) و قرآن (سوره اعراف، آیه ۴۰)مطرحشده است. ظاهراً انجیل میگوید که عبور شتر از سوراخ سوزن راحتتر از ورود فردی ثروتمند به قلمرو بهشت است. از سوی دیگر، قرآن این استعاره را در بافتار تکذیبکنندگانی بیان میکند که در برابر آیات خدا متکبرند (اسْتَکْبَرُوا). در بادی امر بهنظر میرسد که بافتار این استعاره در انجیلها و قرآن متفاوت است. اما با تحلیل دقیقتر کلیدواژهها، تشابهاتی متنی دیده میشود که از هر دو متن قابلاستخراج هستند و برخلاف تصور محققان پیشین، فراتر از کاربرد مشترک این تمثیل است. برای نمونه، مرد ثروتمند در انجیلها از بهارثبردن زندگی جاودانه میپرسد، و درعینحال قرآن نیز در مورد زندگی جاودانه و میراثبری در بافتاری مشابه صحبت میکند. این موارد و چندین تشابه متنی دیگر حاکی از آن است که قرآن تلویحاً همان بافتاری را برای استعاره مطرح میکند که انجیلها هم به آن میپردازند.
The Qur'an frequently abhors blind faith based on tradition in its arguments against non-believer... more The Qur'an frequently abhors blind faith based on tradition in its arguments against non-believers. Nonetheless, the Qur'an repeatedly asks people to believe in its message. How does the Qur'an distinguish between both kinds of faith? This article investigates the type of epistemology the Qur'an expects from its audience. Linguistically, the Qur'anic concept of "īmān" may be compared to taking refuge in Buddhism, in that it is through experience and insight (prajñā), as portrayed in the Kālāma Sutta, and not zeal. The Qur'an differentiates between two types of conviction, that which is received through discernment and understanding, and that which is blind. The Qur'an shows cues of an attempt to harmonise faith and reason. It does not entertain non-believers in their request to have supernatural physical proofs, but frequently reminds them to use their reason and observation. This opens further avenues of interfaith dialogue between Buddhism and Islam.
In the modern age, the conflict between science and religion manifests itself in the debate betwe... more In the modern age, the conflict between science and religion manifests itself in the debate between evolution and creation. In this essay, it is argued that if we adopt a creationist reading of the Qur’ān, we discover an interesting anomaly: reading the Qur’ān literally does not necessarily provide the foundation of creationism. Creationists usually have in mind the concept of creatio ex nihilo, or ‘creation out of nothing’. However, in the Qur’ān, one of the words used for creation, the verb khalaqa (usually rendered ‘He created’, with God as subject), has the consonant root khlq, which means ‘to split’ or ‘to divide’. This root word can even be seen as applying to the biological process of cell division. Therefore, it is argued here that using the verb khalaqa to describe this physical process is not problematic from a scientific perspective. In addition, with close textual analysis of the Qur’ān, it appears that the second verb for creation, the imperative ‘be’ (kun), does not truly describe the moment of creation, but rather that of ‘being’. The Qur’ān separates the notion of creation from being, which poses the question as to what the text constitutes as the ontological nature of the human being and the universe. Therefore, it is concluded here that even if we do adopt a literal reading of the Qur’ān, it does not necessarily support a worldview that endorses creatio ex nihilo.
A comparison between Muḥammad and Siddhārtha’s psychological states is made to identify how they ... more A comparison between Muḥammad and Siddhārtha’s psychological states is made to identify how they had their mystical experiences and how their presuppositions and personalities shaped their interpretation of these experiences. Muḥammad’s mystical experience appeared to be based on an altered state of consciousness. Siddhārtha’s teachings include that one must not have blind faith and remain open to various truths. These teachings may reflect that he was high in openness to experience, which may have fortified him from becoming delusional. While mystical experiences may have pathological overlaps, they could be categorized in a similar way to psychological states. Yet, mindful presuppositions and personality traits, especially from within openness to experience spectrum, are what make perceptions of these experiences diverse.
Resumen: La metáfora del camello que pasa por el ojo de la aguja se encuentra en los Evangelios S... more Resumen: La metáfora del camello que pasa por el ojo de la aguja se encuentra en los Evangelios Sinópticos (Mt 19,24; Mc 10,25; Lc 18,25) y en el Corán (7,40). Los Evangelios parecen sugerir que es más fácil que un camello pase por el ojo de una aguja, que un rico entre en el Reino de los Cielos. El Corán, por otra parte, ubica la metáfora en el contexto de los no-creyentes, que son arrogantes (istakbarū) con respecto a los signos de Dios. En un primer momento, parecería que los contextos del pasaje en el Evangelio y en el Corán son diferentes; sin embargo, analizando más de cerca las palabras clave, se pueden extraer paralelos textuales de ambos textos, que van más allá de la simple utilización de esta analogía en común, como lo pensaron algunos especialistas anteriores. Por ejemplo, el rico en los Evangelios pregunta cómo heredar la vida eterna, mientras que el Corán también discute la vida eterna y la herencia en el mismo contexto. Este y otros varios paralelos textuales sugieren que el Corán está aludiendo al mismo contexto de la metáfora en los Evangelios.
The metaphor of the camel passing through the eye of the needle is found in the Synoptic Gospels ... more The metaphor of the camel passing through the eye of the needle is found in the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew 19:24, Mark 10:25, Luke 18:25) and the Qur'an (7:40). The Gospels seem to suggest that it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich person to enter the Kingdom of Heaven. The Qur'an, on the other hand, puts the metaphor in the context of disbelievers who are arrogant (istakbarū) toward God's signs. At the outset, it would seem that the passage's contexts in the Gospels and the Qur'an are different; however, through a closer analysis of the keywords, there are textual parallels that can be extracted from both texts and go beyond simply the use of this analogy in common, as previous scholars have thought. For instance, the rich man in the Gospels is asking about inheriting eternal life, while the Qur'an also discusses eternal life and inheritance in the same context. These and several other textual parallels suggest that the Qur'an is alluding to the same context for the metaphor as the Gospels do.
In the modern age, the conflict between science and religion manifests itself in the debate betwe... more In the modern age, the conflict between science and religion manifests itself in the debate between evolution and creation. If we adopt a creationist's reading of the Qur'an, we discover an interesting anomaly. Reading the Qur'an literally does not necessarily provide the foundation of creationism. Creationists usually have in mind the concept of creatio ex nihilo, or 'creation out of nothing'. However, in the Qur'an, one of the words used for creation, khalaqna, has the root khlq, which means 'to split' or 'to divide'. This root word may even apply to the biological process of cell division. Therefore, from a scientific perspective, using the word khlq to describe this physical process is not problematic. In addition, with close textual analysis of the Qur'an, we realize that the word for creation 'be' (kun) does not truly describe the moment of creation, but rather that of 'being'. The Qur'an separates the notion of creation from being, which poses the question as to what the text constitutes as the ontological nature of the human being and the universe. Therefore, even if we do adopt a literal reading of the Qur'an, we find that it does not necessarily support a worldview that endorses creatio ex nihilo.
In this article it is argued that the Qiblah passages in the Qur’an, which are commonly understoo... more In this article it is argued that the Qiblah passages in the Qur’an, which are commonly understood as referring to the direction of the prayer, are directly engaging with and interpreting the Shema passages in Deuteronomy and their Talmudic commentaries. By defining and applying the method of intertextual polysemy, nine points of intertextuality are identified between the various Qur’anic, Biblical, and Talmudic passages. Against this background, the article implies that narrations from traditional Qur’anic commentaries are lacking in their interpretation of these passages, since they do not employ any extra-Quranic contexts to explain their meaning. Through the method of intertextual polysemy, the alternative thesis propounded here is that the historical reference for the Qiblah passages is the Shema.
Al-Bayan: Journal of Qur'an and Hadith Studies, 2015
Ijtihād has been extremely important throughout Islamic history and seen as such by many Muslim s... more Ijtihād has been extremely important throughout Islamic history and seen as such by many Muslim scholars, both Sunni and Shiʿi, in early, medieval, and contemporary Islam. However, the phenomenon of ijtihad, in both traditional and contemporary Islam, is restricted to a set of rules that were outlined by earlier mujtahids. This poses a challenge in Qurʾanic hermeneutics as to whether contemporary mujtahids are performing ijtihād or merely imitating (taqlīd) the method of ijtihād. The purpose of this study is to investigate the following question: is ijtihād in the Qurʾanic Sciences today merely an imitation (taqlīd) of ijtihād? The paper opens with defining imitation (taqlīd) according to classical Muslim scholars, starting with the arguments that accepts imitation in Islam and then compares it with various scholars’ stances on ijtihād. The paper employs arguments from the Qurʾan, prophetic tradition (ḥadīth), and acts of the Companions (ṣaḥābah) that are typically used by Muslim scholars to argue in favor of ijtihād over imitation (taqlīd). It compares the stance of both Sunni and Shiʿi scholars on the roles of both mujtahids and sources of jurisprudence (marājiʿ) and muftīs. It shows that, in Qurʾanic Sciences, although the role of ijtihād is highly recommended, it continues to be part of a larger paradox, in which ijtihād may only be performed through a set of rules outlined by early scholars. This brings us to a paradox that to be a mujtahid, one needs to imitate (taqlīd) rules outlined by earlier mujtahids, which poses the challenging question on whether scholars today are truly performing ijtihād, or simply taqlīd al-ijtihād.
Countless juristic works have been composed on the Hajj and the Umrah—the major and minor Islamic... more Countless juristic works have been composed on the Hajj and the Umrah—the major and minor Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca—with meticulous attention to the proper manner of performing their rites in keeping with the relevant legal rulings derived from the Qur’an and the Prophetic Sunnah. Far fewer works, however, have been devoted to the inner meanings of these rituals and the spiritual benefit and significance they hold for the pilgrim. Approaching the topic through an etymological and historical analysis of the words used to describe the pilgrimage rites, and tracing the semantic links among relevant terms as they appear in the Jewish, Christian, and Islamic scriptures, this insightful and fascinating study seeks to unlock some of the mysteries hidden within the Hajj rituals. In so doing, it shows that, far from being mere re-enactments of stories from antiquity and their exoteric meanings, these rites function as symbols of inner realities, both earthly and heavenly, and as stages in the pilgrim’s spiritual journey from death to resurrection and hence, to spiritual enlightenment.
Through extensive textual analysis, this book reveals how various passages of the Qur'an define d... more Through extensive textual analysis, this book reveals how various passages of the Qur'an define death and resurrection spiritually or metaphorically.
While the Day of Resurrection is a major theme of the Qur'an, resurrection has largely been interpreted as physical, which is defined as bones leaving their graves. However, this book shows that the Qur'an sometimes alludes to death and resurrection in a metaphoric manner – for example, rebuilding a desolate town, typically identified as Jerusalem, and bringing the Israelite exiles back; thus, suggesting awareness and engagement with Jewish liturgy. Many times, the Qur'an even speaks of non-believers as spiritually dead, those who live in this world, but are otherwise zombies.
The author presents an innovative theory of interpretation, contextualizing the Qur'an within Late Antiquity and traces the Qur'anic passages back to their Biblical, extra-biblical and rabbinic subtexts and traditions.
Qurʾanic Hermeneutics argues for the importance of understanding the polysemous nature of the wor... more Qurʾanic Hermeneutics argues for the importance of understanding the polysemous nature of the words in the Qurʾan and outlines a new method of Qurʾanic exegesis called intertextual polysemy. By interweaving science, history, and religious studies, Abdulla Galadari introduces a linguistic approach which draws on neuropsychology.
This book features examples of intertextual polysemy within the Qurʾan, as well as between the Qurʾan and the Bible. It provides examples that intimately engage with Christological concepts of the Gospels, in addition to examples of allegorical interpretation through inner-Qurʾanic allusions. Galadari reveals how new creative insights are possible, and argues that the Qurʾan did not come to denounce the Gospel – which is one of the stumbling blocks between Islam and Christianity – but only to interpret it in its own words.
There is a debate among academic and religious scholars alike on the reliability of classical Qurʾanic exegesis for interpretation. This book proposes a new and innovative method of Qurʾanic exegesis called intertextual polysemy, using provocative examples. It breaks away the shackles of classical exegesis and tries to demystify the concept of Muhammad’s revelation and allegories by adopting concepts of neuropsychology. It introduces Psychological Qurʾanic Criticism as a field, similar to that found in Biblical Studies.
The book proposes a method that argues the importance of understanding the polysemous nature of the words in the Qurʾan and uses intertextuality between the Qurʾan and itself, as well as between the Qurʾan and the Bible to identify how words and their various morphologies are used. It also gives insightful but controversial examples using this methodology.
To argue in favour of such a method, the book touches very crucial and sometimes controversial subjects. An example of such, contrary to recent scholarly debates, the book argues that “taḥrīf,” according to the Qurʾan, perhaps means turning away (inḥirāf) from Scriptures, and not necessarily changing either the words or their meanings. This is a diverging thought from existing literature that did not look at this as a possible definition of the term.
The book also presents few working examples of intertextual polysemy for Qurʾanic hermeneutics. It gives examples for intertextualizing the Qurʾan with itself, as well as between the Qurʾan and the Bible. Many of the stumbling blocks between Christianity and Islam when it comes to Christology and the theology are completely reinterpreted showing that in fact the Qurʾan did not come to denounce the Gospel, but only interpret it in its own words. With those examples, it shows how new creative insights on understanding possible deeper meanings to the Qurʾan along with its Biblical subtext. As examples adopted in the book, it shows how the term Ibn Allah in the Qurʾan is defining the Temple of God, not actually the Son. It also mentions how the concept that God neither begets nor is begotten in the Qurʾan is an attempt to interpret the Logos in the Gospel of John and not denying it, as it is currently assumed by both academic and religious scholars.
This book is very different than existing literature in Qurʾanic studies in that it proposes and argues in favour of a new method of Qurʾanic hermeneutics using a linguistic approach that is not found in any other books in the field, stemming from a possible neuropsychological basis.
The Qurʾānic term, 'ẓann,' is usually understood and translated as conjecture. However, I argue t... more The Qurʾānic term, 'ẓann,' is usually understood and translated as conjecture. However, I argue that the Qurʾān uses 'ẓann' to mean dogmatic zeal or, in other words, being zealous to a certain belief. For conjecture, the Qurʾān uses the root 'ḥ-s-b,' such as, 'ayaḥsabu.' Although the Qurʾān may criticize some people's conjectures, it does not criticize the act of formulating opinions with the root 'ḥ-s-b.' However, the Qurʾān does criticize the act of 'ẓann.' This further emphasizes the distinction between conjecture and 'ẓann,' according to the Qurʾān. The main emphasis is that when the Qurʾān requires people to shun most 'ẓann,' it is argued that it is asking to shun zealous beliefs and dogmas, and it is not asking to shun the formulation of conjectures. The method used is philological, in which the cognates are analyzed in their contexts and compared with their uses in the Qurʾān. Defining 'ẓann' as dogmatic zeal rather than conjecture has far-reaching implications in understanding Qurʾānic epistemology and the epistemic process it expects its audience to have.
While the traditional view of Islamic law (sharīah) and jurisprudence is to consider the Qur’an a... more While the traditional view of Islamic law (sharīah) and jurisprudence is to consider the Qur’an as the starting point for legal matters, followed by the prophetic tradition, and then resorting to various forms of “ijtihād”, it is argued here that the Qur’an was not really held in a position of legal supremacy. Since the time of the earliest Muslim community, it is “ijtihād” that has created the criteria by which Qur’anic and even prophetic rules are to be kept, suspended, and contradicted. Therefore, the Qur’an is not viewed historically as having legal supremacy for Islamic law and is not considered similar to some constitutions, against which laws are measured. Hence, in modern-day Islamic legal discourse, it would not be unreasonable to argue that “ijtihād” has supremacy in Islamic law, giving some flexibility to Muslim communities in the evolution of such laws.
Emerging Horizons: 21st Century Approaches to the Study of Midrash, 2021
The Qurʾanic narrative of the red cow appears to combine elements from Numbers 19 and Deuteronomy... more The Qurʾanic narrative of the red cow appears to combine elements from Numbers 19 and Deuteronomy 21. However, it also included elements from rabbinic commentary, such as the debate on the age of the cow and the importance of having a homogenous colour, in which the rabbis disqualified the cow if there were even as much as two hairs that are of a different colour. Also, the Qurʾan states that the Israelites called this precept "ḥaqq," which parallels the rabbinic tradition stating that this is a "ḥoq." While no one understands its paradoxical rationale, where impurity is used to purify and everyone involved in the ritual becomes impure with the same elements that eventually purify, it is a "ḥoq," because they are to obey it due to its divine edict, as it is also echoed in Midrash Tanḥuma and Bamidbar Rabbah.
Although the Qurʾan shows full awareness of the Jewish tradition, there is one major difference in that the Qurʾan puts the narrative in the context of resurrection or bringing life out of the dead, while in Jewish tradition it is a purification ritual. Yet, the paradox is similar, in which the red cow’s ritual brings purity from impurity is understood from Bamidbar Rabbah just like Abraham (pure) coming out from Terah (impure), Hezekiah (pure) from Ahaz (impure), Israel (pure) from the nations of the world (impure), and the world to come (pure) from this world (impure).
After the cow’s narrative, the Qurʾan speaks of the event in Meribah, similar to Numbers 20. The Qurʾan explains that the Israelites’ hearts were like stone or harder, which holds similarity to how Bamidbar Rabbah explains as one of the meanings of “mōrîm” as disobediently stubborn. As such, the Qurʾan appears to be aware of the rabbinic tradition pertaining to the red cow and directly engaging with it.
While the context of the Qurʾan appears to be on resurrection instead of purification, it is argued that the Qurʾan understands resurrection in the cow narrative as purification from “ṭumʾah” or death. Yet, this death does not necessarily have to be even physical death. It holds its similarity with Adam’s sin, who lost his opportunity to immortality, and became spiritually dead. Similarly, as the Talmud states that the Israelites became immortal for accepting the Torah, but lost this immortality due to the sin of the golden calf. As such, perhaps the Qurʾan understands this as spiritual death, with which the red cow is undoing the sin of the golden calf that caused such spiritual death, as later Jewish midrashim also emphasize.
The Qur’an often compares its own inspiration and revelation with previous scriptures to its audi... more The Qur’an often compares its own inspiration and revelation with previous scriptures to its audience. However, the Jews and Christians in Late Antiquity had manifold understandings of the inspiration and revelation of scripture. The rabbinic tradition posits various degrees of inspiration behind canonical scriptures: the Torah was dictated by God to Moses, while other prophets had lesser degrees of divine inspiration. Many Christian churches typically held a dual authorship concept, where the human author wrote under the inspiration of a divine author. Many Muslim traditions held various understandings of the agency, or lack thereof, of Muḥammad in the utterances of the Qur’an. Nonetheless, the Qur’an claims that its own inspiration is no different from some biblical books. Since the rabbinic and Christian views differ, it is imperative to understand the Qur’anic concept of itself on inspiration and revelation (waḥy and tanzīl), especially since it compares itself with other scriptures. Additionally, it is argued that the Qur’an’s self-referentiality as a “kitāb” that descends does not necessarily denote a “book” (neither heavenly nor earthly), but an order or commandment, which is more loyal to the root definition.
(Islamic Studies in Contemporary World) مطالعات اسلامي در جهان اسلام, 2020
مترجم: نسيم حسني
استعاره عبور شتر از سوراخ سوزن در انجیلهای همنوا (متی، باب نوزدهم آیه ۲... more مترجم: نسيم حسني
استعاره عبور شتر از سوراخ سوزن در انجیلهای همنوا (متی، باب نوزدهم آیه ۲۴؛ مرقس، باب دهم آیه ۲۵؛ لوقا، باب هجدهم آیه ۲۵) و قرآن (سوره اعراف، آیه ۴۰)مطرحشده است. ظاهراً انجیل میگوید که عبور شتر از سوراخ سوزن راحتتر از ورود فردی ثروتمند به قلمرو بهشت است. از سوی دیگر، قرآن این استعاره را در بافتار تکذیبکنندگانی بیان میکند که در برابر آیات خدا متکبرند (اسْتَکْبَرُوا). در بادی امر بهنظر میرسد که بافتار این استعاره در انجیلها و قرآن متفاوت است. اما با تحلیل دقیقتر کلیدواژهها، تشابهاتی متنی دیده میشود که از هر دو متن قابلاستخراج هستند و برخلاف تصور محققان پیشین، فراتر از کاربرد مشترک این تمثیل است. برای نمونه، مرد ثروتمند در انجیلها از بهارثبردن زندگی جاودانه میپرسد، و درعینحال قرآن نیز در مورد زندگی جاودانه و میراثبری در بافتاری مشابه صحبت میکند. این موارد و چندین تشابه متنی دیگر حاکی از آن است که قرآن تلویحاً همان بافتاری را برای استعاره مطرح میکند که انجیلها هم به آن میپردازند.
The Qur'an frequently abhors blind faith based on tradition in its arguments against non-believer... more The Qur'an frequently abhors blind faith based on tradition in its arguments against non-believers. Nonetheless, the Qur'an repeatedly asks people to believe in its message. How does the Qur'an distinguish between both kinds of faith? This article investigates the type of epistemology the Qur'an expects from its audience. Linguistically, the Qur'anic concept of "īmān" may be compared to taking refuge in Buddhism, in that it is through experience and insight (prajñā), as portrayed in the Kālāma Sutta, and not zeal. The Qur'an differentiates between two types of conviction, that which is received through discernment and understanding, and that which is blind. The Qur'an shows cues of an attempt to harmonise faith and reason. It does not entertain non-believers in their request to have supernatural physical proofs, but frequently reminds them to use their reason and observation. This opens further avenues of interfaith dialogue between Buddhism and Islam.
In the modern age, the conflict between science and religion manifests itself in the debate betwe... more In the modern age, the conflict between science and religion manifests itself in the debate between evolution and creation. In this essay, it is argued that if we adopt a creationist reading of the Qur’ān, we discover an interesting anomaly: reading the Qur’ān literally does not necessarily provide the foundation of creationism. Creationists usually have in mind the concept of creatio ex nihilo, or ‘creation out of nothing’. However, in the Qur’ān, one of the words used for creation, the verb khalaqa (usually rendered ‘He created’, with God as subject), has the consonant root khlq, which means ‘to split’ or ‘to divide’. This root word can even be seen as applying to the biological process of cell division. Therefore, it is argued here that using the verb khalaqa to describe this physical process is not problematic from a scientific perspective. In addition, with close textual analysis of the Qur’ān, it appears that the second verb for creation, the imperative ‘be’ (kun), does not truly describe the moment of creation, but rather that of ‘being’. The Qur’ān separates the notion of creation from being, which poses the question as to what the text constitutes as the ontological nature of the human being and the universe. Therefore, it is concluded here that even if we do adopt a literal reading of the Qur’ān, it does not necessarily support a worldview that endorses creatio ex nihilo.
A comparison between Muḥammad and Siddhārtha’s psychological states is made to identify how they ... more A comparison between Muḥammad and Siddhārtha’s psychological states is made to identify how they had their mystical experiences and how their presuppositions and personalities shaped their interpretation of these experiences. Muḥammad’s mystical experience appeared to be based on an altered state of consciousness. Siddhārtha’s teachings include that one must not have blind faith and remain open to various truths. These teachings may reflect that he was high in openness to experience, which may have fortified him from becoming delusional. While mystical experiences may have pathological overlaps, they could be categorized in a similar way to psychological states. Yet, mindful presuppositions and personality traits, especially from within openness to experience spectrum, are what make perceptions of these experiences diverse.
Resumen: La metáfora del camello que pasa por el ojo de la aguja se encuentra en los Evangelios S... more Resumen: La metáfora del camello que pasa por el ojo de la aguja se encuentra en los Evangelios Sinópticos (Mt 19,24; Mc 10,25; Lc 18,25) y en el Corán (7,40). Los Evangelios parecen sugerir que es más fácil que un camello pase por el ojo de una aguja, que un rico entre en el Reino de los Cielos. El Corán, por otra parte, ubica la metáfora en el contexto de los no-creyentes, que son arrogantes (istakbarū) con respecto a los signos de Dios. En un primer momento, parecería que los contextos del pasaje en el Evangelio y en el Corán son diferentes; sin embargo, analizando más de cerca las palabras clave, se pueden extraer paralelos textuales de ambos textos, que van más allá de la simple utilización de esta analogía en común, como lo pensaron algunos especialistas anteriores. Por ejemplo, el rico en los Evangelios pregunta cómo heredar la vida eterna, mientras que el Corán también discute la vida eterna y la herencia en el mismo contexto. Este y otros varios paralelos textuales sugieren que el Corán está aludiendo al mismo contexto de la metáfora en los Evangelios.
The metaphor of the camel passing through the eye of the needle is found in the Synoptic Gospels ... more The metaphor of the camel passing through the eye of the needle is found in the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew 19:24, Mark 10:25, Luke 18:25) and the Qur'an (7:40). The Gospels seem to suggest that it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich person to enter the Kingdom of Heaven. The Qur'an, on the other hand, puts the metaphor in the context of disbelievers who are arrogant (istakbarū) toward God's signs. At the outset, it would seem that the passage's contexts in the Gospels and the Qur'an are different; however, through a closer analysis of the keywords, there are textual parallels that can be extracted from both texts and go beyond simply the use of this analogy in common, as previous scholars have thought. For instance, the rich man in the Gospels is asking about inheriting eternal life, while the Qur'an also discusses eternal life and inheritance in the same context. These and several other textual parallels suggest that the Qur'an is alluding to the same context for the metaphor as the Gospels do.
In the modern age, the conflict between science and religion manifests itself in the debate betwe... more In the modern age, the conflict between science and religion manifests itself in the debate between evolution and creation. If we adopt a creationist's reading of the Qur'an, we discover an interesting anomaly. Reading the Qur'an literally does not necessarily provide the foundation of creationism. Creationists usually have in mind the concept of creatio ex nihilo, or 'creation out of nothing'. However, in the Qur'an, one of the words used for creation, khalaqna, has the root khlq, which means 'to split' or 'to divide'. This root word may even apply to the biological process of cell division. Therefore, from a scientific perspective, using the word khlq to describe this physical process is not problematic. In addition, with close textual analysis of the Qur'an, we realize that the word for creation 'be' (kun) does not truly describe the moment of creation, but rather that of 'being'. The Qur'an separates the notion of creation from being, which poses the question as to what the text constitutes as the ontological nature of the human being and the universe. Therefore, even if we do adopt a literal reading of the Qur'an, we find that it does not necessarily support a worldview that endorses creatio ex nihilo.
In this article it is argued that the Qiblah passages in the Qur’an, which are commonly understoo... more In this article it is argued that the Qiblah passages in the Qur’an, which are commonly understood as referring to the direction of the prayer, are directly engaging with and interpreting the Shema passages in Deuteronomy and their Talmudic commentaries. By defining and applying the method of intertextual polysemy, nine points of intertextuality are identified between the various Qur’anic, Biblical, and Talmudic passages. Against this background, the article implies that narrations from traditional Qur’anic commentaries are lacking in their interpretation of these passages, since they do not employ any extra-Quranic contexts to explain their meaning. Through the method of intertextual polysemy, the alternative thesis propounded here is that the historical reference for the Qiblah passages is the Shema.
Al-Bayan: Journal of Qur'an and Hadith Studies, 2015
Ijtihād has been extremely important throughout Islamic history and seen as such by many Muslim s... more Ijtihād has been extremely important throughout Islamic history and seen as such by many Muslim scholars, both Sunni and Shiʿi, in early, medieval, and contemporary Islam. However, the phenomenon of ijtihad, in both traditional and contemporary Islam, is restricted to a set of rules that were outlined by earlier mujtahids. This poses a challenge in Qurʾanic hermeneutics as to whether contemporary mujtahids are performing ijtihād or merely imitating (taqlīd) the method of ijtihād. The purpose of this study is to investigate the following question: is ijtihād in the Qurʾanic Sciences today merely an imitation (taqlīd) of ijtihād? The paper opens with defining imitation (taqlīd) according to classical Muslim scholars, starting with the arguments that accepts imitation in Islam and then compares it with various scholars’ stances on ijtihād. The paper employs arguments from the Qurʾan, prophetic tradition (ḥadīth), and acts of the Companions (ṣaḥābah) that are typically used by Muslim scholars to argue in favor of ijtihād over imitation (taqlīd). It compares the stance of both Sunni and Shiʿi scholars on the roles of both mujtahids and sources of jurisprudence (marājiʿ) and muftīs. It shows that, in Qurʾanic Sciences, although the role of ijtihād is highly recommended, it continues to be part of a larger paradox, in which ijtihād may only be performed through a set of rules outlined by early scholars. This brings us to a paradox that to be a mujtahid, one needs to imitate (taqlīd) rules outlined by earlier mujtahids, which poses the challenging question on whether scholars today are truly performing ijtihād, or simply taqlīd al-ijtihād.
Qurʾanic Hermeneutics Between Science, History, and the Bible, 2018
Serving as an introduction to Psychological Qurʾanic Criticism, understanding the neuropsychologi... more Serving as an introduction to Psychological Qurʾanic Criticism, understanding the neuropsychological basis of how intertextual polysemy came into being in the Qurʾan is essential. According to modern psychological diagnostic tools, individuals with low latent inhibition and above average intelligence are highly creative, making creative associations in what others may never think about. However, individuals with low latent inhibition and average or below average intelligence may fall into psychosis. The symptoms of the Muslim prophet Muḥammad are compared using modern neuropsychological techniques to evaluate his mental state, when he first claimed to be receiving a revelation from God while meditating in a cave. The symptoms he experienced include withdrawal from family and friends, possible loss of appetite, and loss of sleep. In the cave, he experienced visual and auditory hallucinations. At that moment, he was extremely anxious. These are symptoms of an altered state (psychotic episode). His mind interprets these hallucinations that he is a man on a divine mission, which when coupled with low need of sleep, may reflect a manic episode. However, it is suggested that he had above average intelligence that when he entered the altered state, it protected him from falling into mental illness. Instead, he entered an extreme creative state. The altered state seemed to have allowed him to have low latent inhibition, in which he was able to make creative associations using double meanings and metaphor in the Qurʾan.
Nonetheless, it is inconclusive due to the pitfalls of psychobiography. However, understanding revelation from a human scientific perspective does not discredit its divine origination. Even if the neuropsychological theory is questioned, the methodology of intertextual polysemy can still be understood from a literary perspective.
Qur'anic Hermeneutics: Between Science, History, and the Bible, 2018
The Qurʾan suggests the superiority language in understanding its meanings. An overview of the ro... more The Qurʾan suggests the superiority language in understanding its meanings. An overview of the role of language in the Qurʾan is given, while introducing the method of intertextual polysemy, where a word has multiple related meanings and how they are intratextualized within the Qurʾan and intertextualized with the Bible. Defining what the term “‘arabī” means in the Qurʾan and Muslim tradition. It is argued that the Arabic language of the Qurʾan does not necessarily specify that of Quraysh, Muḥammad’s tribe, but generally the language of the people of the desert, along with its various tongues, some of which may be close Ge’ez in South Arabia, while others close to Hebrew and Aramaic in North Arabia.
The method of intertextual polysemy is presented, while signifying the importance of etymology and polysemy. Since word meanings in medieval Arabic lexicons might have evolved since the Qurʾan, it is argued to further analyze words’ cognates in sister Semitic languages to identify possible meanings in the Qurʾan.
Qur'anic Hermeneutics: Between Science, History, and the Bible, 2018
Three short examples of using intertextual polysemy method within the Qurʾan is done. The first l... more Three short examples of using intertextual polysemy method within the Qurʾan is done. The first links the first verses of sūrah al-‘Alaq with sūrah al-Raḥmān. Sūrah al-‘Alaq starts with the term (Iqra’), in which the Qurʾan is called after. It also talks about the creation of the human being from a clinging clot of blood in a mother’s womb. It continues explaining that it is God that teaches the human being what he knew not. Most exegetes interpret the term (‘alaq) with the clinging of the fetus inside a mother’s womb. When comparing these passages with the beginning of sūrah al-Raḥmān, it can be seen that it starts with the term of compassion (al-Raḥmān), who teaches the Qurʾan, who creates the human being, and who teaches him what he knew not. Hence, the first passages seem to have a relationship, because the term for womb is “rahm,” sharing the root with al-Raḥmān. Hence, sūrah al-‘Alaq does not only illustrate the creation of the human being inside the mother’s womb, but portrays the clinging of the human being to the Most Compassionate (al-Raḥmān), who is metaphorically like a mother’s womb, feeds the human with knowledge that he knew not before.
The second looks into the relationship between the story of Moses and the mysterious man in Qurʾan 18. The two travel to three different places, and after the third they part ways never to reconcile again. The Qurʾan uses for each instance the term “inṭalaqā,” meaning and they journeyed, sharing the same root as divorce (ṭalāq). According to the Qurʾan, a couple can divorce three times, after which they cannot be reconciled, unless a marriage to a different person occurs. As such, it can be compared with Moses and his companion’s third “inṭilāq,” when parting ways without reconciliation.
The third analyzes the beginning passages of Qurʾan 19, where Zechariah asks for a son. The story starts with the phrase “dhikr raḥmah” (the remembrance of the mercy). The term “dhikr” is related to the male organ, while “raḥmah” is the womb, both of which are necessary in bringing a child.
Qur'anic Hermeneutics: Between Science, History, and the Bible, 2018
The Qurʾan and the Bible have much of a relation with each other. However, one the reasons of an ... more The Qurʾan and the Bible have much of a relation with each other. However, one the reasons of an exclusivist mentality, is Islam’s understanding that the other scriptures have been altered or corrupted, using the term “yuḥarrifūn.”
The interpretation of the term “yuḥarrifūn” in the Qurʾan has caught the attention of past and modern scholars alike. The interpretation of the term ranges from the distortion of text (taḥrīf al-lafẓ) to the distortion of meaning (taḥrīf al-ma‘na). It is argued that the Qurʾanic use of the term “yuḥarrifūn” neither describes the distortion of text nor meaning, but simply is defined by the root meaning of “yuḥarrifūn,” which is to turn away or to bend (inḥirāf). The Qurʾan accuses the Jews of “yuḥarrifūn” in Q. 5:41, but two verses later in Q. 5:43, it describes how the Jews already have the Torah with God’s laws in it. If the Qurʾanic use of the term “yuḥarrifūn” is an accusation that the Jews distorted the text in Q. 5:41, then it would not have almost immediately after state that they have the Torah with God’s laws. On the contrary, it is argued that within the same chapter, the Qurʾan requires the People of the Book to stand upon their scriptures, using the term “tuqīmū” (i.e. Q. 5:66, 5:68). The root of the term “tuqīmū” means “istiqāma,” which is to straighten. It is contrasted with the Qurʾanic use of the term “yuḥarrifūn,” which means to bend (inḥirāf).
Qur'anic Hermeneutics: Between Science, History, and the Bible, 2018
Examples of intertextual polysemy between the Qurʾan and the Bible are made, specifically with th... more Examples of intertextual polysemy between the Qurʾan and the Bible are made, specifically with the Gospel of John. The first example is about the concept of Son of God and the relationship between the terms “ibn Allah” and “‘abd Allah.” It argues that the Qurʾanic usage of “ibn Allah” is not to be understood as Son of God, but Temple of God. The second example is about God the Father, showing that the term “āb” is related to the Qurʾanic “ma’āb,” meaning the desired place. The third example discusses the clinging unto God from Surah al-‘Alaq and al-Raḥmān and how it fits in the teaching of spiritual birth through intertextuality with the Gospel of John. These examples illustrate how the Qurʾan may be seen as an interpreter of the Bible and Biblical literature and not contradicting them. As such, the notions of exclusivism, corruption (taḥrīf) of earlier scriptures, and theology or Christology of later Muslims were perhaps not at all the intention of the Qurʾan.
Qur'anic Hermeneutics Between Science, History, and the Bible, 2018
The example in this chapter demonstrates how the Qurʾan is not necessarily contradicting the New ... more The example in this chapter demonstrates how the Qurʾan is not necessarily contradicting the New Testament on the issue that Jesus Christ is begotten of God, but is attempting to interpret John’s Gospel. The Greek "to beget" is "gennao" which is simply the causative form of "ginomai" which is the verb "to be." The Qurʾan numerously argues that Jesus Christ is not “walad” from God, but that whatever God commands, He says to it “Be.” In Arabic, the verb "to be" is "kun" and the causative form is "takawwan." The Qurʾan has no issue with the Greek rendition of "gennao" but only how it is translated into Arabic, choosing "takawwan" instead of "tawallad." This example argues that John’s Logos is the word Be, which in Hebrew is “yhy,” and that it is in itself God, due to God introduced in the Hebrew Bible as “ehyeh asher ehyeh” and “Yhwh,” rooted in the Hebrew root “hyh.” These examples illustrate how the Qurʾan may be seen as an interpreter of the Bible and Biblical literature and not contradicting them. As such, the notions of exclusivism, corruption (taḥrīf) of earlier scriptures, and theology or Christology of later Muslims were perhaps not at all the intention of the Qurʾan.
Qur'anic Hermeneutics: Between Science, History, and the Bible, 2018
An example illustrating the Qurʾanic engagement with the Incarnation of the Word in the Gospel of... more An example illustrating the Qurʾanic engagement with the Incarnation of the Word in the Gospel of John. Another example is an extensive use of intertextuality between the Qurʾan with the creation story of Genesis and the Gospel of John to give an overview of the extent of the use of intertextual polysemy in hermeneutics. These examples illustrate how the Qurʾan may be seen as an interpreter of the Bible and Biblical literature and not contradicting them. As such, the notions of exclusivism, corruption (taḥrīf) of earlier scriptures, and theology or Christology of later Muslims were perhaps not at all the intention of the Qurʾan.
Qur'anic Hermeneutics: Between Science, History, and the Bible, 2018
This example looks into the allegorical interpretations using inner-Qur’anic allusions, and speci... more This example looks into the allegorical interpretations using inner-Qur’anic allusions, and specifically, looking at the verse of the loan (āyat al-dayn) (i.e. Qur’an 2:282). Usury occurs from loans with a fixed period of time (ila ajalin musamma). The Qur’an also states that human souls are also loaned from God for a fixed period of time (ila ajalin musamma). On the impermissibility of “ribā,” the Qur’an uses the term “ḥarram,” while contrasting it with permissibility using the term “aḥall” of sale (al-bay‘). Linguistically, the root of the term “ḥrm” means sacred and the root term “ḥll” means profane. This may shed light on why the Qur’an specifically uses a term rooted in “ḥll” for sale (bay‘) and neither for purchase (shirā‘) nor trade (tijārah). The Qur’an specifies that only God can use “ribā.” As such, it is something sacred (muḥarram) reserved only for God. On the other hand, the Qur’an specifies sale (bay‘) as profane (ḥll), because only people can sell, while God does not sell. However, the Qur’an shows that God does purchase (shirā‘) from the believers their souls in return for heaven. As such, it would be linguistically inappropriate to say that purchase is profane (ḥll), since God makes purchases.
The keywords (i.e. dyn, ajl, musamma, ktb, rbb, ‘adl, and ryb) in Qur’an 2:282 are compared with the verses in Qur’an 42:14-15 and Qur’an 45:17. In the verse of dayn, the Qur’an emphasizes that any loan taken for a period of time (ila ajalin musamma) has to be written in a book (or contract) by someone faithful (bil-‘adl). In Qur’an 42:14-15, the verses specify that a Word from God is brought down for a period of time (ila ajalin musamma) to judge (qaḍa) matters between them and that the Book brought by God is believed by someone commanded to be faithful and just (li-a‘dila).
Qur'anic Hermeneutics: Between Science, History, and the Bible, 2018
This gives an overview of the book’s highlights and conclusion. The Qur’an never identified a spe... more This gives an overview of the book’s highlights and conclusion. The Qur’an never identified a specific methodology for its interpretation, except for i) clinging into God to teach the Qur’an, and ii) the supremacy of its language. Muḥammad seems to have been using selective Arabic words that are polysemous, having plentiful meanings. Lexical semantics, intertextual polysemy, and etymology are fundamental aspects of trying to understand the meanings of the Qur’an. This seems to be the only tangible method for interpretation that the Qur’an expects its audience to use. Muḥammad seems to have focused himself on a linguistic approach that is capable of providing inner-Qur’anic allusions.
If the story of Muḥammad meditating in a cave is inaccurate, then this means that the psychological diagnosis, as presented here, is equally inaccurate. If Muḥammad was a passive receiver of revelation, then perhaps the findings in here do not demonstrate the intentions of Muḥammad, but at least what the Qur’an expects from its audience in creating inner-Qur’anic allusions and Qur’anic-Biblical allusions.
Otherwise, if neither these are the case, this brings us to yet a different conclusion. It might suggest that the Qur’an is a literary style that combines inner-Qur’anic allusions, while also actively engaging with Biblical literature. Although the latter is a possibility, we will need to make many theological and philosophical assumptions to arrive to it. As such, from among the range of possibilities, the one with the least assumptions is that Muḥammad was in an altered state of consciousness.
Metaphors of Death and Resurrection in the Qurʾan: An Intertextual Approach with Biblical and Rabbinic Literature, 2021
Reincarnation and resurrection are both philosophical conceptions of the afterlife, but with appa... more Reincarnation and resurrection are both philosophical conceptions of the afterlife, but with apparent contradictions. In general, reincarnation is the broad notion of rebirth, whether the transmigration of conscious souls, as in Hinduism, or the transmigration of fruits of actions (karma) taken up by a different, yet related personality, as in Buddhism. Many traditions of ancient Europe, such as Pythagoreanism and Manichaeism, include concepts of reincarnation. Resurrection is also not a concept exclusive to the Abrahamic religions, as it also exists in Zoroastrianism as well as in ancient Egyptian cosmologies. This chapter introduces those different concepts of the afterlife, as they were not foreign to the audience of the Qurʾan, though the specifics of their nature have varied across cultures. After introducing these concepts, a section introduces the methodology used in the book in its attempt to focus on the passages of death and resurrection in the Qurʾan that are possibly intended to be metaphorical or spiritual or, possibly, effectively have dual meaning.
Metaphors of Death and Resurrection in the Qurʾan: An Intertextual Approach with Biblical and Rabbinic Literature, 2021
To explore the Qurʾan’s death and resurrection, it is imperative to ascertain the Qurʾanic concep... more To explore the Qurʾan’s death and resurrection, it is imperative to ascertain the Qurʾanic concept of the nafs, or self. Is the nafs a disembodied soul or a monistic self (i.e. individual: literally an indivisible persona), in which the soul and body are indistinct? The Qurʾan was born out of the Near East and its initial audience comprised direct members of that context; nafs evolved with ancient Near Eastern societies before its appearance in the Qurʾan in Late Antiquity. One of the largest bodies of literature available from ancient Semites comes from the ancient Israelites, a starting point for defining both nafs and ‘life’ in the ancient Near East. In a book that seeks to understand the concept of death in the Qurʾan, then there is no escape from trying to define its concept of life.
Metaphors of Death and Resurrection in the Qurʾan: An Intertextual Approach with Biblical and Rabbinic Literature, 2021
The Qurʾan uses many terms for nonbelievers, such as fujjār, kuffār, munāfiqūn and mujrimūn. It a... more The Qurʾan uses many terms for nonbelievers, such as fujjār, kuffār, munāfiqūn and mujrimūn. It also uses the verb yulḥidūn (usually understood as ‘distort’) as an action that some nonbelievers do. A brief (noncomprehensive) lexicographic inquiry aims to show that many Qurʾanic terms denoting nonbelievers, evildoers, and hypocrites have a common denominator in their polysemous spectrum: they are associated with death. By using terms associated with death to refer to nonbelievers, the Qurʾan appears to subtly suggest these nonbelievers are in a state of death, albeit spiritually.
Metaphors of Death and Resurrection in the Qurʾan: An Intertextual Approach with Biblical and Rabbinic Literature, 2021
In many instances, the Qurʾan invokes death metaphorically, not as a physical state but as some f... more In many instances, the Qurʾan invokes death metaphorically, not as a physical state but as some form of spiritual condition. The metaphor sometimes also infers spiritual resurrection, as Rakesh and Ayati argue, referring to Qurʾan 6:122 and 3:169 as examples. They look into the metaphorical use of ‘light and life’ with ‘darkness and death’ for guidance and misguidance respectively. They have suggested that the Qurʾan seems to fit death into three categories: (1) nonhuman death, such as dead earth as a metaphor of barren land; (2) spiritual death that requires spiritual resurrection; and (3) death in a strict, physical sense, such as a dying person writing a will (i.e. Qurʾan 2:180) or Jacob on his deathbed (e.g. Qurʾan 2:133). When we look at the possible definitions of death contained therein, the Qurʾan appears to truly have a specific focus on spiritual death and resurrection, and not only physical.
Metaphors of Death and Resurrection in the Qurʾan: An Intertextual Approach with Biblical and Rabbinic Literature, 2021
In Qurʾanic perspective, the concept of death operates in relation to that of life. To distinguis... more In Qurʾanic perspective, the concept of death operates in relation to that of life. To distinguish those granted life from those who are not, the biblical tradition used the motif of the book written in heaven (of the living) and the book written on the earth. After touching on this biblical precursor only briefly – for comparative purposes, since a similar concept is also found in the Qurʾan, suggesting a possible adoption of a Near Eastern concept of life into the Qurʾanic discourse – this chapter delves into how the Qurʾan compares this worldly life (al-ḥayāt al-dunyā) and the other (al-ākhirah) to understand further what the Qurʾan means by ‘life’, which is also compared with biblical literature identifying how the Qurʾan might adopt these concepts from within its Near Eastern background. In the analogies it uses for resurrection, the Qurʾan constructs an argument of how the human was created the first time through natural birth. Whether birth or even rain that allows plants to grow, the analogues used in the Qurʾan situate resurrection as a natural phenomenon and not some supernatural force. It seems that the Qurʾan makes analogies for resurrection that would constitute resurrection more as a form of re-creation.
The Qurʾan uses symbolism common to the Bible and Near Eastern heritage for the book in heaven and the book written in the depths of the earth to portray people of the living and the dead, respectively. The Qurʾan’s typical portrayal of resurrection proceeds in the same way that God created the first time (perhaps physically), which functions more as a kind of rebirth – it is not bones coming out of their graves. It may be that the Qurʾan is describing physical resurrection as re-birth or re-creation, and therefore the bones being clothed with flesh is not depicted as coming out of graves but simply an analogue to physical birth, in which the bones of the foetus are also clothed with flesh (e.g. Qurʾan 23:14).
This does not mean that the Qurʾan is not necessarily discussing physical resurrection. However, if it does, the Qurʾan does not depict it as happening through some supernatural forces of bones coming out of their graves, but through natural forces like childbirth, or rejuvenating rain.
Metaphors of Death and Resurrection in the Qurʾan: An Intertextual Approach with Biblical and Rabbinic Literature, 2021
From the close reading of Qurʾan 2:259 and its intertextualities with the Books of Ezra-Nehemiah,... more From the close reading of Qurʾan 2:259 and its intertextualities with the Books of Ezra-Nehemiah, Haggai and Jeremiah, along with identifying the narrative to the rich traditions circulating in line with Abimelech of 4 Baruch or Ḥoni the Circle-Drawer of both the Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmud, we may draw certain conclusions from this passage and its allusions. First, we can say that the biblical text, along with the deuterocanonical texts in question, do not identify death with actual death, but with sleep. The intertextualities and intrabiblical allusions portray the death and resurrection as the Israelite return from exile, which further emphasizes its metaphorical sense.
In the Talmud, Ḥoni the Circle-Drawer sees his own grandchild, sees that his donkey had generations of offspring, sees the seeds flowering, and sees his own teachings surviving. It has been suggested that the Talmudic redactor perhaps intended to reflect Ketubot 50 of the Babylonian Talmud, which interprets, ‘May you see your children’s children! Peace be upon Israel’ (Ps. 128:6) in that regeneration through birth guarantees the survivability of Israel. After all, according to Gen. 30:1, a person without children is likened to a dead person, which is also elaborated in the Talmud. Thus, the context of Ḥoni’s narrative is that he did not see the dead as truly dead, since they had children and children’s children.
In 4 Baruch, death is understood as a metaphor for the destruction of Jerusalem and the Israelites scattered and subdued by other nations due to God’s wrath about their iniquity. The resurrection is understood as the Israelites returning to Jerusalem, rebuilding the Temple, and bringing it back to its former glory and beyond, because of a group of Israelites who were diligent in repentance and worked hard for reform.
Since Qurʾan 2:259 and its direct context is fully engaging or rearticulating biblical, extrabiblical and rabbinic texts and traditions in regards to the destruction of Jerusalem, the exile and the rebuilding, then the resurrection reference in that passage is also to be understood metaphorically no differently from how it is understood from its subtexts. Additionally, with Qurʾan 3:93–103 also making reference to biblical and extrabiblical texts in regards to the Israelite exile, then its association with Qurʾan 2:259 is likely – thus building an inner-Qurʾanic allusion. Given all this context, the ṭaʿām in Qurʾan 3:93 becomes more naturally a reference to the Aramaic/Hebrew ṭeʿem, meaning decrees and commandments. Accordingly, Qurʾan 2:259 perhaps uses it in dual meaning, as food and as a metaphor for the restoration of the Torah and, subsequently, the nation of Israel after the exile. Recall that the figs used as such in Abimelech’s story in 4 Baruch and the general metaphorical use of figs in the biblical, extrabiblical, and rabbinic literature.
All this suggests that Qurʾan 2:259 does not depict a literal resurrection of bodies leaving their graves, but possibly a physical resurrection of a nation that was destroyed and then rebuilt. The next chapter discusses the subsequent Qurʾanic passage (i.e. Qurʾan 2:260), which appears to allude to God’s covenant with Abraham, promising children and land, and also proposing the identification of the man in Qurʾan 2:259 as Abraham, who having no children was as if dead, but at one hundred years of age sired Isaac.
Metaphors of Death and Resurrection in the Qurʾan: An Intertextual Approach with Biblical and Rabbinic Literature, 2021
Continuing from the last chapter, this one looks at the second verse of the Qurʾanic passage (i.e... more Continuing from the last chapter, this one looks at the second verse of the Qurʾanic passage (i.e. Qurʾan 2:260). Closely analysing Qurʾan 2:259 with its biblical, extrabiblical and rabbinic intertextualities showed that it is highly likely to be a metaphor for the rebuilding of the Israelite nation. It was also shown that the regeneration of the Israelite nation after the exile is part of a prophetic theme about a covenant between God and the Israelites, the breaking of the covenant, and the resurrection (metaphorically speaking) of this covenant, while still keeping open the possibility for a destroyed nation to be rebuilt – physically resurrected.
Qurʾan 2:260 will also be argued to have a biblical relationship, in particular to the covenant that God makes with Abraham, according to Genesis. Qurʾan 2:260 narrates Abraham asking God to show him how the dead are resurrected. Then, God asks him to bring four birds, put a piece of them in each hill, and call for them; and they come to Abraham. The act the Qurʾan depicts that Abraham was supposed to do to prove to him the resurrection of the dead has a relationship with Genesis 15. Abraham, in Genesis 15, appears to complain that he has no children, but God promises him that he will, and makes a covenant with him.[1] This will be a familiar theme, as in Qurʾan 2:259, resurrection maybe understood as having children, just as the donkey having generations of offspring in Ḥoni the Circle-Drawer’s narrative in the Talmud.[2]
Accordingly, the interpretation of Qurʾan 2:260 continues to be closely associated with Qurʾan 2:259, in which the topic of resurrection is metaphorical though still physical, but not in the sense of dead bones leaving their graves. In Qurʾan 2:259, resurrection is the regeneration of the Israelites coming back from exile; in this next verse, it is a promise for Abraham to have children, which is perhaps why the narrative suggests God allowing the Israelite nation to be regenerated after being exiled. Through this promise God has proven to Abraham the power to resurrect, the resurrection of Abraham through his generations of children. Additionally, biblical literature, as will be seen, directly connects the covenant with Abraham, in Genesis 15, with the Israelite exile.
Metaphors of Death and Resurrection in the Qurʾan: An Intertextual Approach with Biblical and Rabbinic Literature, 2021
The Qurʾanic portrayal of people leaving their tombs has been shown to have a possible spiritual ... more The Qurʾanic portrayal of people leaving their tombs has been shown to have a possible spiritual connotation rather than simply physical. Qurʾan 70:42–44 appears to be the most explicit in the sense that it leaves nonbelievers to their idle talk and play until the day they emerge from their tombs (ajdāth). The Qurʾan appears to show that the idle pursuits continue as nonbelievers are in their graves; when taken into the full context of the Qurʾan’s consistent portrayal of nonbelievers as dead in their graves (e.g. Qurʾan 35:22), as discussed in the previous chapters, then the emergence from these graves is likely a metaphor, as well. The repeated connection of nonbelievers and the grave-bound dead suggests strongly that the portrayal of resurrection is also metaphorical. Accordingly, one would naturally conclude that the Qurʾan assumes two types of life and death: the physical and the spiritual, each with its form of resurrection. For the physically dead, the Qurʾan frequently uses the analogy that resurrection could be performed the same way it was created the first time (re-creation or rebirth), as discussed in Chapter 5. However, the Qurʾan appears to be more concerned with spiritual death, and therefore spiritual resurrection, when the dead soul (nafs) emerges from its grave – although that may be the physical grave of the body, which is made of earth.
Metaphors of Death and Resurrection in the Qurʾan: An Intertextual Approach with Biblical and Rabbinic Literature, 2021
Amid the vivid portrayals of resurrection in the Qurʾan, another, subtler depiction of bringing b... more Amid the vivid portrayals of resurrection in the Qurʾan, another, subtler depiction of bringing back the dead illuminates the theme. It is the ritual of the red cow, in which the Qurʾan alludes to a biblical rite that the Qurʾan describes for its ability to bring back the dead.
The biblical account of the ritual of the red cow is a paradox par excellence. Its absurdity has perplexed Jewish communities throughout history. The ritual is for purification, where those defiled by a dead corpse would be purified. However, the priests and everyone who performs the ritual, themselves being pure, become defiled in the process. The same water that defiled the pure is also used to purify the defiled. While the defilement occurs because of a corpse, another corpse (the sacrificed red cow) reinstates purity. Therefore, if the Qurʾan suggests that the Israelites asked Moses if he is mocking them, could they truly be blamed? ‘And when Moses said to his people, “God commands you to slaughter a cow [baqarah],” they said, “Do you take us in mockery?” He said, “I seek refuge in God from being among the ignorant”’ (Qurʾan 2:67).
Accordingly, this chapter looks closely into how the Qurʾan understands this ritual paradox, especially in the context of resurrection.
Metaphors of Death and Resurrection in the Qurʾan: An Intertextual Approach with Biblical and Rabbinic Literature , 2021
The Qurʾan’s principal and most prominent theme is the Day of Resurrection, and it has typically ... more The Qurʾan’s principal and most prominent theme is the Day of Resurrection, and it has typically been assumed that the phenomenon involves physical bodily resurrection. Presuming that outlook, it would seem that the Qurʾan is, indeed, very explicit about bodily resurrection, especially as some passages depict it very vividly. However, close analysis shows that many Qurʾanic passages explicitly discussing resurrection are perhaps mainly metaphorical. Many of the most intense depictions of bodily resurrection in the Qurʾan are rearticulations of biblical, extrabiblical and rabbinic traditions that do not demonstrate physical resurrection in the sense of dead bones leaving their graves. They are, however, physical in the sense of restoring a nation, rebuilding the Temple, or even having physical children. Therefore, one can deduce that many Qurʾanic passages about resurrection are metaphorical such that even the physical aspects do not take on the imagery of dead bodies rising from graves.
Contracts are designed to govern the relations between business partners and allocate risk among ... more Contracts are designed to govern the relations between business partners and allocate risk among them, yet they cannot mitigate all risks; hence, dispute resolution mechanisms have been developed to assist. According to research, arbitration is considered one of the most efficient legally binding dispute resolution mechanisms. Since initiating an arbitration case against business partners often severs the business relationship between them, predicting the arbitrator's decision becomes valuable to the arbitrating parties. To do so, arbitration prediction models are suggested in this paper through modeling the arbitrator's award in two stages: evidence admissibility and evidence evaluation. While arbitrators currently admit evidence in a relatively unsystematic way, this proposed admissibility framework systemizes the current practice by preserving its subjectivity, yet aligning it with the widely deployed rules of arbitration. This research further proposes an evidence evaluation model, providing a rapid answer to the famous commercial arbitration battle, discovery. While the current arbitrators' practice in allowing discovery is not systematic, the proposed optimization model is a tool that could systematically assist arbitrators trading between the arbitration key characteristic, efficiency, and justice. This is achieved by assigning weights to evidence parameters such as sufficiency and credibility, which in turn provide numerical measures to reduce the decision's subjectivity.
While a wide range of dispute resolution mechanisms exist, practitioners favor legally binding on... more While a wide range of dispute resolution mechanisms exist, practitioners favor legally binding ones such as litigation and arbitration. Since initiating a litigation or arbitration case against a business partner may dissolve the business relationship between them, predicting the arbitrator’s decision becomes valuable to the arbitrating parties. This paper proposes a construction-specific utility framework for the arbitrating party through decision theory, and based on expected utility theory. The proposed framework preserves the industry practicality and most importantly, considers direct short term factors and indirect long-term factors as well. It is suggested that the arbitrating parties’ utility functions could be then used to identify equilibrium points among them when interact via game theory principles, which would serve the purpose of predicting the arbitration outcome.
The complex nature of construction projects and the involvement of a large number of unpredictabl... more The complex nature of construction projects and the involvement of a large number of unpredictable correlated factors make them susceptible to disputes. Although a wide range of dispute resolution mechanisms exists, experts in the construction industry favor arbitration over litigation when legally binding dispute resolution mechanisms are concerned. Because initiating a litigation or arbitration case against a business partner often severs the business relationship between them, predicting the arbitrator’s decision becomes valuable to the arbitrating parties. Because arbitration has been extensively treated as a game, and because the proposed approach relies on the wealth maximization concept, which is in turn dependent on the sum of utility sources of a firm, modeling arbitration is best achieved as a game with disputing parties’ utility profiles that would have an agreement zone. A construction-specific utility framework for the disputing parties arbitrating before a single arbitrator is proposed based on the additive expected utility theory. The proposed additive utility framework preserves the industry practicality and, most importantly, considers direct short-term factors and indirect long-term factors that would address factual disputes related to claim entitlement and quantification. It is expected that such a framework could then be used to identify utility equilibrium points between the disputing parties, which would serve the purpose of predicting the arbitration outcome.
Several litigation outcome prediction approaches are reviewed in the construction disputes area. ... more Several litigation outcome prediction approaches are reviewed in the construction disputes area. The reviewed approaches include artificial neural networks, boosted decision trees, particle swarm optimization, split-step particle swarm optimization, case based reasoning and integrated prediction model. The integrated prediction model outweighs the rest of the approaches, achieving a prediction rate of 91% using 132 training litigation cases only. Although there are over 45 attributes that might affect a construction litigation case, it is observed that 10 to 15 attributes would be sufficient to predict the outcome of litigation in the area of construction disputes. It is found that the most important attributes are type of contract, type of parties involved in the dispute, directed employer changes and liquidated damages.
There has always been a debate on the roles of government and market for economic growth and deve... more There has always been a debate on the roles of government and market for economic growth and development. Economic development encompasses more than just growth; it seeks the betterment of the standard of living and higher Human Development Index. There is no single strategy that would be considered the best solution for economic development. Market role and government intervention are both necessary for economic development. Since the economy is dynamic, then the policies adopted need to change according to the circumstances. It is argued that government intervention is sometimes necessary to ensure basic economic development, even if it essentially fails in economic growth in the short-term. Nonetheless, a good solution between the roles of market and government is through finding a dynamic equilibrium point between them. Therefore, the best policy is a policy that is resilient to change.
This paper analyzes the impact of debt forgiveness on economic equilibrium. Since the root cause ... more This paper analyzes the impact of debt forgiveness on economic equilibrium. Since the root cause of an economic crisis is debt, eradicating the root may solve the problem. However, it does not prevent future crises from occurring. It is found that debt relief in a global scale can help reach economic equilibrium, but there are challenges to its practicality due to behavioural economics.
When a developer is building different construction projects simultaneously, cash flow management... more When a developer is building different construction projects simultaneously, cash flow management is very important. If the actual cash flow has been reduced than expected, the developer may need to decide which of the projects need to proceed and which need to be either suspended or terminated. This paper builds a financial model that evaluates the various construction projects based on the status of the project technically and financially to determine the decision path that needs to be undertaken for each project, based on a multivariate approach from the expected cash inflow, priority, likelihood, and time of construction. The model builds a chain of possible outcomes, where a project may be temporarily put on hold for a while and then resumed by cash inflow expected from previous projects.
Journal of International Logistics and Trade, 2022
Purpose: Although additive manufacturing (AM; 3D printing/3DP) is presently in its infancy, once ... more Purpose: Although additive manufacturing (AM; 3D printing/3DP) is presently in its infancy, once it becomes economically viable for mass production, it would revolutionize the operation and supply chain network of traditional businesses and manufacturing industries. To this end, approaches for ensuring a smooth transition of the economy, businesses, manufacturing centers and related services are being investigated. This review paper assesses the existing literature on the impact of AM on the maritime transportation sector.
Design/methodology/approach: This paper provides a systematic literature review through three methodological phases: (1) a comprehensive review of the number of English language literature studies published on the topics of AM or 3DP (1970-2021); (2) a bibliometric analysis of selected keyword combinations and (3) a detailed review on the impact of AM on different sectors.
Findings: The key findings are that existing studies do not attempt to forecast shipping volume and ton-miles that can be affected by the mainstreaming of the technology. Additionally, existing literature that focuses on the impact of the technology on different shipping categories is limited to studies on container ships.
Originality/value: The review identifies some potential areas of research that since maritime transportation will be affected by mainstreaming AM, it will have economic, social and environmental impacts on global trade that require future assessment.
Three-dimensional printing (3DP) will lead to future changes in the structure and supply chain op... more Three-dimensional printing (3DP) will lead to future changes in the structure and supply chain operation of businesses. While prevailing studies focus on qualitative assessments, this study quantitatively estimates 3DP impact on the maritime shipping volume and fleet type by (i) estimating the shipping volume reduction due to the mainstreaming of 3DP, and (ii) identifying the shipping fleet types that might be impacted by the change in the supply chain. The supply chain of the automotive industry in the Middle Eastern (ME) region was considered, and different statistical forecasting tools and linear programming models were applied to predict the demand for vehicles and quantify shipping volume reduction. Using a range of 3D printers (1–10), a 26–39% reduction in ton-miles of shipping by 2040 was predicted. Additionally, a 29–45% possible change in the volume of shipping from car carrier (roll-on/roll-off) fleets to bulk cargo fleet types was also predicted. This study also identified potential 3DP plant locations in the ME region ascertaining the potential loss and benefit that can be gained by the maritime shipping industry. It helps shipping manufacturers, operators, and owners consider future demand in terms of the quantity and types of fleets.
Proceedings of the International Conference on Transportation and Development 2020, 2020
Given the deepening awareness of the limited nature of fossil fuel reserves and the environmental... more Given the deepening awareness of the limited nature of fossil fuel reserves and the environmental consequences of consuming it, the increasing appetite for better public transportation infrastructure persists worldwide. A huge amount of investments and resources is being injected into the development of transportation infrastructures, including light rail, as the need for better and faster transportation is correlated with the economic development of a country. However, there is a serious lack of understanding regarding the underlying uncertainties, as well as their impact on the performance of these infrastructure projects. As a consequence, performance results that are lower than the forecasts are very common in rail transportation and financial or social benefit of light rail transits deviate hugely from what is expected. In many of these cases, either the overall cost of the project turns out to be much higher or the patronage proves to be far less than originally forecasted. This study aims at reducing such a gap in the literature by considering the uncertain nature of the demand. More specifically, this study proposes a real options-based framework for the feasibility analysis of the potential locations of light rail stations. First, it estimates the demand for each proposed station location considering the endogenous uncertainties involved in the forecasting of demand. Second, the feasibility of different station development scenarios is analyzed using the net present value (NPV) method. Third, a real options analysis is done on various development scenarios by considering the possible values of incorporating flexibility in the development. Fourth, based on the level and nature of the uncertainty in the station demand for each location, the economic benefits of incorporating flexibility for the station-development are quantified. Using a case study approach, the proposed model is applied for a station location on Dubai Metro Purple Line. The results suggest that recognizing the major uncertainties at an early stage and incorporating flexibility into the system design accordingly pays off under certain circumstances.
Proceedings of the 2018 Advances in Science and Engineering Technology International Conferences, 2018
Intersections are critical places which experience high levels of accidents due to the availabili... more Intersections are critical places which experience high levels of accidents due to the availability of vehicle movements from different directions. Therefore, there is a need to understand the factors that significantly contribute to injuries at such places. These factors can fall under different dimensions in traffic safety such as environmental conditions, road user behavior, traffic police enforcement, road design and crash characteristics. The paper will analyze the factors related to crash characteristics and traffic signal operation that affect the likelihood of accident severity located at intersections. The data for intersection accidents in Abu Dhabi from 2013 to 2016 were used in this analysis. Ordinal logistic model was considered for the analysis to account for the ordinal nature of severity levels. Several diagnostics tests of the model were preformed such as parameters evaluation, overall model evaluation and prediction accuracy. For parameter evaluation, out of 11 independent variables, 6 were non-significant and dropped from the model. Most of the non-significant variables were related to the driver-at-fault details. The results of the final model showed an overall good fit based on a p-value of less than 0.05, as well as a good accuracy of prediction 84.8%. Finally, odds ratios were estimated to interpret the final results of the model.
Sustainability in the Gulf: Challenges and Opportunities, 2017
The emirate of Abu Dhabi is setting the stones of its new urban framework and transportation poli... more The emirate of Abu Dhabi is setting the stones of its new urban framework and transportation policies, as a crucial step in achieving Abu Dhabi Economic Vision for 2030. The new urban framework recognizes the need for public transit to meet the travel demand of the anticipated three million residents in the city of Abu Dhabi, as well as commuters from neighboring cities. Ongoing work is focused on improving the connectivity and mobility of the Central Business District (CBD), while future work will involve the development of a second pivotal center, a Capital District, along with setting the boundaries of the capital industrial zones.
The Capital District is positioned around major new Emirati neighborhoods. It will become the new face of Abu Dhabi as the center of government and knowledge, while the CBD transforms into the finance and commerce center. High-Tech and clean industries will concentrate east of the Capital District around the airport. The centers will carry similar weights of jobs and office space, distributing the jobs between two employment centers. Both centers will be surrounded by residential districts, which hopes to redirect the traffic flow into several direction and avoid traffic congestion.
The Emirati residential neighborhoods surrounding the capital are built around high dense commercial nodes. Most of the residential neighborhoods are of low density, but higher density alternatives are also included to provide a variety in housing choice. The proposed new residential neighborhoods are mixed used developments. The urban design is configured for family housing clusters that encourage walking. This study suggests the implementation of transit-oriented development in the new Capital District and its suburbs, instead of the current design of assigning “zones” for each function and then facilitating the movement between these functional zones with roads and public transit. In order to support this claim, the study examines the historic and future urban growth trends of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi in relation to the transportation demand. It analyzes them against external and internal factors that affect transit travel demand, in order to detect possible travel trends that would encourage further transit developments in the new district.
This study suggests a transit-oriented development in the new Capital District and its suburbs. In order to support this claim, the study examines the historic and future urban growth trends of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi in relation to the transportation demand. It analyzes them against external and internal factors that affect transit travel demand, in order to detect possible travel trends that would encourage further transit developments in the new district.
An important external factor to transit demand is fuel price. In alignment with the recent elimination of the fuel price subsidy in the UAE, the study examines the potential effect of fluctuating fuel prices on Abu Dhabi public transit demand by analyzing the trends of cross-elasticities of public transit demand with respect to fuel price for a number of countries around the world.
The study also examines policies and legislations that could encourage Abu Dhabi vehicle users to use public transit modes, by looking at the different congestion pricing schemes applied in, New York, Singapore, Stockholm and London, the study examines how congestion pricing schemes can similarly influence commuters to move towards public transit in Abu Dhabi.
The aim of the study is to help the policy makers in Abu Dhabi as well as other cities of similar conditions in the region, develop sustainable cities using transit oriented development, by presenting some of the economic incentives and the implementation tools that are important in realizing such development.
The goal of this study is to identify if regret theory may be used to decide between different ro... more The goal of this study is to identify if regret theory may be used to decide between different road design alternatives to ensure the resilience of the design given future uncertainties. It formulates a matrix for the regret factor in the decision-making process. There are different, and often conflicting, parameters and variables that are taken into account whenever different road designs are considered. This paper uses an example of five variables and constraints such as planning (i.e. optimal usage of land use), traffic flow, traffic safety (i.e. to ensure low crash rates), along with constraints such as construction economics and time to completion. It is assumed that each variable may have its own performance indicator based on its own modelling techniques and each is weighed based on the objectives of the decision-makers. However, each model may have inherent uncertainties that may propagate in a multi-attribute decision system. The proposed theoretical framework allows the system to analyze different roads construction alternatives to aid in decision-making. This study does not induce a specific strategy to be utilized by decision-makers, but provides a systematic methodology to help making decisions once an objective-driven strategy has been established. Using a multi-attribute matrix, the framework considers how to practically use regret theory in deciding between different road designs given the uncertainties inherent in each model. It is found that the usage of regret theory can be beneficial. However, furthermore research needs to be conducted to illustrate how this framework would be utilized in a real-world scenario and how it may impact decision in road designs.
In 2007, a strong tropical storm in the Arabian Sea, Cyclone Gonu,
caused major damages when it ... more In 2007, a strong tropical storm in the Arabian Sea, Cyclone Gonu,
caused major damages when it made landfall on the coast of the Sultanate of Oman. The Category 5 tropical storm moved north along the coast in the Gulf of Oman and reached the Eastern Coastline of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), causing loss of life and damage to property and infrastructure. It is therefore imperative to understand the probability of such storms hitting the region in the future, to take necessary measures and preparations to reduce the impact. This study is important for understanding the feasibility of developing infrastructure to withstand tropical storms, managing the coast, and also evaluating risks of the damages. This study looks at meteorological statistical data from past decades in the region to understand the probability of strong tropical storms causing damage in the Eastern Coast of the UAE. It uses statistical analysis to predict tropical storms that are strong enough to reach the Eastern Coast of the UAE, which is situated along the Gulf of Oman, to the north of the Arabian Sea, which is not usually affected by tropical storms coming from the Indian Ocean. The study looks into historical meteorological data of the region, from temperatures, wind speed, and direction, and then compares them during the time Cyclone Gonu hit the region.
We present the results of microvariability studies of X-ray loud/radio quiet AGN in optical wavel... more We present the results of microvariability studies of X-ray loud/radio quiet AGN in optical wavelengths (R band). The optical data were taken over approximately eight months at the Sommers-Bausch Observatory (U. Colorado-Boulder), and at the SARA Observatory. In addition to engaging in routine optical analysis, we investigated the extent to which these objects exhibited intra-night variability. The presence of microvariability would indicate that in addition to an accretion disk, there would also be present relativistic components such as parsec-scale jets; quiescence would indicate that long-term variability in these objects is perhaps due to accretion disk instabilities alone. The preliminary indication from our data is that there is indeed evidence of relativistic jets in this class of objects.
We present the results of multifrequency monitoring of the Seyfert galaxy Mkn 421 in optical (R b... more We present the results of multifrequency monitoring of the Seyfert galaxy Mkn 421 in optical (R band) and TeV frequencies. The optical data were taken over approximately four months at the Sommers-Bausch Observatory (U. Colorado-Boulder), and at Boltwood Observatory in Canada. The TeV data were taken as part of the HEGRA collaboration. Routine analysis of the microvariability data taken in the optical allows us to determine the maximum size and mass of the emitting region, and Eddington luminosity. We also investigate the spectral changes over the optical-TeV range. We believe we see a correlation between the bright and dim phases of the optical and TeV data, respectively. This could include a lag period between the two brightness increases, and of course it also indicates emission from the same region. To do a proper cross-correlation frequency study one would require more data both in optical and in the TeV. Any subsequent project involving the observation of Mkn 421 will require a denser data set.
We present the results of multifrequency monitoring of the Seyfert galaxy Mkn 421 in optical (R b... more We present the results of multifrequency monitoring of the Seyfert galaxy Mkn 421 in optical (R band) and TeV frequencies. The optical data were taken over approximately four months at the Sommers-Bausch Observatory (U. Colorado-Boulder), and at Boltwood Observatory in Canada. The TeV data were taken as part of the HEGRA collaboration. Routine optical analysis is made to determine maximum size and mass of the emitting region. We also investigate the spectral changes over the optical to TeV range. We believe we see a mild inverse correlation between the bright and dim phases of the optical and TeV data, respectively. This could be indicative of a lag period between the two brightness increases or, this could be indicative of the suppression of one energy channel in response to the emission in the other. To do a proper cross-correlation frequency study one would require more data, particularly in the TeV. Any subsequent project involving the observation of Mkn 421 will require a denser data set.
The Book of Esther is a complex piece of literature that was interpreted and re-interpreted in va... more The Book of Esther is a complex piece of literature that was interpreted and re-interpreted in various ways throughout history. While many scholars have written many books and studies on the Book of Esther, Adam J. Silverstein points us to one of the major gaps, which is how this elusive book in the Hebrew Bible was interpreted by Muslims throughout history.
In chapter 1, Silverstein discusses the debate regarding the apparent discrepancy between the Qur’an and the Bible on the person of Haman. The Qur’an associates Haman with Pharaoh and not Babylon. There is both a geographic and chronological difference with this figure between both texts. Nonetheless, Silverstein argues that the person of Haman in both texts is a reference to the same Haman. He states that it is not necessarily that Esther’s Haman is any more the historic figure as the Qur’anic Haman, but that they both adopted this villainous figure from a general Near Eastern folklore, in which Haman is a recurring antagonist to many stories, such as in the Book of Tobit. Additionally, Silverstein argues the literary parallelism between the stories of Joseph in Pharaoh’s court with Mordecai in Ahashwerosh’s court in Israelite and Jewish midrash. Also, there is an assumed genealogical link between Pharaoh and Haman, both being possibly Amalekites. This makes me wonder that if Haman is a common antagonist in several Near Eastern stories, whether it is actually a title, associated with Ahriman, the Zoroastrian spirit of destruction or the Devil, and is, therefore, associated with anyone with a Devilish mind in Near Eastern literature. After all, the Septuagint refers to Haman as the “diabolos” (the Devil) (Esther 8:1). This especially comes to mind as, in chapter 5, Silverstein compares Esther with Persian storytelling, especially those concerning king Bahman, whose name means good spirit in contrast with Ahriman.
In chapter 2, Silverstein gives several approaches that Muslims evince throughout history in their reception to the story of Esther. Due to being aware that Haman appears misplaced in the Qur’an, some Muslim historians have ignored the Book of Esther altogether, while others replaced Haman with a different name, such as Haymūn, as done by the Muslim historian al-Nuwayrī (d. 1332). Other Muslim historians, such as al-Ṭabarī (d. 923) have ignored Haman in their writings on Esther. The fourth approach by Muslim historians, though very few of them, such as al-Bīrunī (d. 1048), wrote about Esther and Haman as it is, even though aware of the contradictory implication with the Qur’an for doing so.
Chapter 3 gives a Samaritan reception of the Book of Esther. While Silverstein’s main theme throughout the book is to discuss the Muslim reception, he introduces the Samaritan Abul-Fatḥ’s (c. 14th century) account, as it was written in Muslim-ruled land. Abul-Fatḥ reverses the story where the Jews become the antagonists against the Samaritans. This version is, therefore, a child of the Jewish-Samaritan hostility.
Chapter 4 introduces a Persian midrash of the Book of Esther. The interesting feature of the work is that Abraham and Haman were considered brothers. Silverstein posits that throughout ancient midrashim, the stories of Abraham and Esther has featured several parallels, such as Abraham asking Sarah to conceal her identity in Egypt and in the court of the king, in a similar fashion that Mordecai asks Esther in Ahashwerosh’s court. Silverstein argues that while Abraham’s brother is Haran, with which the Semitic languages is sometimes fluid between the /r/ and /m/ sounds, there is more to the story in Judeo-Persian literature. Haran, in such literature, is said to have volunteered to toss Abraham into a fire, only for Abraham to come out unharmed, while Haran succumbs to the burning. This could parallel Haman preparing the gallows for Mordecai only to be tossed in them.
Chapter 5 compares Esther with ancient Persian storytelling, many of which are pre-Islamic, but survived through Muslim sources. Silverstein makes it clear that he does not at all suggest that either Esther had subtexts in some Persian stories or vice-versa. However, that there, in fact, are shared plots, subplots, and motifs between Esther and some of these ancient Persian stories. In particular, Silverstein compares Esther with the 1001 Nights, in which a woman courting a king cleverly saves herself and other women. Silverstein also notes the Rekhesh-riders in Esther 8:10 with the ShāhNāma’s Rustam riding a horse called “Rakhsh.” It is not to assume either took the name from the other, but it sheds light on what this hapax legomenon in Esther might be referring to. Silverstein also compares Esther with other ancient stories, namely, the BahmanNāma, DārābNāma, Samak-e ʿAyyār, and Vīs and Rāmin, all of which share similar, but usually extended, plots, subplots, and motifs with Esther. Silverstein concludes that there is perhaps an ancient Persian storytelling culture that many of these Persian stories and Esther belonged to.
Chapter 6 argues that Muslim sources shed light to Haman’s description as a “Bougaios” instead of an “Agagite” in the Greek versions of Esther. The hypothesis presented by Augustin A. Calmet (d. 1757) is that the term “Bougaios” is related with the Persian eunuch Bagaos, who was associated with both the Persian and Pharaonic courts. Silverstein shows that Bagaos’ character is similar to that of Haman’s, especially if one aggregates both the biblical and Qur’anic accounts. Silverstein demonstrates that Islamic sources might be witnesses that the hypothesis of associating Haman with Bagaos dates prior to the tenth century, much earlier than Calmet’s proposition.
In the final chapter, Silverstein tackles the question why Mordecai refused to bow to Haman, even though bowing to Haman would not have constituted a threat to the biblical theology at the time, unlike how it may be perceived in the Qur’an. Silverstein interweaves many texts from the ancient Near East, Hebrew Bible, New Testament, extra-biblical literature, and the Qur’an to show that the event has a literary significance, in which this motif is common in many texts in the Near East. He especially focuses on Satan’s refusal to bow before Adam as a possible literary parallel of this event. Silverstein, thus, associates the narrative of Mordecai’s refusal to its literary theme and not its theological objections. Silverstein also adds an appendix of a Muslim feminist re-articulation of Esther by Zaynab Fawwāz (d. 1914).
Silverstein has compiled an exceptionally significant study of Esther’s reception from Muslim sources or from those living in Muslim lands. He has proven that studying these sources provide insights about how Esther was understood not only by Muslims, but also by Jews who were living among them; insights that might have been forgotten and were no longer inherited within surviving Jewish or Christian sources. Silverstein is not claiming that he is filling a lacuna in scholarship. His main argument is that there exists a large abyss in Esther studies and that he is merely proving the existence of such chasm, which is patiently waiting for it to be discovered by biblical scholars, as it has been, for the most part, neglected. This book is pioneering in its field and essential to any serious scholar of Esther or even general readership, who are interested to know the evolution of literature in the Near East.
This book is part of a current trajectory in Qur’anic Studies considering the origins of the Qur’... more This book is part of a current trajectory in Qur’anic Studies considering the origins of the Qur’an in relation to its Late Antique and, especially, Syriac context. The book theorizes a specific anti-Sassanian context; its main argument being that the Qur’an evolved, with its earliest chapters directly related to the apocalyptic literature during the Byzantine–Sassanian War, and fully engaged with that struggle, which is an innovative hypothesis. Some of the arguments presented are compelling. Others are necessarily more speculative due to the nature of such study, as the author is aware, but the book opens interpretive possibilities that would be missed by traditional approaches.
Chapter 1 analyses Sūrat al-Fīl, which Muslim tradition places in the context of Abraha taking an elephant to Mecca to destroy the Kaʿba. Beck questions this narrative, as it is unreasonable to conceive of an elephant traversing the harsh desert of Arabia, and argues that, unlike Asian elephants, African elephants cannot be easily trained for warfare, so it is more plausible to consider the elephants in the context of Asian elephants used by Persian armies. Beck argues that the Maccabean books are possible subtexts to this qur’anic chapter: 2 Maccabees tells of Seleucid kings commissioning Nicanor, who commanded the elephant army, to destroy the Jews, only for God to save the Jews from destruction, while 3 Maccabees narrates how Ptolemy IV Philopator decides to use elephants to crush the Jews, who are also saved when Eleazar prays and God sends two angels to their aid. With Maccabean narratives as a possible subtext, the hypothesis propounded is that Sūrat al-Fīl might be anti-Sassanian eschatology after the siege of Jerusalem. The blind man being turned away inQ80.1-10 is theorized as a reference to Hormozd IV, who was concerned with social welfare, but blinded in a coup.
Chapter 2 discusses the term ‘ṣamad’ in Q 112, engaging with some literature on the topic. Beck argues that ṣamad is used by Syriac Christianity to describe the indivisible Trinity, but that Q 112 adds that God neither begets nor is begotten as anti-Nicene, while using non-Chalcedonian and Manichaean formulae for divine unity. Thus, the Qur’an must be aware of these intra-Christian tensions.
Chapter 3 is perhaps the most difficult to negotiate because of the high intra- and inter- textuality within the Qur’an and between it and other literature, especially Manichaean. For example, Q 86.1 discusses a celestial being who paves a redemptive path between heaven and earth similar to a Manichaean redeemer. Beck’s main argument in this chapter is that the Qur’an is not an expression of a prophet with a new revelation, but builds on existing eschatological soteriology in the ancient Near Eastern context to strengthen the legitimacy of its revelation. The main feature of the revelation is the progression from a loose monotheism to a stricter one. Beck introduces two messenger types that can be deduced from the Qur’an: a cosmic messenger (e.g. Q 81.19), in the earliest qur’anic passages, and the later progress to a human messenger.
Chapter 4 analyses Sūrat al-Qadr. While some scholars argue the possible reference to Christmas or, generally, the authority of a specific human for salvation, either Jesus or Muḥammad, Beck argues that the qur’anic chapter celebrates a night that begins a new salvific cycle through divine will without human agency, and lacks any ritual. The authority is given to a cosmic messenger, moving along the argument made in the previous chapter. Beck states that the Qur’an emphasizes divine will and that no ritual vigil can invoke the Lord’s descent. One of the arguments discusses the term ‘shahr’, echoing that its possible Syriac origin means ‘vigil’. There is no issue in the possible meaning of ‘vigil’ but the over-emphasis on a Syriac origin is unnecessary. Many of the Arabic cognates with Hebrew/Aramaic interchange sīn and shīn. The Arabic cognate for the Syriac vigil (shahra) is sahra. As the Syriac term corresponds to the moon, so do both Arabic terms sahar and shahar. While the author suggests that the term could have come to mean ‘month’ in Arabic from its use in the Syriac tradition that Christ is the Lord of the months, conceived in April and born in January, this appears to be a stretch. Since shahr is defined as the moon, and sometimes specifically the crescent, and with the moon’s role in determining lunar months, as in some Near Eastern cultures, that might be how the term came to mean ‘month’. Nevertheless, this observation would not necessarily challenge the author’s overarching argument.
Chapter 5 discusses Q 94, which is related to the keywords in Q 20.25-41 regarding the story of Moses. The method is very much intra- and inter-textual polysemy, and I am very much convinced that those two passages are inner-qur’anic allusions. Beck states that Syriac Christian homilies emphasized that believers need to imitate Moses, on which Q 94 capitalizes, presenting the addressee as assuming authority for being like Moses. However, while the inner-qur’anic allusion is likely, the reason for it can only be a speculation.
Chapter 6 discusses Q 73 and Q 74, containing the imagery of a person wrapped. Beck argues that a servant wrapped for divinization is a recurring image in the Near East in the Syriac Church and Manichaean and Zoroastrian literature. In the Syriac tradition, as Adam lost the robe of glory, also alluded to in the Qur’an (libās al-taqwā), baptism recovers this robe purified. However, Beck argues that the Qur’an emphasizes ethical purity over a priest-administered sacrament conveyed through baptism, although the imagery of a person wrapped as a way to confirm divine authority also exists within Merkabah mysticism, based on the Mantle of Elijah, and even in the Byzantine Church. The over-emphasis on the Syriac connection is therefore unnecessary. There are many traditions in which garments of lights and investiture of cloaks also play a role. My point is that it is very difficult to pinpoint any specific tradition with which these qur’anic chapters specifically engage, since this imagery is very common.
The book is enjoyable and provides a wealth of ideas for any serious scholar and student of qur’anic studies. It is also of interest to the general reader attentive to the origins of the Qur’an and its relationship with other Near Eastern literature during Late Antiquity, especially in the context of the Byzantine–Sassanian War. However, I must caution against the excessive assumption of qur’anic engagement with Syriac literature, as the Qur’an also appears to be aware of Greek Christian texts, which should not be surprising, given the Byzantine influence in the Near East during that period. While the book engages with some of the works by Sidney Griffith, Gabriel Reynolds and Emran El-Badawi on the relationship between the Syriac Church and the Qur’an, more engagement might have provided stronger support to some of the arguments. The book must be applauded for engaging with Manichaean and Zoroastrian literature, which is usually neglected in Qur’anic Studies, though it misses some of Patricia Crone’s scholarship on the matter. In short, even if not all the arguments presented in the book are convincing, they are certainly highly insightful and may potentially spark many fruitful debates.
In The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion, Mark Duri... more In The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion, Mark Durie presents a thesis in which he argues that Qur’anic theology is not inherited from a Judeo-Christian background. However, the book engages very little with existing literature in Qur’anic studies and hardly engages with any biblical studies, especially about theology during late antiquity. Unfortunately, while there are many flaws, with limited space, I can highlight only a few.
In chapter 2, the book argues that there was an eschatological crisis. In the beginning, the Qur’an promises an imminent punishment against nonbelievers. As this imminent punishment did not occur, the Qur’anic style changed, eventually suggesting that the imminent punishment is to be carried out by the hands of the believers.
Chapter 3 expands on this, using a linguistic model to identify a chronology for the Qur’an using two metrics: lexical distance and formulaic distance. I must admit that my mathematics and engineering background makes me somewhat bias in my critique of this method. First, without knowing the statistical distribution along with the standard deviation, the averages become just nonsensical numbers. Second, even with the proper analysis, without any context to avoid type I and type II errors, the results would continue to be meaningless. For example, numbers may tell us that people with larger shoe sizes are significantly better drivers. But to draw any conclusion from such analysis without understanding the context would be premature. While the numbers are correct, the data includes both children and adults, skewing the results.
Another problem with this mathematical method stems from the assumption that Durie and other scholars are making—that Qur’anic style simply changed with time. It assumes that an author cannot change styles depending on the genre and audience. Michael Fishbane argued that some biblical authors used terms and formulae of previous works to deliberately allude to them. It is likely that the Qur’an uses a similar strategy, especially considering its orality, in order to remind the audience of previous utterances.
Chapter 4 discusses Qur’anic theology, contrasting its differences with biblical theology—a new notion that did not exist in early Judeo-Christian history during which time the Qur’an emerged. The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes did not engage with any late antiquity literature on theology. For example, while the book illustrates how there are people who love God and that God loved, the Qur’an contains no command to love God. Instead, it presents Qur’anic theology as a master-slave relationship. Durie uses the Shemaʿ to prove that biblical theology entails the commandment to love God, yet he fails to realize that the Talmudic understanding involves people accepting to be in servitude of God. While one might argue that the Talmud is not the Bible, the Qur’an was not composed in a void without Jewish tradition, and there is much evidence that the Qur’an was aware of Talmudic teachings and engaged directly with it. One might also argue that the Qur’an frequently states that “ḥamd” is to God. While this term is typically understood as praise, its Semitic root is no different than the Ten Commandments’s desiring of the neighbor’s wife. As such, it can be understood to mean desire is to God enticed by love, while also Q. 94:8 is a clear command to desire God.
Durie makes the point that the Qur’an emphasizes God as the one and that no other exists, which is different from the Pentateuch portrayals that devotion is to be given to God alone without excluding the existence of other gods, though one might argue that Deuteronomy 32:39 is explicit about the exclusion of other gods. Nonetheless, while Durie acknowledges that later biblical books assert that God exists alone, he dismisses the idea that the Qur’an could have inherited such a notion from the Bible based on the premise that it is not specified in the Pentateuch.
Chapter 6 is marred with methodological inconsistencies. First, it suggests that the term “masīḥ” is an unanalyzable Arabic morphology when, in actuality, it is in the form of “faʿīl,” very common in Arabic. In another example it is argued that “rūḥ” in Arabic means “blowing” and that the Qur’an fails to define it as some sort of spirit or breath. Q. 15:29 and 38:72 do describe it in the sense of breath or spirit, but Durie argues that they should be translated as, “blown from My blowing.” Durie should have noted the definition if, as he insists, it is different from breath, wind, or spirit. Another example is Durie’s understanding of God’s presence, where he states that the Qur’anic description of God as all-encompassing (muḥīṭ) is in knowledge only. While Durie tries to exclude post-Qur’anic literature, he echoes here the interpretation of some later Muslim schools of thought and not necessarily the Qur’an.
There are other flaws as well, for example, while the Qur’an portrays David and Jesus cursing nonbelievers, Durie states that it is unfounded biblically. The Qur’anic understanding of a curse is the expulsion from divine mercy, which David appears to warn the wicked (e.g., Psalm 37), while Jesus gives woes to the Pharisees warning them of an inescapable hell (e.g., Matthew 23:33). Additionally, the book critiques Qur’an 9:111 which states God has purchased from the believers, their selves and their wealth for heaven, killing and getting killed for the sake of God, a promise found in the Torah and the Gospel as well. Durie argues that such a reference is nonexistent in the Bible. The Shemaʿ passage in Deuteronomy commands people to love God with all their heart, selves, and strength. Additionally, the Talmud explains that all their strength means with all their wealth too, an idea mirrored in the Gospels, where the rich are to give away their wealth and follow Jesus. Finally, as to killing and being killed, this may be mirrored in Matthew 10, with Jesus stating that he did not bring peace, but a sword, and everyone is to take the cross and lose their life for the sake of Jesus.
In summary, while the book boasts a “deeper analysis,” claiming any similarities between the Qur’an and the Bible to be superficial, it fails to realize the shallowness of its own examination. A humble approach would have been appreciated. For example, if we apply this methodology to the Book of Zephaniah, we could conclude that the book has little to do with the rest of the Hebrew Bible, or, since the Christology of the Gospel of John is unique, it therefore has nothing to do with its Jewish background or the rest of the Gospels.
Although the book is best described as novice, it is written clearly. Durie is a prodigious writer. However, this volume should be categorized as polemic rather than academic as, due to the rhetoric, generalizations, and lack of rigor, it fails to provide any substantive scholarly contribution.
This book provides an excellent comparative study between the exegetical traditions within Judais... more This book provides an excellent comparative study between the exegetical traditions within Judaism, Christianity, and Islam throughout history, while also looking at how each of these traditions influenced the other. Though written by different contributors, the chapters seamlessly interweave with one another. Not only does the editor give an introduction to every chapter, but the contributors show full awareness of the topics of other chapters and refer to them. As a result, this book is more readable than most edited volumes, and I find it essential to any scholar, student, or reader of the history and evolution of hermeneutics. The volume is divided into fifteen chapters categorized in three sections. The first section demonstrates how scriptural interpretation was a fruit of the context of the interpreters morphing according to the times and place of the exegetes. The second part displays the concept of literal sense of scriptures and how its definition changed in some traditions. The third section focuses on literary analysis through rhetoric and poetic theory to interpret scriptures in all three traditions.
Absolute Reality in the Qur'an. By Masudul Alam Choudhury. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016. Pp... more Absolute Reality in the Qur'an. By Masudul Alam Choudhury. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016. Pp. xxi + 231. Hardcover, $99.99.
According to The Fractal Self, survival of the fittest is not the reason behind evolution. Instea... more According to The Fractal Self, survival of the fittest is not the reason behind evolution. Instead, the universe evolved because there is a tendency for its reduced particles and forces to cooperate. The patterns that exist within chaos form because of nature’s cooperative constant, metaphorically speaking. Ever since the Big Bang, say John L. Culliney and David Jones, forces of the universe cooperated amidst chaos to be creative in making atomic bonds for complex patterns of structure. This affinity of forces, energy, and particles to cooperate in the chaos allowed these patterns to emerge naturally from chemical reactions. Ultimately, at the biological level, these atomic bonds allowed for single-cell organisms to exist and further evolve into multi-cellular organisms. The whole universe appears to dance through this participatory attraction from the microcosmic to the macrocosmic level. It is not a selfish gene in species, say Culliney and Jones, that allowed its survivability; no species exist all alone. The whole ecosystem of the biosphere needs to cooperate for the mutual benefit of all that is in it. This, in a nutshell, is the thesis that this book proposes.
The cooperative constant is not explicitly defined in The Fractal Self, beyond that it is the natural predisposition of patterns to sprout out of chaos. For example, the nucleobases’ attraction in DNA and RNA happened to provide the blueprint of life. These attractions were only natural, just like when helium atoms attracted each other to create hydrogen, and so forth to bring all the elements that make up the universe.
Culliney and Jones are very courageous in proposing such a thesis that the natural cooperative constant is somehow the fuel behind the universe’s evolution. This thesis gives a better understanding of the evolution of altruism and the rise of empathy. The book, in that regard, is fascinating in its attempt to prove that cooperation is the natural root of the making of the universe.
The Fractal Self consists of eleven chapters divided into four parts. The first two parts introduce the cooperative property in the universe and then examine it biologically. The book could have stopped at this point by bringing evolutionary biology and philosophy together in making its argument, and it would have been complete. However, the authors further expanded their thesis, showing its intersection with religion, especially Eastern philosophies.
The third part of the book interweaves its cooperative constant thesis with elements of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism. The authors argue that these Eastern philosophies teach that opposites should not truly be seen as opposites, as there is harmony and unity between extremes. This section of the book introduces the sage who acts as a catalyst in the evolution of human history. The sage’s ability to comprehend the mysteries of the interconnectedness and interdependence between the self and all that is ushers in their enlightenment and unlocks their potential in creating a butterfly effect that brings forth positive change.
The book could have also stopped at its third part, after having engaged its thesis with Eastern philosophies. However, Culliney and Jones wanted to interface their thesis with the current state of affairs that faces humanity, and especially politics, which comprises the fourth part of the book. It is natural for a book with a thesis on a cooperative constant that caused the evolution of the universe to discuss how Homo sapiens need to be cooperative not only among themselves, but within the whole biosphere, lest they face extinction. Yet the fourth part of the book is weak in its arguments. It carries the sort of emotion and passion that one would expect in a blog rather than in an academic book. It appears to have an anarchist agenda. Cooperation amidst diversity is the book’s thesis, but that does not provide the authors a license to label as the “anti-sage” those unenlightened beings who seek to go against the natural force of the cooperative constant. Actually, the last part of the book does not blend very well with the previous one, which discusses the unity of opposites. The whole cooperative constant comes smashing down in the last part when those opposing harmony are relentlessly opposed. Are these people not a part of the universe, made and governed by a cooperative constant?
Generally speaking, the first two parts of the book are an essential resource to any evolutionary biologist. The third part of the book is fairly reasonable in dealing with how their thesis engages with Eastern philosophies. The fourth part of the book is best ignored because its apocalyptic eschatology should not be used against the book’s original thesis and purpose. Nonetheless, the cooperative constant, whatever it is, seems like a plausible thesis, and I would like to see further empirical research on it in the future. The evolution of altruism from a competitive evolutionary perspective is highly debatable, and perhaps this cooperative constant can provide us with an alternative thesis. Culliney and Jones have provided us with the seeds, and hopefully more water in the future will bring them to fruition.
Raleigh Kirby Godsey provides us with philosophical arguments that attempt to eliminate the scien... more Raleigh Kirby Godsey provides us with philosophical arguments that attempt to eliminate the science and religion divide for those who are faithful to their tradition. Though philosophical, The God Particle does not indulge in jargon that only trained philosophers would be able to decipher. It is written in a very simple way for any reader to understand. Although the book attempts to speak to a person of any faith that sometimes finds themselves challenged by scientific theory and discovery, Godsey appears frustrated by those of the Christian faith who take their scripture literally. Godsey argues that it is the purpose of both scientists and theologians to unlock the mysteries of the unknown and thus, regards conflict between science and religion as peculiar. However, it is made clear that Godsey is not trying to harmonize science and religion; he wants to give each a distinct role in a person’s life.
Godsey takes a strong stance against creationism, especially young Earth creationism. He feels that such notions do not do justice to an omnipotent God and demonstrate an ignorance of history and facts. He states, “Holy ignorance is still ignorance” (13). He finds that when believers take so-called ignorance as a tenet of faith, it may cause them to lose their religion, because when they do apply reason, they will find it difficult to preserve their faith. However, at the same time, Godsey is cautious regarding the questions that science should answer. The aim of science, according to Godsey, is to push boundaries and investigate the unknown, but not necessarily to find God.
To speak of God, the use of symbols and metaphor are necessary, according to Godsey. He refers to this as myth, not with a negative connotation, but more in alignment with Joseph Campbell’s understanding of myth. Godsey resonates with the notion that biblical myths should transform human beings inwardly, but not be taken literally as fact. To Godsey, it is the message that is more important than the content. In the case of Christianity therefore, it is not as important to believe in the historical Jesus, but rather to embody Jesus and his message.
Godsey asserts that the most powerful myth of all is love, because human beings and the universe are interconnected. He gives the analogy that though the Torah has 613 laws, when Jesus was asked about the most important law he said, “Love God with all that is within you and love other people as you love yourself” (75). Godsey goes on to state, “I believe that love is the ultimate energy of the universe” (85). It is not the legal matters, traditions, or even believing in the historicity of the myths, but it is love that is at the heart of Christianity. This is very much in keeping with Pope Francis’ stance on the Catholic Church today whenever he finds himself debating with conservatives. Godsey’s message throughout the book is that this world is a mystery—and because it is a mystery—we should always have the humility of keeping an open mind.
The book is short, and an easy read. However, it lacks any real engagement with scholarly literature. This is not necessarily a shortcoming. It is clearly that the author’s intention is to reach out to lay people and provide them with his own insights. If you are a scholar seeking new contributions to the field of religion and science, this book will most likely not be very beneficial to you. However, if you are a soul (if that even exists) who sometimes finds themself in doubt about their faith in light of scientific or historical facts, then this book could give you the solace you may need from a Christian perspective. It does so neither by dismissing the facts nor by dismissing faith, but by allowing the reader to view their faith from a different vantage point: one that looks to the power of myth to changing human lives, and the power of love in energizing our universe.
The Religious and Spiritual Life of the Jews in Medina, by Haggai Mazuz. Brill, 2014. Brill Refer... more The Religious and Spiritual Life of the Jews in Medina, by Haggai Mazuz. Brill, 2014. Brill Reference Library in Judaism 38. 132pp., Hb. $120.00 / €99.00. ISBN-13: 9789004250628.
Uploads
While the Day of Resurrection is a major theme of the Qur'an, resurrection has largely been interpreted as physical, which is defined as bones leaving their graves. However, this book shows that the Qur'an sometimes alludes to death and resurrection in a metaphoric manner – for example, rebuilding a desolate town, typically identified as Jerusalem, and bringing the Israelite exiles back; thus, suggesting awareness and engagement with Jewish liturgy. Many times, the Qur'an even speaks of non-believers as spiritually dead, those who live in this world, but are otherwise zombies.
The author presents an innovative theory of interpretation, contextualizing the Qur'an within Late Antiquity and traces the Qur'anic passages back to their Biblical, extra-biblical and rabbinic subtexts and traditions.
This book features examples of intertextual polysemy within the Qurʾan, as well as between the Qurʾan and the Bible. It provides examples that intimately engage with Christological concepts of the Gospels, in addition to examples of allegorical interpretation through inner-Qurʾanic allusions. Galadari reveals how new creative insights are possible, and argues that the Qurʾan did not come to denounce the Gospel – which is one of the stumbling blocks between Islam and Christianity – but only to interpret it in its own words.
There is a debate among academic and religious scholars alike on the reliability of classical Qurʾanic exegesis for interpretation. This book proposes a new and innovative method of Qurʾanic exegesis called intertextual polysemy, using provocative examples. It breaks away the shackles of classical exegesis and tries to demystify the concept of Muhammad’s revelation and allegories by adopting concepts of neuropsychology. It introduces Psychological Qurʾanic Criticism as a field, similar to that found in Biblical Studies.
The book proposes a method that argues the importance of understanding the polysemous nature of the words in the Qurʾan and uses intertextuality between the Qurʾan and itself, as well as between the Qurʾan and the Bible to identify how words and their various morphologies are used. It also gives insightful but controversial examples using this methodology.
To argue in favour of such a method, the book touches very crucial and sometimes controversial subjects. An example of such, contrary to recent scholarly debates, the book argues that “taḥrīf,” according to the Qurʾan, perhaps means turning away (inḥirāf) from Scriptures, and not necessarily changing either the words or their meanings. This is a diverging thought from existing literature that did not look at this as a possible definition of the term.
The book also presents few working examples of intertextual polysemy for Qurʾanic hermeneutics. It gives examples for intertextualizing the Qurʾan with itself, as well as between the Qurʾan and the Bible. Many of the stumbling blocks between Christianity and Islam when it comes to Christology and the theology are completely reinterpreted showing that in fact the Qurʾan did not come to denounce the Gospel, but only interpret it in its own words. With those examples, it shows how new creative insights on understanding possible deeper meanings to the Qurʾan along with its Biblical subtext. As examples adopted in the book, it shows how the term Ibn Allah in the Qurʾan is defining the Temple of God, not actually the Son. It also mentions how the concept that God neither begets nor is begotten in the Qurʾan is an attempt to interpret the Logos in the Gospel of John and not denying it, as it is currently assumed by both academic and religious scholars.
This book is very different than existing literature in Qurʾanic studies in that it proposes and argues in favour of a new method of Qurʾanic hermeneutics using a linguistic approach that is not found in any other books in the field, stemming from a possible neuropsychological basis.
Although the Qurʾan shows full awareness of the Jewish tradition, there is one major difference in that the Qurʾan puts the narrative in the context of resurrection or bringing life out of the dead, while in Jewish tradition it is a purification ritual. Yet, the paradox is similar, in which the red cow’s ritual brings purity from impurity is understood from Bamidbar Rabbah just like Abraham (pure) coming out from Terah (impure), Hezekiah (pure) from Ahaz (impure), Israel (pure) from the nations of the world (impure), and the world to come (pure) from this world (impure).
After the cow’s narrative, the Qurʾan speaks of the event in Meribah, similar to Numbers 20. The Qurʾan explains that the Israelites’ hearts were like stone or harder, which holds similarity to how Bamidbar Rabbah explains as one of the meanings of “mōrîm” as disobediently stubborn. As such, the Qurʾan appears to be aware of the rabbinic tradition pertaining to the red cow and directly engaging with it.
While the context of the Qurʾan appears to be on resurrection instead of purification, it is argued that the Qurʾan understands resurrection in the cow narrative as purification from “ṭumʾah” or death. Yet, this death does not necessarily have to be even physical death. It holds its similarity with Adam’s sin, who lost his opportunity to immortality, and became spiritually dead. Similarly, as the Talmud states that the Israelites became immortal for accepting the Torah, but lost this immortality due to the sin of the golden calf. As such, perhaps the Qurʾan understands this as spiritual death, with which the red cow is undoing the sin of the golden calf that caused such spiritual death, as later Jewish midrashim also emphasize.
استعاره عبور شتر از سوراخ سوزن در انجیلهای همنوا (متی، باب نوزدهم آیه ۲۴؛ مرقس، باب دهم آیه ۲۵؛ لوقا، باب هجدهم آیه ۲۵) و قرآن (سوره اعراف، آیه ۴۰)مطرحشده است. ظاهراً انجیل میگوید که عبور شتر از سوراخ سوزن راحتتر از ورود فردی ثروتمند به قلمرو بهشت است. از سوی دیگر، قرآن این استعاره را در بافتار تکذیبکنندگانی بیان میکند که در برابر آیات خدا متکبرند (اسْتَکْبَرُوا). در بادی امر بهنظر میرسد که بافتار این استعاره در انجیلها و قرآن متفاوت است. اما با تحلیل دقیقتر کلیدواژهها، تشابهاتی متنی دیده میشود که از هر دو متن قابلاستخراج هستند و برخلاف تصور محققان پیشین، فراتر از کاربرد مشترک این تمثیل است. برای نمونه، مرد ثروتمند در انجیلها از بهارثبردن زندگی جاودانه میپرسد، و درعینحال قرآن نیز در مورد زندگی جاودانه و میراثبری در بافتاری مشابه صحبت میکند. این موارد و چندین تشابه متنی دیگر حاکی از آن است که قرآن تلویحاً همان بافتاری را برای استعاره مطرح میکند که انجیلها هم به آن میپردازند.
While the Day of Resurrection is a major theme of the Qur'an, resurrection has largely been interpreted as physical, which is defined as bones leaving their graves. However, this book shows that the Qur'an sometimes alludes to death and resurrection in a metaphoric manner – for example, rebuilding a desolate town, typically identified as Jerusalem, and bringing the Israelite exiles back; thus, suggesting awareness and engagement with Jewish liturgy. Many times, the Qur'an even speaks of non-believers as spiritually dead, those who live in this world, but are otherwise zombies.
The author presents an innovative theory of interpretation, contextualizing the Qur'an within Late Antiquity and traces the Qur'anic passages back to their Biblical, extra-biblical and rabbinic subtexts and traditions.
This book features examples of intertextual polysemy within the Qurʾan, as well as between the Qurʾan and the Bible. It provides examples that intimately engage with Christological concepts of the Gospels, in addition to examples of allegorical interpretation through inner-Qurʾanic allusions. Galadari reveals how new creative insights are possible, and argues that the Qurʾan did not come to denounce the Gospel – which is one of the stumbling blocks between Islam and Christianity – but only to interpret it in its own words.
There is a debate among academic and religious scholars alike on the reliability of classical Qurʾanic exegesis for interpretation. This book proposes a new and innovative method of Qurʾanic exegesis called intertextual polysemy, using provocative examples. It breaks away the shackles of classical exegesis and tries to demystify the concept of Muhammad’s revelation and allegories by adopting concepts of neuropsychology. It introduces Psychological Qurʾanic Criticism as a field, similar to that found in Biblical Studies.
The book proposes a method that argues the importance of understanding the polysemous nature of the words in the Qurʾan and uses intertextuality between the Qurʾan and itself, as well as between the Qurʾan and the Bible to identify how words and their various morphologies are used. It also gives insightful but controversial examples using this methodology.
To argue in favour of such a method, the book touches very crucial and sometimes controversial subjects. An example of such, contrary to recent scholarly debates, the book argues that “taḥrīf,” according to the Qurʾan, perhaps means turning away (inḥirāf) from Scriptures, and not necessarily changing either the words or their meanings. This is a diverging thought from existing literature that did not look at this as a possible definition of the term.
The book also presents few working examples of intertextual polysemy for Qurʾanic hermeneutics. It gives examples for intertextualizing the Qurʾan with itself, as well as between the Qurʾan and the Bible. Many of the stumbling blocks between Christianity and Islam when it comes to Christology and the theology are completely reinterpreted showing that in fact the Qurʾan did not come to denounce the Gospel, but only interpret it in its own words. With those examples, it shows how new creative insights on understanding possible deeper meanings to the Qurʾan along with its Biblical subtext. As examples adopted in the book, it shows how the term Ibn Allah in the Qurʾan is defining the Temple of God, not actually the Son. It also mentions how the concept that God neither begets nor is begotten in the Qurʾan is an attempt to interpret the Logos in the Gospel of John and not denying it, as it is currently assumed by both academic and religious scholars.
This book is very different than existing literature in Qurʾanic studies in that it proposes and argues in favour of a new method of Qurʾanic hermeneutics using a linguistic approach that is not found in any other books in the field, stemming from a possible neuropsychological basis.
Although the Qurʾan shows full awareness of the Jewish tradition, there is one major difference in that the Qurʾan puts the narrative in the context of resurrection or bringing life out of the dead, while in Jewish tradition it is a purification ritual. Yet, the paradox is similar, in which the red cow’s ritual brings purity from impurity is understood from Bamidbar Rabbah just like Abraham (pure) coming out from Terah (impure), Hezekiah (pure) from Ahaz (impure), Israel (pure) from the nations of the world (impure), and the world to come (pure) from this world (impure).
After the cow’s narrative, the Qurʾan speaks of the event in Meribah, similar to Numbers 20. The Qurʾan explains that the Israelites’ hearts were like stone or harder, which holds similarity to how Bamidbar Rabbah explains as one of the meanings of “mōrîm” as disobediently stubborn. As such, the Qurʾan appears to be aware of the rabbinic tradition pertaining to the red cow and directly engaging with it.
While the context of the Qurʾan appears to be on resurrection instead of purification, it is argued that the Qurʾan understands resurrection in the cow narrative as purification from “ṭumʾah” or death. Yet, this death does not necessarily have to be even physical death. It holds its similarity with Adam’s sin, who lost his opportunity to immortality, and became spiritually dead. Similarly, as the Talmud states that the Israelites became immortal for accepting the Torah, but lost this immortality due to the sin of the golden calf. As such, perhaps the Qurʾan understands this as spiritual death, with which the red cow is undoing the sin of the golden calf that caused such spiritual death, as later Jewish midrashim also emphasize.
استعاره عبور شتر از سوراخ سوزن در انجیلهای همنوا (متی، باب نوزدهم آیه ۲۴؛ مرقس، باب دهم آیه ۲۵؛ لوقا، باب هجدهم آیه ۲۵) و قرآن (سوره اعراف، آیه ۴۰)مطرحشده است. ظاهراً انجیل میگوید که عبور شتر از سوراخ سوزن راحتتر از ورود فردی ثروتمند به قلمرو بهشت است. از سوی دیگر، قرآن این استعاره را در بافتار تکذیبکنندگانی بیان میکند که در برابر آیات خدا متکبرند (اسْتَکْبَرُوا). در بادی امر بهنظر میرسد که بافتار این استعاره در انجیلها و قرآن متفاوت است. اما با تحلیل دقیقتر کلیدواژهها، تشابهاتی متنی دیده میشود که از هر دو متن قابلاستخراج هستند و برخلاف تصور محققان پیشین، فراتر از کاربرد مشترک این تمثیل است. برای نمونه، مرد ثروتمند در انجیلها از بهارثبردن زندگی جاودانه میپرسد، و درعینحال قرآن نیز در مورد زندگی جاودانه و میراثبری در بافتاری مشابه صحبت میکند. این موارد و چندین تشابه متنی دیگر حاکی از آن است که قرآن تلویحاً همان بافتاری را برای استعاره مطرح میکند که انجیلها هم به آن میپردازند.
Nonetheless, it is inconclusive due to the pitfalls of psychobiography. However, understanding revelation from a human scientific perspective does not discredit its divine origination. Even if the neuropsychological theory is questioned, the methodology of intertextual polysemy can still be understood from a literary perspective.
The method of intertextual polysemy is presented, while signifying the importance of etymology and polysemy. Since word meanings in medieval Arabic lexicons might have evolved since the Qurʾan, it is argued to further analyze words’ cognates in sister Semitic languages to identify possible meanings in the Qurʾan.
The second looks into the relationship between the story of Moses and the mysterious man in Qurʾan 18. The two travel to three different places, and after the third they part ways never to reconcile again. The Qurʾan uses for each instance the term “inṭalaqā,” meaning and they journeyed, sharing the same root as divorce (ṭalāq). According to the Qurʾan, a couple can divorce three times, after which they cannot be reconciled, unless a marriage to a different person occurs. As such, it can be compared with Moses and his companion’s third “inṭilāq,” when parting ways without reconciliation.
The third analyzes the beginning passages of Qurʾan 19, where Zechariah asks for a son. The story starts with the phrase “dhikr raḥmah” (the remembrance of the mercy). The term “dhikr” is related to the male organ, while “raḥmah” is the womb, both of which are necessary in bringing a child.
The interpretation of the term “yuḥarrifūn” in the Qurʾan has caught the attention of past and modern scholars alike. The interpretation of the term ranges from the distortion of text (taḥrīf al-lafẓ) to the distortion of meaning (taḥrīf al-ma‘na). It is argued that the Qurʾanic use of the term “yuḥarrifūn” neither describes the distortion of text nor meaning, but simply is defined by the root meaning of “yuḥarrifūn,” which is to turn away or to bend (inḥirāf). The Qurʾan accuses the Jews of “yuḥarrifūn” in Q. 5:41, but two verses later in Q. 5:43, it describes how the Jews already have the Torah with God’s laws in it. If the Qurʾanic use of the term “yuḥarrifūn” is an accusation that the Jews distorted the text in Q. 5:41, then it would not have almost immediately after state that they have the Torah with God’s laws. On the contrary, it is argued that within the same chapter, the Qurʾan requires the People of the Book to stand upon their scriptures, using the term “tuqīmū” (i.e. Q. 5:66, 5:68). The root of the term “tuqīmū” means “istiqāma,” which is to straighten. It is contrasted with the Qurʾanic use of the term “yuḥarrifūn,” which means to bend (inḥirāf).
The keywords (i.e. dyn, ajl, musamma, ktb, rbb, ‘adl, and ryb) in Qur’an 2:282 are compared with the verses in Qur’an 42:14-15 and Qur’an 45:17. In the verse of dayn, the Qur’an emphasizes that any loan taken for a period of time (ila ajalin musamma) has to be written in a book (or contract) by someone faithful (bil-‘adl). In Qur’an 42:14-15, the verses specify that a Word from God is brought down for a period of time (ila ajalin musamma) to judge (qaḍa) matters between them and that the Book brought by God is believed by someone commanded to be faithful and just (li-a‘dila).
If the story of Muḥammad meditating in a cave is inaccurate, then this means that the psychological diagnosis, as presented here, is equally inaccurate. If Muḥammad was a passive receiver of revelation, then perhaps the findings in here do not demonstrate the intentions of Muḥammad, but at least what the Qur’an expects from its audience in creating inner-Qur’anic allusions and Qur’anic-Biblical allusions.
Otherwise, if neither these are the case, this brings us to yet a different conclusion. It might suggest that the Qur’an is a literary style that combines inner-Qur’anic allusions, while also actively engaging with Biblical literature. Although the latter is a possibility, we will need to make many theological and philosophical assumptions to arrive to it. As such, from among the range of possibilities, the one with the least assumptions is that Muḥammad was in an altered state of consciousness.
The Qurʾan uses symbolism common to the Bible and Near Eastern heritage for the book in heaven and the book written in the depths of the earth to portray people of the living and the dead, respectively. The Qurʾan’s typical portrayal of resurrection proceeds in the same way that God created the first time (perhaps physically), which functions more as a kind of rebirth – it is not bones coming out of their graves. It may be that the Qurʾan is describing physical resurrection as re-birth or re-creation, and therefore the bones being clothed with flesh is not depicted as coming out of graves but simply an analogue to physical birth, in which the bones of the foetus are also clothed with flesh (e.g. Qurʾan 23:14).
This does not mean that the Qurʾan is not necessarily discussing physical resurrection. However, if it does, the Qurʾan does not depict it as happening through some supernatural forces of bones coming out of their graves, but through natural forces like childbirth, or rejuvenating rain.
In the Talmud, Ḥoni the Circle-Drawer sees his own grandchild, sees that his donkey had generations of offspring, sees the seeds flowering, and sees his own teachings surviving. It has been suggested that the Talmudic redactor perhaps intended to reflect Ketubot 50 of the Babylonian Talmud, which interprets, ‘May you see your children’s children! Peace be upon Israel’ (Ps. 128:6) in that regeneration through birth guarantees the survivability of Israel. After all, according to Gen. 30:1, a person without children is likened to a dead person, which is also elaborated in the Talmud. Thus, the context of Ḥoni’s narrative is that he did not see the dead as truly dead, since they had children and children’s children.
In 4 Baruch, death is understood as a metaphor for the destruction of Jerusalem and the Israelites scattered and subdued by other nations due to God’s wrath about their iniquity. The resurrection is understood as the Israelites returning to Jerusalem, rebuilding the Temple, and bringing it back to its former glory and beyond, because of a group of Israelites who were diligent in repentance and worked hard for reform.
Since Qurʾan 2:259 and its direct context is fully engaging or rearticulating biblical, extrabiblical and rabbinic texts and traditions in regards to the destruction of Jerusalem, the exile and the rebuilding, then the resurrection reference in that passage is also to be understood metaphorically no differently from how it is understood from its subtexts. Additionally, with Qurʾan 3:93–103 also making reference to biblical and extrabiblical texts in regards to the Israelite exile, then its association with Qurʾan 2:259 is likely – thus building an inner-Qurʾanic allusion. Given all this context, the ṭaʿām in Qurʾan 3:93 becomes more naturally a reference to the Aramaic/Hebrew ṭeʿem, meaning decrees and commandments. Accordingly, Qurʾan 2:259 perhaps uses it in dual meaning, as food and as a metaphor for the restoration of the Torah and, subsequently, the nation of Israel after the exile. Recall that the figs used as such in Abimelech’s story in 4 Baruch and the general metaphorical use of figs in the biblical, extrabiblical, and rabbinic literature.
All this suggests that Qurʾan 2:259 does not depict a literal resurrection of bodies leaving their graves, but possibly a physical resurrection of a nation that was destroyed and then rebuilt. The next chapter discusses the subsequent Qurʾanic passage (i.e. Qurʾan 2:260), which appears to allude to God’s covenant with Abraham, promising children and land, and also proposing the identification of the man in Qurʾan 2:259 as Abraham, who having no children was as if dead, but at one hundred years of age sired Isaac.
Qurʾan 2:260 will also be argued to have a biblical relationship, in particular to the covenant that God makes with Abraham, according to Genesis. Qurʾan 2:260 narrates Abraham asking God to show him how the dead are resurrected. Then, God asks him to bring four birds, put a piece of them in each hill, and call for them; and they come to Abraham. The act the Qurʾan depicts that Abraham was supposed to do to prove to him the resurrection of the dead has a relationship with Genesis 15. Abraham, in Genesis 15, appears to complain that he has no children, but God promises him that he will, and makes a covenant with him.[1] This will be a familiar theme, as in Qurʾan 2:259, resurrection maybe understood as having children, just as the donkey having generations of offspring in Ḥoni the Circle-Drawer’s narrative in the Talmud.[2]
Accordingly, the interpretation of Qurʾan 2:260 continues to be closely associated with Qurʾan 2:259, in which the topic of resurrection is metaphorical though still physical, but not in the sense of dead bones leaving their graves. In Qurʾan 2:259, resurrection is the regeneration of the Israelites coming back from exile; in this next verse, it is a promise for Abraham to have children, which is perhaps why the narrative suggests God allowing the Israelite nation to be regenerated after being exiled. Through this promise God has proven to Abraham the power to resurrect, the resurrection of Abraham through his generations of children. Additionally, biblical literature, as will be seen, directly connects the covenant with Abraham, in Genesis 15, with the Israelite exile.
The biblical account of the ritual of the red cow is a paradox par excellence. Its absurdity has perplexed Jewish communities throughout history. The ritual is for purification, where those defiled by a dead corpse would be purified. However, the priests and everyone who performs the ritual, themselves being pure, become defiled in the process. The same water that defiled the pure is also used to purify the defiled. While the defilement occurs because of a corpse, another corpse (the sacrificed red cow) reinstates purity. Therefore, if the Qurʾan suggests that the Israelites asked Moses if he is mocking them, could they truly be blamed? ‘And when Moses said to his people, “God commands you to slaughter a cow [baqarah],” they said, “Do you take us in mockery?” He said, “I seek refuge in God from being among the ignorant”’ (Qurʾan 2:67).
Accordingly, this chapter looks closely into how the Qurʾan understands this ritual paradox, especially in the context of resurrection.
Design/methodology/approach: This paper provides a systematic literature review through three methodological phases: (1) a comprehensive review of the number of English language literature studies published on the topics of AM or 3DP (1970-2021); (2) a bibliometric analysis of selected keyword combinations and (3) a detailed review on the impact of AM on different sectors.
Findings: The key findings are that existing studies do not attempt to forecast shipping volume and ton-miles that can be affected by the mainstreaming of the technology. Additionally, existing literature that focuses on the impact of the technology on different shipping categories is limited to studies on container ships.
Originality/value: The review identifies some potential areas of research that since maritime transportation will be affected by mainstreaming AM, it will have economic, social and environmental impacts on global trade that require future assessment.
The Capital District is positioned around major new Emirati neighborhoods. It will become the new face of Abu Dhabi as the center of government and knowledge, while the CBD transforms into the finance and commerce center. High-Tech and clean industries will concentrate east of the Capital District around the airport. The centers will carry similar weights of jobs and office space, distributing the jobs between two employment centers. Both centers will be surrounded by residential districts, which hopes to redirect the traffic flow into several direction and avoid traffic congestion.
The Emirati residential neighborhoods surrounding the capital are built around high dense commercial nodes. Most of the residential neighborhoods are of low density, but higher density alternatives are also included to provide a variety in housing choice. The proposed new residential neighborhoods are mixed used developments. The urban design is configured for family housing clusters that encourage walking.
This study suggests the implementation of transit-oriented development in the new Capital District and its suburbs, instead of the current design of assigning “zones” for each function and then facilitating the movement between these functional zones with roads and public transit. In order to support this claim, the study examines the historic and future urban growth trends of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi in relation to the transportation demand. It analyzes them against external and internal factors that affect transit travel demand, in order to detect possible travel trends that would encourage further transit developments in the new district.
This study suggests a transit-oriented development in the new Capital District and its suburbs. In order to support this claim, the study examines the historic and future urban growth trends of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi in relation to the transportation demand. It analyzes them against external and internal factors that affect transit travel demand, in order to detect possible travel trends that would encourage further transit developments in the new district.
An important external factor to transit demand is fuel price. In alignment with the recent elimination of the fuel price subsidy in the UAE, the study examines the potential effect of fluctuating fuel prices on Abu Dhabi public transit demand by analyzing the trends of cross-elasticities of public transit demand with respect to fuel price for a number of countries around the world.
The study also examines policies and legislations that could encourage Abu Dhabi vehicle users to use public transit modes, by looking at the different congestion pricing schemes applied in, New York, Singapore, Stockholm and London, the study examines how congestion pricing schemes can similarly influence commuters to move towards public transit in Abu Dhabi.
The aim of the study is to help the policy makers in Abu Dhabi as well as other cities of similar conditions in the region, develop sustainable cities using transit oriented development, by presenting some of the economic incentives and the implementation tools that are important in realizing such development.
caused major damages when it made landfall on the coast of the Sultanate of Oman. The Category 5 tropical storm moved north along the coast in the Gulf of Oman and reached the Eastern Coastline of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), causing loss of life and damage to property and infrastructure. It is therefore imperative to understand the probability of such storms hitting the region in the future, to take necessary measures and preparations to reduce the impact. This study is important for understanding the feasibility of developing infrastructure to withstand tropical storms, managing the coast, and also evaluating risks of the damages. This study looks at meteorological statistical data from past decades in the region to understand the probability of strong tropical storms causing damage in the Eastern Coast of the UAE. It uses statistical analysis to predict tropical storms that are strong enough to reach the Eastern Coast of the UAE, which is situated along the Gulf of Oman, to the north of the Arabian Sea, which is not usually affected by tropical storms coming from the Indian Ocean. The study looks into historical meteorological data of the region, from temperatures, wind speed, and direction, and then compares them during the time Cyclone Gonu hit the region.
In chapter 1, Silverstein discusses the debate regarding the apparent discrepancy between the Qur’an and the Bible on the person of Haman. The Qur’an associates Haman with Pharaoh and not Babylon. There is both a geographic and chronological difference with this figure between both texts. Nonetheless, Silverstein argues that the person of Haman in both texts is a reference to the same Haman. He states that it is not necessarily that Esther’s Haman is any more the historic figure as the Qur’anic Haman, but that they both adopted this villainous figure from a general Near Eastern folklore, in which Haman is a recurring antagonist to many stories, such as in the Book of Tobit. Additionally, Silverstein argues the literary parallelism between the stories of Joseph in Pharaoh’s court with Mordecai in Ahashwerosh’s court in Israelite and Jewish midrash. Also, there is an assumed genealogical link between Pharaoh and Haman, both being possibly Amalekites. This makes me wonder that if Haman is a common antagonist in several Near Eastern stories, whether it is actually a title, associated with Ahriman, the Zoroastrian spirit of destruction or the Devil, and is, therefore, associated with anyone with a Devilish mind in Near Eastern literature. After all, the Septuagint refers to Haman as the “diabolos” (the Devil) (Esther 8:1). This especially comes to mind as, in chapter 5, Silverstein compares Esther with Persian storytelling, especially those concerning king Bahman, whose name means good spirit in contrast with Ahriman.
In chapter 2, Silverstein gives several approaches that Muslims evince throughout history in their reception to the story of Esther. Due to being aware that Haman appears misplaced in the Qur’an, some Muslim historians have ignored the Book of Esther altogether, while others replaced Haman with a different name, such as Haymūn, as done by the Muslim historian al-Nuwayrī (d. 1332). Other Muslim historians, such as al-Ṭabarī (d. 923) have ignored Haman in their writings on Esther. The fourth approach by Muslim historians, though very few of them, such as al-Bīrunī (d. 1048), wrote about Esther and Haman as it is, even though aware of the contradictory implication with the Qur’an for doing so.
Chapter 3 gives a Samaritan reception of the Book of Esther. While Silverstein’s main theme throughout the book is to discuss the Muslim reception, he introduces the Samaritan Abul-Fatḥ’s (c. 14th century) account, as it was written in Muslim-ruled land. Abul-Fatḥ reverses the story where the Jews become the antagonists against the Samaritans. This version is, therefore, a child of the Jewish-Samaritan hostility.
Chapter 4 introduces a Persian midrash of the Book of Esther. The interesting feature of the work is that Abraham and Haman were considered brothers. Silverstein posits that throughout ancient midrashim, the stories of Abraham and Esther has featured several parallels, such as Abraham asking Sarah to conceal her identity in Egypt and in the court of the king, in a similar fashion that Mordecai asks Esther in Ahashwerosh’s court. Silverstein argues that while Abraham’s brother is Haran, with which the Semitic languages is sometimes fluid between the /r/ and /m/ sounds, there is more to the story in Judeo-Persian literature. Haran, in such literature, is said to have volunteered to toss Abraham into a fire, only for Abraham to come out unharmed, while Haran succumbs to the burning. This could parallel Haman preparing the gallows for Mordecai only to be tossed in them.
Chapter 5 compares Esther with ancient Persian storytelling, many of which are pre-Islamic, but survived through Muslim sources. Silverstein makes it clear that he does not at all suggest that either Esther had subtexts in some Persian stories or vice-versa. However, that there, in fact, are shared plots, subplots, and motifs between Esther and some of these ancient Persian stories. In particular, Silverstein compares Esther with the 1001 Nights, in which a woman courting a king cleverly saves herself and other women. Silverstein also notes the Rekhesh-riders in Esther 8:10 with the ShāhNāma’s Rustam riding a horse called “Rakhsh.” It is not to assume either took the name from the other, but it sheds light on what this hapax legomenon in Esther might be referring to. Silverstein also compares Esther with other ancient stories, namely, the BahmanNāma, DārābNāma, Samak-e ʿAyyār, and Vīs and Rāmin, all of which share similar, but usually extended, plots, subplots, and motifs with Esther. Silverstein concludes that there is perhaps an ancient Persian storytelling culture that many of these Persian stories and Esther belonged to.
Chapter 6 argues that Muslim sources shed light to Haman’s description as a “Bougaios” instead of an “Agagite” in the Greek versions of Esther. The hypothesis presented by Augustin A. Calmet (d. 1757) is that the term “Bougaios” is related with the Persian eunuch Bagaos, who was associated with both the Persian and Pharaonic courts. Silverstein shows that Bagaos’ character is similar to that of Haman’s, especially if one aggregates both the biblical and Qur’anic accounts. Silverstein demonstrates that Islamic sources might be witnesses that the hypothesis of associating Haman with Bagaos dates prior to the tenth century, much earlier than Calmet’s proposition.
In the final chapter, Silverstein tackles the question why Mordecai refused to bow to Haman, even though bowing to Haman would not have constituted a threat to the biblical theology at the time, unlike how it may be perceived in the Qur’an. Silverstein interweaves many texts from the ancient Near East, Hebrew Bible, New Testament, extra-biblical literature, and the Qur’an to show that the event has a literary significance, in which this motif is common in many texts in the Near East. He especially focuses on Satan’s refusal to bow before Adam as a possible literary parallel of this event. Silverstein, thus, associates the narrative of Mordecai’s refusal to its literary theme and not its theological objections. Silverstein also adds an appendix of a Muslim feminist re-articulation of Esther by Zaynab Fawwāz (d. 1914).
Silverstein has compiled an exceptionally significant study of Esther’s reception from Muslim sources or from those living in Muslim lands. He has proven that studying these sources provide insights about how Esther was understood not only by Muslims, but also by Jews who were living among them; insights that might have been forgotten and were no longer inherited within surviving Jewish or Christian sources. Silverstein is not claiming that he is filling a lacuna in scholarship. His main argument is that there exists a large abyss in Esther studies and that he is merely proving the existence of such chasm, which is patiently waiting for it to be discovered by biblical scholars, as it has been, for the most part, neglected. This book is pioneering in its field and essential to any serious scholar of Esther or even general readership, who are interested to know the evolution of literature in the Near East.
Chapter 1 analyses Sūrat al-Fīl, which Muslim tradition places in the context of Abraha taking an elephant to Mecca to destroy the Kaʿba. Beck questions this narrative, as it is unreasonable to conceive of an elephant traversing the harsh desert of Arabia, and argues that, unlike Asian elephants, African elephants cannot be easily trained for warfare, so it is more plausible to consider the elephants in the context of Asian elephants used by Persian armies. Beck argues that the Maccabean books are possible subtexts to this qur’anic chapter: 2 Maccabees tells of Seleucid kings commissioning Nicanor, who commanded the elephant army, to destroy the Jews, only for God to save the Jews from destruction, while 3 Maccabees narrates how Ptolemy IV Philopator decides to use elephants to crush the Jews, who are also saved when Eleazar prays and God sends two angels to their aid. With Maccabean narratives as a possible subtext, the hypothesis propounded is that Sūrat al-Fīl might be anti-Sassanian eschatology after the siege of Jerusalem. The blind man being turned away inQ80.1-10 is theorized as a reference to Hormozd IV, who was concerned with social welfare, but blinded in a coup.
Chapter 2 discusses the term ‘ṣamad’ in Q 112, engaging with some literature on the topic. Beck argues that ṣamad is used by Syriac Christianity to describe the indivisible Trinity, but that Q 112 adds that God neither begets nor is begotten as anti-Nicene, while using non-Chalcedonian and Manichaean formulae for divine unity. Thus, the Qur’an must be aware of these intra-Christian tensions.
Chapter 3 is perhaps the most difficult to negotiate because of the high intra- and inter- textuality within the Qur’an and between it and other literature, especially Manichaean. For example, Q 86.1 discusses a celestial being who paves a redemptive path between heaven and earth similar to a Manichaean redeemer. Beck’s main argument in this chapter is that the Qur’an is not an expression of a prophet with a new revelation, but builds on existing eschatological soteriology in the ancient Near Eastern context to strengthen the legitimacy of its revelation. The main feature of the revelation is the progression from a loose monotheism to a stricter one. Beck introduces two messenger types that can be deduced from the Qur’an: a cosmic messenger (e.g. Q 81.19), in the earliest qur’anic passages, and the later progress to a human messenger.
Chapter 4 analyses Sūrat al-Qadr. While some scholars argue the possible reference to Christmas or, generally, the authority of a specific human for salvation, either Jesus or Muḥammad, Beck argues that the qur’anic chapter celebrates a night that begins a new salvific cycle through divine will without human agency, and lacks any ritual. The authority is given to a cosmic messenger, moving along the argument made in the previous chapter. Beck states that the Qur’an emphasizes divine will and that no ritual vigil can invoke the Lord’s descent. One of the arguments discusses the term ‘shahr’, echoing that its possible Syriac origin means ‘vigil’. There is no issue in the possible meaning of ‘vigil’ but the over-emphasis on a Syriac origin is unnecessary. Many of the Arabic cognates with Hebrew/Aramaic interchange sīn and shīn. The Arabic cognate for the Syriac vigil (shahra) is sahra. As the Syriac term corresponds to the moon, so do both Arabic terms sahar and shahar. While the author suggests that the term could have come to mean ‘month’ in Arabic from its use in the Syriac tradition that Christ is the Lord of the months, conceived in April and born in January, this appears to be a stretch. Since shahr is defined as the moon, and sometimes specifically the crescent, and with the moon’s role in determining lunar months, as in some Near Eastern cultures, that might be how the term came to mean ‘month’. Nevertheless, this observation would not necessarily challenge the author’s overarching argument.
Chapter 5 discusses Q 94, which is related to the keywords in Q 20.25-41 regarding the story of Moses. The method is very much intra- and inter-textual polysemy, and I am very much convinced that those two passages are inner-qur’anic allusions. Beck states that Syriac Christian homilies emphasized that believers need to imitate Moses, on which Q 94 capitalizes, presenting the addressee as assuming authority for being like Moses. However, while the inner-qur’anic allusion is likely, the reason for it can only be a speculation.
Chapter 6 discusses Q 73 and Q 74, containing the imagery of a person wrapped. Beck argues that a servant wrapped for divinization is a recurring image in the Near East in the Syriac Church and Manichaean and Zoroastrian literature. In the Syriac tradition, as Adam lost the robe of glory, also alluded to in the Qur’an (libās al-taqwā), baptism recovers this robe purified. However, Beck argues that the Qur’an emphasizes ethical purity over a priest-administered sacrament conveyed through baptism, although the imagery of a person wrapped as a way to confirm divine authority also exists within Merkabah mysticism, based on the Mantle of Elijah, and even in the Byzantine Church. The over-emphasis on the Syriac connection is therefore unnecessary. There are many traditions in which garments of lights and investiture of cloaks also play a role. My point is that it is very difficult to pinpoint any specific tradition with which these qur’anic chapters specifically engage, since this imagery is very common.
The book is enjoyable and provides a wealth of ideas for any serious scholar and student of qur’anic studies. It is also of interest to the general reader attentive to the origins of the Qur’an and its relationship with other Near Eastern literature during Late Antiquity, especially in the context of the Byzantine–Sassanian War. However, I must caution against the excessive assumption of qur’anic engagement with Syriac literature, as the Qur’an also appears to be aware of Greek Christian texts, which should not be surprising, given the Byzantine influence in the Near East during that period. While the book engages with some of the works by Sidney Griffith, Gabriel Reynolds and Emran El-Badawi on the relationship between the Syriac Church and the Qur’an, more engagement might have provided stronger support to some of the arguments. The book must be applauded for engaging with Manichaean and Zoroastrian literature, which is usually neglected in Qur’anic Studies, though it misses some of Patricia Crone’s scholarship on the matter. In short, even if not all the arguments presented in the book are convincing, they are certainly highly insightful and may potentially spark many fruitful debates.
In chapter 2, the book argues that there was an eschatological crisis. In the beginning, the Qur’an promises an imminent punishment against nonbelievers. As this imminent punishment did not occur, the Qur’anic style changed, eventually suggesting that the imminent punishment is to be carried out by the hands of the believers.
Chapter 3 expands on this, using a linguistic model to identify a chronology for the Qur’an using two metrics: lexical distance and formulaic distance. I must admit that my mathematics and engineering background makes me somewhat bias in my critique of this method. First, without knowing the statistical distribution along with the standard deviation, the averages become just nonsensical numbers. Second, even with the proper analysis, without any context to avoid type I and type II errors, the results would continue to be meaningless. For example, numbers may tell us that people with larger shoe sizes are significantly better drivers. But to draw any conclusion from such analysis without understanding the context would be premature. While the numbers are correct, the data includes both children and adults, skewing the results.
Another problem with this mathematical method stems from the assumption that Durie and other scholars are making—that Qur’anic style simply changed with time. It assumes that an author cannot change styles depending on the genre and audience. Michael Fishbane argued that some biblical authors used terms and formulae of previous works to deliberately allude to them. It is likely that the Qur’an uses a similar strategy, especially considering its orality, in order to remind the audience of previous utterances.
Chapter 4 discusses Qur’anic theology, contrasting its differences with biblical theology—a new notion that did not exist in early Judeo-Christian history during which time the Qur’an emerged. The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes did not engage with any late antiquity literature on theology. For example, while the book illustrates how there are people who love God and that God loved, the Qur’an contains no command to love God. Instead, it presents Qur’anic theology as a master-slave relationship. Durie uses the Shemaʿ to prove that biblical theology entails the commandment to love God, yet he fails to realize that the Talmudic understanding involves people accepting to be in servitude of God. While one might argue that the Talmud is not the Bible, the Qur’an was not composed in a void without Jewish tradition, and there is much evidence that the Qur’an was aware of Talmudic teachings and engaged directly with it. One might also argue that the Qur’an frequently states that “ḥamd” is to God. While this term is typically understood as praise, its Semitic root is no different than the Ten Commandments’s desiring of the neighbor’s wife. As such, it can be understood to mean desire is to God enticed by love, while also Q. 94:8 is a clear command to desire God.
Durie makes the point that the Qur’an emphasizes God as the one and that no other exists, which is different from the Pentateuch portrayals that devotion is to be given to God alone without excluding the existence of other gods, though one might argue that Deuteronomy 32:39 is explicit about the exclusion of other gods. Nonetheless, while Durie acknowledges that later biblical books assert that God exists alone, he dismisses the idea that the Qur’an could have inherited such a notion from the Bible based on the premise that it is not specified in the Pentateuch.
Chapter 6 is marred with methodological inconsistencies. First, it suggests that the term “masīḥ” is an unanalyzable Arabic morphology when, in actuality, it is in the form of “faʿīl,” very common in Arabic. In another example it is argued that “rūḥ” in Arabic means “blowing” and that the Qur’an fails to define it as some sort of spirit or breath. Q. 15:29 and 38:72 do describe it in the sense of breath or spirit, but Durie argues that they should be translated as, “blown from My blowing.” Durie should have noted the definition if, as he insists, it is different from breath, wind, or spirit. Another example is Durie’s understanding of God’s presence, where he states that the Qur’anic description of God as all-encompassing (muḥīṭ) is in knowledge only. While Durie tries to exclude post-Qur’anic literature, he echoes here the interpretation of some later Muslim schools of thought and not necessarily the Qur’an.
There are other flaws as well, for example, while the Qur’an portrays David and Jesus cursing nonbelievers, Durie states that it is unfounded biblically. The Qur’anic understanding of a curse is the expulsion from divine mercy, which David appears to warn the wicked (e.g., Psalm 37), while Jesus gives woes to the Pharisees warning them of an inescapable hell (e.g., Matthew 23:33). Additionally, the book critiques Qur’an 9:111 which states God has purchased from the believers, their selves and their wealth for heaven, killing and getting killed for the sake of God, a promise found in the Torah and the Gospel as well. Durie argues that such a reference is nonexistent in the Bible. The Shemaʿ passage in Deuteronomy commands people to love God with all their heart, selves, and strength. Additionally, the Talmud explains that all their strength means with all their wealth too, an idea mirrored in the Gospels, where the rich are to give away their wealth and follow Jesus. Finally, as to killing and being killed, this may be mirrored in Matthew 10, with Jesus stating that he did not bring peace, but a sword, and everyone is to take the cross and lose their life for the sake of Jesus.
In summary, while the book boasts a “deeper analysis,” claiming any similarities between the Qur’an and the Bible to be superficial, it fails to realize the shallowness of its own examination. A humble approach would have been appreciated. For example, if we apply this methodology to the Book of Zephaniah, we could conclude that the book has little to do with the rest of the Hebrew Bible, or, since the Christology of the Gospel of John is unique, it therefore has nothing to do with its Jewish background or the rest of the Gospels.
Although the book is best described as novice, it is written clearly. Durie is a prodigious writer. However, this volume should be categorized as polemic rather than academic as, due to the rhetoric, generalizations, and lack of rigor, it fails to provide any substantive scholarly contribution.
The cooperative constant is not explicitly defined in The Fractal Self, beyond that it is the natural predisposition of patterns to sprout out of chaos. For example, the nucleobases’ attraction in DNA and RNA happened to provide the blueprint of life. These attractions were only natural, just like when helium atoms attracted each other to create hydrogen, and so forth to bring all the elements that make up the universe.
Culliney and Jones are very courageous in proposing such a thesis that the natural cooperative constant is somehow the fuel behind the universe’s evolution. This thesis gives a better understanding of the evolution of altruism and the rise of empathy. The book, in that regard, is fascinating in its attempt to prove that cooperation is the natural root of the making of the universe.
The Fractal Self consists of eleven chapters divided into four parts. The first two parts introduce the cooperative property in the universe and then examine it biologically. The book could have stopped at this point by bringing evolutionary biology and philosophy together in making its argument, and it would have been complete. However, the authors further expanded their thesis, showing its intersection with religion, especially Eastern philosophies.
The third part of the book interweaves its cooperative constant thesis with elements of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism. The authors argue that these Eastern philosophies teach that opposites should not truly be seen as opposites, as there is harmony and unity between extremes. This section of the book introduces the sage who acts as a catalyst in the evolution of human history. The sage’s ability to comprehend the mysteries of the interconnectedness and interdependence between the self and all that is ushers in their enlightenment and unlocks their potential in creating a butterfly effect that brings forth positive change.
The book could have also stopped at its third part, after having engaged its thesis with Eastern philosophies. However, Culliney and Jones wanted to interface their thesis with the current state of affairs that faces humanity, and especially politics, which comprises the fourth part of the book. It is natural for a book with a thesis on a cooperative constant that caused the evolution of the universe to discuss how Homo sapiens need to be cooperative not only among themselves, but within the whole biosphere, lest they face extinction. Yet the fourth part of the book is weak in its arguments. It carries the sort of emotion and passion that one would expect in a blog rather than in an academic book. It appears to have an anarchist agenda. Cooperation amidst diversity is the book’s thesis, but that does not provide the authors a license to label as the “anti-sage” those unenlightened beings who seek to go against the natural force of the cooperative constant. Actually, the last part of the book does not blend very well with the previous one, which discusses the unity of opposites. The whole cooperative constant comes smashing down in the last part when those opposing harmony are relentlessly opposed. Are these people not a part of the universe, made and governed by a cooperative constant?
Generally speaking, the first two parts of the book are an essential resource to any evolutionary biologist. The third part of the book is fairly reasonable in dealing with how their thesis engages with Eastern philosophies. The fourth part of the book is best ignored because its apocalyptic eschatology should not be used against the book’s original thesis and purpose. Nonetheless, the cooperative constant, whatever it is, seems like a plausible thesis, and I would like to see further empirical research on it in the future. The evolution of altruism from a competitive evolutionary perspective is highly debatable, and perhaps this cooperative constant can provide us with an alternative thesis. Culliney and Jones have provided us with the seeds, and hopefully more water in the future will bring them to fruition.
Godsey takes a strong stance against creationism, especially young Earth creationism. He feels that such notions do not do justice to an omnipotent God and demonstrate an ignorance of history and facts. He states, “Holy ignorance is still ignorance” (13). He finds that when believers take so-called ignorance as a tenet of faith, it may cause them to lose their religion, because when they do apply reason, they will find it difficult to preserve their faith. However, at the same time, Godsey is cautious regarding the questions that science should answer. The aim of science, according to Godsey, is to push boundaries and investigate the unknown, but not necessarily to find God.
To speak of God, the use of symbols and metaphor are necessary, according to Godsey. He refers to this as myth, not with a negative connotation, but more in alignment with Joseph Campbell’s understanding of myth. Godsey resonates with the notion that biblical myths should transform human beings inwardly, but not be taken literally as fact. To Godsey, it is the message that is more important than the content. In the case of Christianity therefore, it is not as important to believe in the historical Jesus, but rather to embody Jesus and his message.
Godsey asserts that the most powerful myth of all is love, because human beings and the universe are interconnected. He gives the analogy that though the Torah has 613 laws, when Jesus was asked about the most important law he said, “Love God with all that is within you and love other people as you love yourself” (75). Godsey goes on to state, “I believe that love is the ultimate energy of the universe” (85). It is not the legal matters, traditions, or even believing in the historicity of the myths, but it is love that is at the heart of Christianity. This is very much in keeping with Pope Francis’ stance on the Catholic Church today whenever he finds himself debating with conservatives. Godsey’s message throughout the book is that this world is a mystery—and because it is a mystery—we should always have the humility of keeping an open mind.
The book is short, and an easy read. However, it lacks any real engagement with scholarly literature. This is not necessarily a shortcoming. It is clearly that the author’s intention is to reach out to lay people and provide them with his own insights. If you are a scholar seeking new contributions to the field of religion and science, this book will most likely not be very beneficial to you. However, if you are a soul (if that even exists) who sometimes finds themself in doubt about their faith in light of scientific or historical facts, then this book could give you the solace you may need from a Christian perspective. It does so neither by dismissing the facts nor by dismissing faith, but by allowing the reader to view their faith from a different vantage point: one that looks to the power of myth to changing human lives, and the power of love in energizing our universe.
ISBN-13: 9789004250628.