Jihon Kim
Dr. Jihon Kim is a chief of the division of international cooperation programme at the Korean National Commission for UNESCO, and has coordinated external relations between UNESCO and the Republic of Korea, particularly for the implementation of cultural heritage conventions of UNESCO since 2006. She has also participated in many intergovernmental meetings of UNESCO as an advisory member of the Korean delegation, and worked at the Korean Permanent Delegation to UNESCO from 2019 to 2020.
Dr. Kim has lectured on international cultural heritage conventions at Konkuk University and Sungkyunkwan University as an adjunct professor since 2016. She was a research fellow at the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT) and an editorial member of the Korea Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture. She also served as a public legislative officer at the Ministry of Government Legislation from 2017 to 2022.
Dr. Kim received her B.A. in Art History, and M.A. and Ph.D. in International Studies at Seoul National University. She has written various articles and books on the international cultural heritage law, such as “1970 UNESCO Convention and its Legal Implementations in the Republic of Korea” and “National Response to International Conventions: The Case of the 2003 UNESCO Convention and the New Korean Legislation”. Her most recent work has been published at Springer in December 2021, with the title of “Non-State Actors in the Protection of Cultural Heritage”.
Supervisors: Prof. Jin-Hyun Paik, Seoul National University (President of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea)
Dr. Kim has lectured on international cultural heritage conventions at Konkuk University and Sungkyunkwan University as an adjunct professor since 2016. She was a research fellow at the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT) and an editorial member of the Korea Institute of Traditional Landscape Architecture. She also served as a public legislative officer at the Ministry of Government Legislation from 2017 to 2022.
Dr. Kim received her B.A. in Art History, and M.A. and Ph.D. in International Studies at Seoul National University. She has written various articles and books on the international cultural heritage law, such as “1970 UNESCO Convention and its Legal Implementations in the Republic of Korea” and “National Response to International Conventions: The Case of the 2003 UNESCO Convention and the New Korean Legislation”. Her most recent work has been published at Springer in December 2021, with the title of “Non-State Actors in the Protection of Cultural Heritage”.
Supervisors: Prof. Jin-Hyun Paik, Seoul National University (President of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea)
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In this context, the present research analyzed the participation of local communities in the governance on the protection, management and promotion of World Heritage Sites in the relevant legal and policy texts of the Republic of Korea. It also aimed to have a close look at the current situation of the World Heritage Cities concerning the involvement of the local residents through the cases of three World Heritage Cities in Korea, namely Gyeongju City, Gongju City, and Buyeo County.
Overall, the provisions of World Heritage Act well reflect the importance of community involvement that has been stressed at the Convention, but there exist a necessity for further development concerning more active accommodation of local residents' ideas and guarantee of their participation. Relevant ordinances of World Heritage Cities need to be revised accordingly as well. In practice, it is recognized that local communities' participation in governance of World Heritage has been enhanced through various methods, but local government’s more active promotion and education on the policies and activities of World Heritage seems necessary to encourage local residents' continuous voluntary participation in governance for World Heritage. Moreover, the research identified a possible role for experts in facilitating communication between local governments and residents, which possibility will be explored further. These can be the ways in which the new World Heritage Act and relevant legal and policy measures of World Heritage Cities can be improved for further involvement of local communities in governance for World Heritage, and good references in the course of the implementation of projects for World Heritage management and promotion.
Anahtar Kelimeler: UNESCO, somut olmayan kültürel miras, Kore Cumhuriyeti, Uluslararası Sözleşmeler, Yasal Uyum.
This study attempted a comparative analysis to examine the impact of the 2003 Convention on the relevant legislation of the Republic of Korea, with a focus on the Intangible Cultural Heritage Act. Although a more responsive legal and administrative environment has been created under the aegis of the Act, there still exists much room for improvement. In particular, promotion of non-state actors, including communities that were emphasized in the 2003 Convention as one of the most important stakeholders for the protection and transmission of intangible cultural heritage, reflection of the Sustainable Development Goals that was freshly introduced in the Operational Directives of the 2003 Convention, a more horizontal approach for the designation of heritage items and maintenance of the heritage lists, and further attention to the raising of awareness and capacity-building measures were proposed as a direction to take.
[Keywords] Intangible Cultural Heritage, Intangible Cultural Heritage Act, 2003 Convention, UNESCO, Cultural Heritage Protection Act
한국은 2003년 제정된 유네스코 「무형문화유산 보호 협약」(이하 ‘2003년 협약’) 에 가입한 이래 ｢문화재보호법｣의 개정을 통해 협약의 주요 내용을 이행해 오다 2015 년 「무형문화재 보전 및 진흥에 관한 법률」(이하 ‘무형문화재법’)을 별도로 제정하여 협 약과 국내법 간의 간극을 줄이고자 하였다. 그 결과, 협약의 정의에 따라 무형유산의 범 위는 더욱 확대되었고, 끊임없이 재창조되어 전승되는 무형문화유산의 본질적 성격에 맞게 ‘전형(典型)’ 중심의 보호 원칙도 새로이 채택되었으며, 지정 및 전수제도 역시 다 양하게 체계화되었다.
본 연구는 ｢무형문화재법｣을 중심으로 ｢2003년 협약｣이 한국의 법제도에 미친 영 향과 한계를 살펴보기 위한 비교 분석을 시도하였다. 법 제정을 통해 협약의 주요 내용 에 더욱 부응하는 제도적 환경이 마련되었으나, 여전히 개선의 여지는 존재한다. 특히 무형문화유산 보호와 전승의 가장 중요한 주체로 협약이 강조한 공동체를 비롯한 NGO, 전문가 등 비국가행위자들의 참여 증진, 협약의 구체적 이행을 위한 가이드라인 인 ｢무형문화유산 보호 협약 이행을 위한 운영지침｣이 새롭게 제시한 지속가능발전목 표에 대한 반영, 유산지정과 목록운영의 더욱 수평적인 접근, 인식제고와 역량강화에 대한 더 많은 관심 등이 그 주요 방향으로 제시되었다.
[주제어] 무형문화유산, 무형문화재법, 2003년 협약, 유네스코, 문화재보호법
Overall, the Cultural Heritage Protection Act of the Republic of Korea effectively reflects the duties of States Parties under the 1970 Convention. These include measures to introduce export certificates, prohibit the import of stolen cultural property, return other state parties’ cultural property, and impose penalties or administrative sanctions in the event of any infringements. Indeed, the Republic of Korea’s implementation of the 1970 Convention was introduced as an example of good practice at the Meeting of State Parties in 2019.
However, changes in the illegal market for cultural property and development of relevant international law and measures imply that there still exists room for improvement concerning the legal implementation of the 1970 Convention at the national level. In particular, the Operational Guidelines recommend States Parties to adopt legal measures in two respects: detailed criteria for due diligence in assessing bona-fide purchasers, referring to the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects, and measures to address the emerging issue of illegal trade in cultural property on internet platforms.
Amendment of the Cultural Heritage Protection Act and other relevant laws should be considered in order to duly reflect these issues. Taking that opportunity, concrete provisions to facilitate international cooperation in respect of the implementation of the 1970 Convention could be introduced as well. Such measures could be expected to strengthen the Republic of Korea’s international legal cooperation to respond to the changing environment regarding illicit trafficking of cultural property and its restitution.
Keywords: Illicit trafficking of cultural property, 1970 Convention, Cultural Heritage Protection Act, UNESCO, Restitution of cultural property
「문화재의 불법적인 반출입 및 소유권 양도의 금지와 예방수단에 관한 협약」(이하 ‘1970년 협약’)이 유네스코에서 채 택된 지 올해로 50주년을 맞았다. 한국은 지난 1983년 협약에 가입한 이래 「문화재보호법」을 통해 국내적으로 협약 당 사국의 주요 의무를 이행해 왔다. 이는 한국이 최근 「무형문화유산 보호 협약」이나 「세계문화유산 및 자연유산의 보호 에 관한 협약」 등 다른 유산 관련 유네스코 협약의 이행을 위해 특별법을 도입한 것과는 차이가 있다. 아울러 「1970년 협 약」이 지난 2015년 새롭게 「운영지침」을 채택하며 협약의 구체적 이행을 위해 계속 발전하고 있는 점은 한국의 「1970년 협약」에 대한 국내법적 대응의 현재를 평가하고 향후 개선 방안을 검토하는 시의성을 제공해 주었다.
「문화재보호법」은 「1970년 협약」이 부과하는 당사국 의무 사항을 전반적으로 잘 반영하고 있다. 문화재 반출증명서 도입이나 불법 반출 문화재 취득 금지를 위한 국내 입법적 조치, 타 당사국의 요청에 따른 문화재 회수 및 반환, 관련 불 법 행위에 대한 형법적·행정적 제재 부과 등 협약이 요구하는 주요 조치를 잘 포함하고 있으며, 실제로 한국의 협약 이행 사례는 2019년 협약 당사국 총회에서 우수 사례로 소개되기도 하였다.
그러나 문화재 불법 거래 시장의 변화와 관련 국제 법제도의 발전은 「1970년 협약」의 국내법적 이행에 여전히 개선 점이 존재함을 보여 준다. 특히 협약의 「운영지침」은 두 가지 측면에서 당사국에 관련 법제도의 개선을 협약보다 한 발 더 나아가 권고하고 있는데, 「문화재의 도난 및 불법 반출에 관한 유니드로와 협약」의 선의 취득자를 판단하기 위한 ‘상 당한 주의’에 대한 구체적 조항 참고와 새로운 문제로 대두된 인터넷을 통한 문화재 불법 거래 대응이 그것이다.
향후 이러한 내용의 적절한 반영을 위해 「문화재보호법」과 관계 법령의 개정을 검토해 볼 수 있다. 그 계기에 협약 이행의 국제 협력 촉진을 위한 구체적 조문도 마련할 수 있을 것이다. 끊임없이 변화하는 문화재 불법 거래 및 환수와 관 련된 국제 환경에 대응하기 위한 국제 사회의 법적 협력에 한국이 더욱 활발히 동참할 수 있기를 기대한다.
주제어: 문화재 불법거래, 1970년 협약, 문화재보호법, 유네스코, 문화재 환수
Keywords: archaeology, Silk Road, Central Asia, kurgan, UNESCO, Soviet Union.
In this context, the present research analyzed the participation of local communities in the governance on the protection, management and promotion of World Heritage Sites in the relevant legal and policy texts of the Republic of Korea. It also aimed to have a close look at the current situation of the World Heritage Cities concerning the involvement of the local residents through the cases of three World Heritage Cities in Korea, namely Gyeongju City, Gongju City, and Buyeo County.
Overall, the provisions of World Heritage Act well reflect the importance of community involvement that has been stressed at the Convention, but there exist a necessity for further development concerning more active accommodation of local residents' ideas and guarantee of their participation. Relevant ordinances of World Heritage Cities need to be revised accordingly as well. In practice, it is recognized that local communities' participation in governance of World Heritage has been enhanced through various methods, but local government’s more active promotion and education on the policies and activities of World Heritage seems necessary to encourage local residents' continuous voluntary participation in governance for World Heritage. Moreover, the research identified a possible role for experts in facilitating communication between local governments and residents, which possibility will be explored further. These can be the ways in which the new World Heritage Act and relevant legal and policy measures of World Heritage Cities can be improved for further involvement of local communities in governance for World Heritage, and good references in the course of the implementation of projects for World Heritage management and promotion.
Anahtar Kelimeler: UNESCO, somut olmayan kültürel miras, Kore Cumhuriyeti, Uluslararası Sözleşmeler, Yasal Uyum.
This study attempted a comparative analysis to examine the impact of the 2003 Convention on the relevant legislation of the Republic of Korea, with a focus on the Intangible Cultural Heritage Act. Although a more responsive legal and administrative environment has been created under the aegis of the Act, there still exists much room for improvement. In particular, promotion of non-state actors, including communities that were emphasized in the 2003 Convention as one of the most important stakeholders for the protection and transmission of intangible cultural heritage, reflection of the Sustainable Development Goals that was freshly introduced in the Operational Directives of the 2003 Convention, a more horizontal approach for the designation of heritage items and maintenance of the heritage lists, and further attention to the raising of awareness and capacity-building measures were proposed as a direction to take.
[Keywords] Intangible Cultural Heritage, Intangible Cultural Heritage Act, 2003 Convention, UNESCO, Cultural Heritage Protection Act
한국은 2003년 제정된 유네스코 「무형문화유산 보호 협약」(이하 ‘2003년 협약’) 에 가입한 이래 ｢문화재보호법｣의 개정을 통해 협약의 주요 내용을 이행해 오다 2015 년 「무형문화재 보전 및 진흥에 관한 법률」(이하 ‘무형문화재법’)을 별도로 제정하여 협 약과 국내법 간의 간극을 줄이고자 하였다. 그 결과, 협약의 정의에 따라 무형유산의 범 위는 더욱 확대되었고, 끊임없이 재창조되어 전승되는 무형문화유산의 본질적 성격에 맞게 ‘전형(典型)’ 중심의 보호 원칙도 새로이 채택되었으며, 지정 및 전수제도 역시 다 양하게 체계화되었다.
본 연구는 ｢무형문화재법｣을 중심으로 ｢2003년 협약｣이 한국의 법제도에 미친 영 향과 한계를 살펴보기 위한 비교 분석을 시도하였다. 법 제정을 통해 협약의 주요 내용 에 더욱 부응하는 제도적 환경이 마련되었으나, 여전히 개선의 여지는 존재한다. 특히 무형문화유산 보호와 전승의 가장 중요한 주체로 협약이 강조한 공동체를 비롯한 NGO, 전문가 등 비국가행위자들의 참여 증진, 협약의 구체적 이행을 위한 가이드라인 인 ｢무형문화유산 보호 협약 이행을 위한 운영지침｣이 새롭게 제시한 지속가능발전목 표에 대한 반영, 유산지정과 목록운영의 더욱 수평적인 접근, 인식제고와 역량강화에 대한 더 많은 관심 등이 그 주요 방향으로 제시되었다.
[주제어] 무형문화유산, 무형문화재법, 2003년 협약, 유네스코, 문화재보호법
Overall, the Cultural Heritage Protection Act of the Republic of Korea effectively reflects the duties of States Parties under the 1970 Convention. These include measures to introduce export certificates, prohibit the import of stolen cultural property, return other state parties’ cultural property, and impose penalties or administrative sanctions in the event of any infringements. Indeed, the Republic of Korea’s implementation of the 1970 Convention was introduced as an example of good practice at the Meeting of State Parties in 2019.
However, changes in the illegal market for cultural property and development of relevant international law and measures imply that there still exists room for improvement concerning the legal implementation of the 1970 Convention at the national level. In particular, the Operational Guidelines recommend States Parties to adopt legal measures in two respects: detailed criteria for due diligence in assessing bona-fide purchasers, referring to the 1995 UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects, and measures to address the emerging issue of illegal trade in cultural property on internet platforms.
Amendment of the Cultural Heritage Protection Act and other relevant laws should be considered in order to duly reflect these issues. Taking that opportunity, concrete provisions to facilitate international cooperation in respect of the implementation of the 1970 Convention could be introduced as well. Such measures could be expected to strengthen the Republic of Korea’s international legal cooperation to respond to the changing environment regarding illicit trafficking of cultural property and its restitution.
Keywords: Illicit trafficking of cultural property, 1970 Convention, Cultural Heritage Protection Act, UNESCO, Restitution of cultural property
「문화재의 불법적인 반출입 및 소유권 양도의 금지와 예방수단에 관한 협약」(이하 ‘1970년 협약’)이 유네스코에서 채 택된 지 올해로 50주년을 맞았다. 한국은 지난 1983년 협약에 가입한 이래 「문화재보호법」을 통해 국내적으로 협약 당 사국의 주요 의무를 이행해 왔다. 이는 한국이 최근 「무형문화유산 보호 협약」이나 「세계문화유산 및 자연유산의 보호 에 관한 협약」 등 다른 유산 관련 유네스코 협약의 이행을 위해 특별법을 도입한 것과는 차이가 있다. 아울러 「1970년 협 약」이 지난 2015년 새롭게 「운영지침」을 채택하며 협약의 구체적 이행을 위해 계속 발전하고 있는 점은 한국의 「1970년 협약」에 대한 국내법적 대응의 현재를 평가하고 향후 개선 방안을 검토하는 시의성을 제공해 주었다.
「문화재보호법」은 「1970년 협약」이 부과하는 당사국 의무 사항을 전반적으로 잘 반영하고 있다. 문화재 반출증명서 도입이나 불법 반출 문화재 취득 금지를 위한 국내 입법적 조치, 타 당사국의 요청에 따른 문화재 회수 및 반환, 관련 불 법 행위에 대한 형법적·행정적 제재 부과 등 협약이 요구하는 주요 조치를 잘 포함하고 있으며, 실제로 한국의 협약 이행 사례는 2019년 협약 당사국 총회에서 우수 사례로 소개되기도 하였다.
그러나 문화재 불법 거래 시장의 변화와 관련 국제 법제도의 발전은 「1970년 협약」의 국내법적 이행에 여전히 개선 점이 존재함을 보여 준다. 특히 협약의 「운영지침」은 두 가지 측면에서 당사국에 관련 법제도의 개선을 협약보다 한 발 더 나아가 권고하고 있는데, 「문화재의 도난 및 불법 반출에 관한 유니드로와 협약」의 선의 취득자를 판단하기 위한 ‘상 당한 주의’에 대한 구체적 조항 참고와 새로운 문제로 대두된 인터넷을 통한 문화재 불법 거래 대응이 그것이다.
향후 이러한 내용의 적절한 반영을 위해 「문화재보호법」과 관계 법령의 개정을 검토해 볼 수 있다. 그 계기에 협약 이행의 국제 협력 촉진을 위한 구체적 조문도 마련할 수 있을 것이다. 끊임없이 변화하는 문화재 불법 거래 및 환수와 관 련된 국제 환경에 대응하기 위한 국제 사회의 법적 협력에 한국이 더욱 활발히 동참할 수 있기를 기대한다.
주제어: 문화재 불법거래, 1970년 협약, 문화재보호법, 유네스코, 문화재 환수
Keywords: archaeology, Silk Road, Central Asia, kurgan, UNESCO, Soviet Union.
In this context, this book reviews the status and roles of NSAs in international cultural heritage law, and aims to contribute to the understanding of NSAs in inter- national law in general, while providing a different angle from which to understand the current implementations of international cultural heritage conventions. Indeed, due to the emergence of new ideas on common heritage and cultural rights in the twentieth century, international cultural heritage law has become inconsistent with States’ claim of the sole authority over the protection of cultural heritage. However, the rights, obligations, and roles of NSAs have not yet been clarified; some NSAs are still exposed to the danger of abuse by state power as well as the pressure of globalization, and hence, more attention to ensuring their participation in heritage protection is required. At the same time, it is noteworthy that as the international impact of NSAs’ behavior has increased, more duties to protect cultural heritage have been sought for and by them.
This book analyzes the texts of international cultural heritage conventions as well as their operational texts to track the changes in the rights, obligations, and roles of NSAs since the mid-twentieth century. As the operational guidelines for the conven- tions are regularly updated to reflect the changing environment of the conventions, they become an important source for analysis. Practical cases on the status and roles of NSAs are introduced in order to glean empirical ideas concerning the operation of the relevant provisions of the conventions and guidelines, as well as to facilitate in-depth understanding of their effectiveness in reality. In this analysis, diverse forms of cultural heritage such as tangible, intangible, movable, and immovable heritage, all covered by different international conventions, are taken into consideration. The different categories of NSA, including the secretariats of international organizations, experts, NGOs, local communities, and the general public, are also duly accounted for in analyzing their status and roles in each different convention.
This book reveals that the NSAs in international cultural heritage law have substan- tive rights, obligations and roles, as prescribed in the legal and operational texts, as well as in practice. At the same time, the operational guidelines of the conventions have imparted more concreteness to the status and roles of NSAs. In the course of those changes, some NSAs have become more vocal than others. At the same time, discrepancies between text and practice, as concerns the status and roles of NSAs, are observed as well, which have occurred for various reasons, one of which is the politicization of conventions’ governance.
In general, NSAs do have rights and duties to participate in the implementation of cultural heritage conventions, and their roles have been further recognized. This phenomenon is most prominent in the field of intangible cultural heritage, in that individuals and communities bearing heritage play a pivotal role in safeguarding non-material cultural values of society and transmitting them to future generations. A similar situation can be found with regard to the status and roles of NGOs and local communities in the protection of World Heritage. Pari passu, the international obliga- tion of NSAs to protect cultural heritage, has increased as well, with the increasing dissemination of ideas on common heritage. Destruction of the common cultural heritage of humankind by individuals has become subject to the jurisdiction of inter- national courts, and so too, higher moral and legal standards have been required of NSAs involved in the movement of cultural property.
However, the value of cultural heritage is easily ignored in the process of globaliza- tion and development. In addition, the top-down approach of the States in the manage- ment of their cultural heritage often is applied in the implementation processes of cultural heritage conventions. In the process, NSAs and, in particular, local commu- nities, are easily left out. At the same time, technological advancement has enabled freer and less restricted flow of assets and properties, which phenomenon acceler- ates illicit trafficking and destruction of cultural property. These challenges to the protection of cultural heritage cannot be tackled only by the actions of the States; rather, they require the consolidated efforts of various groups of society. Doubtless, to the extent that protection of cultural heritage has become a common concern of the international community, Westphalian-inspired notions of state-centricity are no longer valid in the field of international cultural heritage law. It is time to explore innovative and practical mechanisms to enable NSAs to assume a proper status and take on practical roles to achieve the ultimate goal of international cultural heritage law: sustainable protection of cultural heritage.