Assistant Professor Tibetan Studies at Leiden University, recipient of an ERC starting grant (2023-2028, 1.5 m euros), past recipient of a VENI grant (NWO) on Buddhism and Law in Tibet (2016-2022). Interpreter and translator of Tibetan. Author of a Buddhism inspired children's book published at Bala Publications (2023). In the process of writing my second monograph, this time on Buddhism and Law in Tibet.
This short documentary was commissioned by the Ethnographic museum in Leiden and was featured in ... more This short documentary was commissioned by the Ethnographic museum in Leiden and was featured in the exhibition on the Buddha's life in 2016. It deals with the quest of one elderly Tibetan man to preserve an age-old Buddhist storytelling tradition (Lama Mani/ Bu chen). The film was shot in Boudha, Kathmandu
Taxation in Tibetan Societies: Rules, Practices and Discourses, 2023
At first glance, the phenomenon of monk-tax (grwa khral/btsun khral/ban khral) appears to be well... more At first glance, the phenomenon of monk-tax (grwa khral/btsun khral/ban khral) appears to be well understood among scholars of Tibet. Mainly thanks to Goldstein we understand it to mean the tax levied on families with three or more sons. These families were required to send their second-oldest boy to the monastery (bu gsum bar ma’i/ba’i grwa khral). This tax is occasionally cited as a prime example of the far-reaching influence institutionalised monasticism has had on ordinary families, or even as an illustration of the supposed despotic power exercised by “the old theocratic regime” in Tibet (e.g. Parenti 2003). While the fact that this phenomenon existed cannot be disputed, neither the prevalence of this tax in time and space nor the underlying reasons for imposing this policy have been appropriately researched.
Buddhism and Comparative Constitutional Law , 2022
Jansen, B. (2022). Tibetan Buddhist Monastic Constitutional Law and Governmental Constitutional L... more Jansen, B. (2022). Tibetan Buddhist Monastic Constitutional Law and Governmental Constitutional Law: Mutual Influences? In T. Ginsburg & B. Schonthal (Eds.), Buddhism and Comparative Constitutional Law (Comparative Constitutional Law and Policy, pp. 124-140). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
This work is a good start in mapping the institutional changes and constants of Gelukpa monasteri... more This work is a good start in mapping the institutional changes and constants of Gelukpa monasteries in Tibetan Buddhist regions. In the author's own words, "This book is an argument for the importance of considering the mechanisms that Buddhist hierarchs stipulated for the administration of their vast system of monastic institutions and for the rhythm of the lives of those institutions' residents" (172).
This article deals with the death penalty in pre-modern Tibet and how both legal works and Tibeta... more This article deals with the death penalty in pre-modern Tibet and how both legal works and Tibetan Buddhists displayed an ambiguous stance regarding this sentence. The main sources that speak of this practice examined here are the largely understudied Tibetan legal decrees and law texts, along with traveler’s accounts and other materials. Taking an explicitly historical perspective, this paper does not engage with the question whether capital punishment can ever be justified by Buddhists. It is argued that various sovereigns burdened with both secular and religious rule, have made ambiguous attempts to abolish the death sentence, with limited success. While rare, the death penalty was carried out but remained a problematic issue for a number of Tibetan Buddhist authors. The sources presented here attest to these ambiguities.
This article discusses the Tibetan term dkor, a concept that appears to have become increasingly ... more This article discusses the Tibetan term dkor, a concept that appears to have become increasingly complex as it developed over the last millennium up until this day. The most basic connotation of the word dkor is "wealth" or "possession", something rather concrete indeed. In contradistinction with what is often called the "commodification of religion", that is to say, "the process of transforming goods, services, ideas, and [...] religion into something that can be bought and sold", 1 I argue in this article that, as time passed, a gradual shift from the material to the immaterial has taken place. In other words, a shift from something that can be bought and sold to something that is intangible yet is thought to have an (invisible) effect on this life and the next.
On a Day of a Month of the Fire Bird Year On a Day of a Month of the Fire Bird Year: Festschrift for Peter Schwieger on the occasion of his 65th birthday, edited by Jeannine Bischoff, Petra Maurer, and Charles Ramble. Lumbini: LIRI. pp 415-435., 2020
On a Day of a Month of the Fire Bird Year On a Day of a Month of the Fire Bird Year: Festschrift ... more On a Day of a Month of the Fire Bird Year On a Day of a Month of the Fire Bird Year: Festschrift for Peter Schwieger on the occasion of his 65th birthday. Edited by Jeannine Bischoff, Petra Maurer, and Charles Ramble. Lumbini: LIRI: pp 415-435.
How did law in Tibet originate? Works of various genres of Tibetan literature start off... more How did law in Tibet originate? Works of various genres of Tibetan literature start off explaining the origins of the topic they discuss. This is no different in the rarely studied genre of Tibetan legal texts. By examining the way in which they present the history, place, purpose, and legacy of law in Tibet, we gain access to some important clues regarding the law’s position and functioning in society. What is the relationship between Buddhism and law? How have views of the law changed over several centuries? In this article, I use a number of, previously largely unstudied, Tibetan legal works, which include—but are not limited to—variations of the zhal lce (“ pronouncements”). By placing the development of legal ideology not just in the context of the political history of Tibet but also in the context of the changes and continuities of Tibetan Buddhism, this article intends to shed light on the multiple dimensions of the well-known concept “religion and politics combined” (chos srid zung ’brel).
Voyage of discovery: exploring the collections of the Asian Library of Leiden University, 2017
In September 2017, Leiden University will open the Asian Library to house its extensive and world... more In September 2017, Leiden University will open the Asian Library to house its extensive and world-renowned Asian collections. This includes the largest collection on Indonesia worldwide and some of the foremost collections on South and Southeast Asia, China, Japan, and Korea. Voyage of Discovery contains more than twenty essays by academics, curators, and authors on their experiences with the Leiden collections. Richly illustrated and showcasing twenty-five treasures from the Asian Library, such as unique manuscripts and rare maps, this book offers a beautiful look inside the Asian Library. Alexander Reeuwijk, ed. Leiden: Leiden University Press
Revue d'Etudes Tibétaines, 37, December 2016, pp. 145–161
This article is an investigation of th... more Revue d'Etudes Tibétaines, 37, December 2016, pp. 145–161
This article is an investigation of the disciplinarian’s institution, largely viewed from monastic guidelines (bca' yig) written before the 1950s for monasteries of all sorts of different schools, but it also attempts to contrast the earlier period with information on current day affairs.
In Tibetan studies, and in particular the type of Tibetan studies that has a philological inclina... more In Tibetan studies, and in particular the type of Tibetan studies that has a philological inclination, much effort has gone into attempting to understand Tibetan Buddhist philosophy, esoteric practices, and the lives of important, influential, or otherwise remarkable Tibetan people. A focus on social history then may be seen as some sort of countermovement, in which the great, odd, wonderful, and esoteric is not taken as primary, but where tax-receipts, contracts, law-records, inventories and possibly even shopping-lists play a major role. Ultimately, we are interested in what these mundane texts tell us about Tibetan society. Here, the main concern is not the nature of the sources but the perspective taken when reading them. In the case of Tibetan studies, just because the countermovement that is social history is long overdue, it does not mean that Tibetan religion should be ignored or relegated to a pawn in the political power-games that are often the topic of research. I propose that a Buddhist Studies perspective to social history allows us—in certain contexts—to gain a better understanding of traditional Tibetan society as a whole. In this regard, this article particularly considers the sources that contain perhaps the richest information on monastic organization and on the interaction between the monastery and the general populace: the monastic guidelines (bca’ yig).
Dissertation Abstract:
This study entitled The Monastery Rules: Buddhist Monastic Organization i... more Dissertation Abstract:
This study entitled The Monastery Rules: Buddhist Monastic Organization in Pre-modern Tibet discusses the position of the monasteries in Tibetan societies before the 1950s and how that position was formed and informed by Buddhist and monastic notions. This research takes as a point of departure the huge impact of monastic Buddhism on society, economy and law, as well as on a wide range of aspects of Tibetan culture and (popular) religion. Whereas Christian monasticism is only of secondary importance to its faith, Buddhist monasticism is generally seen as primary to Buddhism. Its importance is brought to the fore both in Buddhist doctrine and practice. That Buddhist monastic institutions then not only held their position as a religious ‘driving force’ but also became organizations that dealt with more than religion alone, does therefore not come as a surprise, for, in countries where Buddhism was adopted as the dominant religion, monasteries came to be major players in politics, economics, culture, and society as a whole.
This work examines the impact of Buddhist monastic institutions on Tibetan societies by looking at their monastic policies with regard to organization, economy, justice, and public relations. The primary sources in which these policies can be found are the monastic guidelines (bca’ yig). The earliest extant texts in this genre stem from the 12th century, whereas the lion’s share of the works available were written in the 17th and 18th centuries. As this type of literature has not been studied in any detail, this study contains an exploration of this genre, its parallels in other Buddhist cultures, its connection to the Vinaya (regularly translated as ‘Buddhist monastic law’), and its socio-historical value.
The in-depth study of these texts is supplemented with important information from over twenty interviews, using oral history methods, with elderly Tibetan monks and monks currently involved in monastic organization, collected during fieldwork in India in 2012. By combining methods of history, anthropology, and philology, this study demonstrates that the monastic institution was, in many aspects, guided by Buddhist monastic law and that it was averse to instability and upheaval of the existing social system. The main reason for the strong adherence to the status quo was the obligation monks were seen to hold: to ensure the continued existence of the Buddha’s Teachings. To this end, monks needed to behave well, also in order to be respected by the lay-community. This meant that monks, and thereby monasteries, continuously had to adapt their position to their environments and to change how they treated themselves and others. These changes are attested in the monastic guidelines, which contain rules that are largely aimed to change the monastery in order to preserve it. By this, I show that – contrary to ideas held by many scholars – the monastic institutions’ influence on society was maintained not merely due to existing power-relations, but also because of certain deep-rooted Buddhist beliefs.
Sidkeong Namgyal Tulku was a colourful figure in the history of Sikkim. This crown prince was an ... more Sidkeong Namgyal Tulku was a colourful figure in the history of Sikkim. This crown prince was an incarnated lama as well as a student at Oxford, and a member of the Royal Asiatic Society. This article considers the various roles of Sidkeong Tulku in the light of a Tibetan work by his hand, which has been previously not connected to his person. Written in 1909, it consists of ‘monastic guidelines’ (bCa’ yig) which are a clear witness to the time and circumstances they were written in. This traditionally framed work, authored by a supposed Buddhist modernist, addresses the education of monks, monastic economy, sex, and preaching to the laity. These guidelines shed light on the changing status of the monastery in Sikkim, in the midst of reforms and threats to Sikkimese sovereignty. In this article I examine the contents of these guidelines in the context of its author’s eventful but short life, against the political, religious and social backdrop of a Buddhist kingdom in turmoil.
Current Issues and Progress in Tibetan Studies: Proceedings of the Third International Seminar of Young Tibetologists, Kobe 2012 (Journal of Research Institute, vol. 51), Kobe: Kobe City University of Foreign Studies., 2014
Berthe Jansen, « Morality and Monastic Revival in Post-Mao Tibet by Jane E. Caple », European Bul... more Berthe Jansen, « Morality and Monastic Revival in Post-Mao Tibet by Jane E. Caple », European Bulletin of Himalayan Research [Online], 56 | 2021, Online since 10 September 2021. URL : http://preo.u-bourgogne.fr/ebhr/index.php?id=99
This short documentary was commissioned by the Ethnographic museum in Leiden and was featured in ... more This short documentary was commissioned by the Ethnographic museum in Leiden and was featured in the exhibition on the Buddha's life in 2016. It deals with the quest of one elderly Tibetan man to preserve an age-old Buddhist storytelling tradition (Lama Mani/ Bu chen). The film was shot in Boudha, Kathmandu
Taxation in Tibetan Societies: Rules, Practices and Discourses, 2023
At first glance, the phenomenon of monk-tax (grwa khral/btsun khral/ban khral) appears to be well... more At first glance, the phenomenon of monk-tax (grwa khral/btsun khral/ban khral) appears to be well understood among scholars of Tibet. Mainly thanks to Goldstein we understand it to mean the tax levied on families with three or more sons. These families were required to send their second-oldest boy to the monastery (bu gsum bar ma’i/ba’i grwa khral). This tax is occasionally cited as a prime example of the far-reaching influence institutionalised monasticism has had on ordinary families, or even as an illustration of the supposed despotic power exercised by “the old theocratic regime” in Tibet (e.g. Parenti 2003). While the fact that this phenomenon existed cannot be disputed, neither the prevalence of this tax in time and space nor the underlying reasons for imposing this policy have been appropriately researched.
Buddhism and Comparative Constitutional Law , 2022
Jansen, B. (2022). Tibetan Buddhist Monastic Constitutional Law and Governmental Constitutional L... more Jansen, B. (2022). Tibetan Buddhist Monastic Constitutional Law and Governmental Constitutional Law: Mutual Influences? In T. Ginsburg & B. Schonthal (Eds.), Buddhism and Comparative Constitutional Law (Comparative Constitutional Law and Policy, pp. 124-140). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
This work is a good start in mapping the institutional changes and constants of Gelukpa monasteri... more This work is a good start in mapping the institutional changes and constants of Gelukpa monasteries in Tibetan Buddhist regions. In the author's own words, "This book is an argument for the importance of considering the mechanisms that Buddhist hierarchs stipulated for the administration of their vast system of monastic institutions and for the rhythm of the lives of those institutions' residents" (172).
This article deals with the death penalty in pre-modern Tibet and how both legal works and Tibeta... more This article deals with the death penalty in pre-modern Tibet and how both legal works and Tibetan Buddhists displayed an ambiguous stance regarding this sentence. The main sources that speak of this practice examined here are the largely understudied Tibetan legal decrees and law texts, along with traveler’s accounts and other materials. Taking an explicitly historical perspective, this paper does not engage with the question whether capital punishment can ever be justified by Buddhists. It is argued that various sovereigns burdened with both secular and religious rule, have made ambiguous attempts to abolish the death sentence, with limited success. While rare, the death penalty was carried out but remained a problematic issue for a number of Tibetan Buddhist authors. The sources presented here attest to these ambiguities.
This article discusses the Tibetan term dkor, a concept that appears to have become increasingly ... more This article discusses the Tibetan term dkor, a concept that appears to have become increasingly complex as it developed over the last millennium up until this day. The most basic connotation of the word dkor is "wealth" or "possession", something rather concrete indeed. In contradistinction with what is often called the "commodification of religion", that is to say, "the process of transforming goods, services, ideas, and [...] religion into something that can be bought and sold", 1 I argue in this article that, as time passed, a gradual shift from the material to the immaterial has taken place. In other words, a shift from something that can be bought and sold to something that is intangible yet is thought to have an (invisible) effect on this life and the next.
On a Day of a Month of the Fire Bird Year On a Day of a Month of the Fire Bird Year: Festschrift for Peter Schwieger on the occasion of his 65th birthday, edited by Jeannine Bischoff, Petra Maurer, and Charles Ramble. Lumbini: LIRI. pp 415-435., 2020
On a Day of a Month of the Fire Bird Year On a Day of a Month of the Fire Bird Year: Festschrift ... more On a Day of a Month of the Fire Bird Year On a Day of a Month of the Fire Bird Year: Festschrift for Peter Schwieger on the occasion of his 65th birthday. Edited by Jeannine Bischoff, Petra Maurer, and Charles Ramble. Lumbini: LIRI: pp 415-435.
How did law in Tibet originate? Works of various genres of Tibetan literature start off... more How did law in Tibet originate? Works of various genres of Tibetan literature start off explaining the origins of the topic they discuss. This is no different in the rarely studied genre of Tibetan legal texts. By examining the way in which they present the history, place, purpose, and legacy of law in Tibet, we gain access to some important clues regarding the law’s position and functioning in society. What is the relationship between Buddhism and law? How have views of the law changed over several centuries? In this article, I use a number of, previously largely unstudied, Tibetan legal works, which include—but are not limited to—variations of the zhal lce (“ pronouncements”). By placing the development of legal ideology not just in the context of the political history of Tibet but also in the context of the changes and continuities of Tibetan Buddhism, this article intends to shed light on the multiple dimensions of the well-known concept “religion and politics combined” (chos srid zung ’brel).
Voyage of discovery: exploring the collections of the Asian Library of Leiden University, 2017
In September 2017, Leiden University will open the Asian Library to house its extensive and world... more In September 2017, Leiden University will open the Asian Library to house its extensive and world-renowned Asian collections. This includes the largest collection on Indonesia worldwide and some of the foremost collections on South and Southeast Asia, China, Japan, and Korea. Voyage of Discovery contains more than twenty essays by academics, curators, and authors on their experiences with the Leiden collections. Richly illustrated and showcasing twenty-five treasures from the Asian Library, such as unique manuscripts and rare maps, this book offers a beautiful look inside the Asian Library. Alexander Reeuwijk, ed. Leiden: Leiden University Press
Revue d'Etudes Tibétaines, 37, December 2016, pp. 145–161
This article is an investigation of th... more Revue d'Etudes Tibétaines, 37, December 2016, pp. 145–161
This article is an investigation of the disciplinarian’s institution, largely viewed from monastic guidelines (bca' yig) written before the 1950s for monasteries of all sorts of different schools, but it also attempts to contrast the earlier period with information on current day affairs.
In Tibetan studies, and in particular the type of Tibetan studies that has a philological inclina... more In Tibetan studies, and in particular the type of Tibetan studies that has a philological inclination, much effort has gone into attempting to understand Tibetan Buddhist philosophy, esoteric practices, and the lives of important, influential, or otherwise remarkable Tibetan people. A focus on social history then may be seen as some sort of countermovement, in which the great, odd, wonderful, and esoteric is not taken as primary, but where tax-receipts, contracts, law-records, inventories and possibly even shopping-lists play a major role. Ultimately, we are interested in what these mundane texts tell us about Tibetan society. Here, the main concern is not the nature of the sources but the perspective taken when reading them. In the case of Tibetan studies, just because the countermovement that is social history is long overdue, it does not mean that Tibetan religion should be ignored or relegated to a pawn in the political power-games that are often the topic of research. I propose that a Buddhist Studies perspective to social history allows us—in certain contexts—to gain a better understanding of traditional Tibetan society as a whole. In this regard, this article particularly considers the sources that contain perhaps the richest information on monastic organization and on the interaction between the monastery and the general populace: the monastic guidelines (bca’ yig).
Dissertation Abstract:
This study entitled The Monastery Rules: Buddhist Monastic Organization i... more Dissertation Abstract:
This study entitled The Monastery Rules: Buddhist Monastic Organization in Pre-modern Tibet discusses the position of the monasteries in Tibetan societies before the 1950s and how that position was formed and informed by Buddhist and monastic notions. This research takes as a point of departure the huge impact of monastic Buddhism on society, economy and law, as well as on a wide range of aspects of Tibetan culture and (popular) religion. Whereas Christian monasticism is only of secondary importance to its faith, Buddhist monasticism is generally seen as primary to Buddhism. Its importance is brought to the fore both in Buddhist doctrine and practice. That Buddhist monastic institutions then not only held their position as a religious ‘driving force’ but also became organizations that dealt with more than religion alone, does therefore not come as a surprise, for, in countries where Buddhism was adopted as the dominant religion, monasteries came to be major players in politics, economics, culture, and society as a whole.
This work examines the impact of Buddhist monastic institutions on Tibetan societies by looking at their monastic policies with regard to organization, economy, justice, and public relations. The primary sources in which these policies can be found are the monastic guidelines (bca’ yig). The earliest extant texts in this genre stem from the 12th century, whereas the lion’s share of the works available were written in the 17th and 18th centuries. As this type of literature has not been studied in any detail, this study contains an exploration of this genre, its parallels in other Buddhist cultures, its connection to the Vinaya (regularly translated as ‘Buddhist monastic law’), and its socio-historical value.
The in-depth study of these texts is supplemented with important information from over twenty interviews, using oral history methods, with elderly Tibetan monks and monks currently involved in monastic organization, collected during fieldwork in India in 2012. By combining methods of history, anthropology, and philology, this study demonstrates that the monastic institution was, in many aspects, guided by Buddhist monastic law and that it was averse to instability and upheaval of the existing social system. The main reason for the strong adherence to the status quo was the obligation monks were seen to hold: to ensure the continued existence of the Buddha’s Teachings. To this end, monks needed to behave well, also in order to be respected by the lay-community. This meant that monks, and thereby monasteries, continuously had to adapt their position to their environments and to change how they treated themselves and others. These changes are attested in the monastic guidelines, which contain rules that are largely aimed to change the monastery in order to preserve it. By this, I show that – contrary to ideas held by many scholars – the monastic institutions’ influence on society was maintained not merely due to existing power-relations, but also because of certain deep-rooted Buddhist beliefs.
Sidkeong Namgyal Tulku was a colourful figure in the history of Sikkim. This crown prince was an ... more Sidkeong Namgyal Tulku was a colourful figure in the history of Sikkim. This crown prince was an incarnated lama as well as a student at Oxford, and a member of the Royal Asiatic Society. This article considers the various roles of Sidkeong Tulku in the light of a Tibetan work by his hand, which has been previously not connected to his person. Written in 1909, it consists of ‘monastic guidelines’ (bCa’ yig) which are a clear witness to the time and circumstances they were written in. This traditionally framed work, authored by a supposed Buddhist modernist, addresses the education of monks, monastic economy, sex, and preaching to the laity. These guidelines shed light on the changing status of the monastery in Sikkim, in the midst of reforms and threats to Sikkimese sovereignty. In this article I examine the contents of these guidelines in the context of its author’s eventful but short life, against the political, religious and social backdrop of a Buddhist kingdom in turmoil.
Current Issues and Progress in Tibetan Studies: Proceedings of the Third International Seminar of Young Tibetologists, Kobe 2012 (Journal of Research Institute, vol. 51), Kobe: Kobe City University of Foreign Studies., 2014
Berthe Jansen, « Morality and Monastic Revival in Post-Mao Tibet by Jane E. Caple », European Bul... more Berthe Jansen, « Morality and Monastic Revival in Post-Mao Tibet by Jane E. Caple », European Bulletin of Himalayan Research [Online], 56 | 2021, Online since 10 September 2021. URL : http://preo.u-bourgogne.fr/ebhr/index.php?id=99
This is a review of Jane Caple's dissertation entitled Seeing beyond the State? The Negotiation o... more This is a review of Jane Caple's dissertation entitled Seeing beyond the State? The Negotiation of Moral Boundaries in the Revival and Development of Tibetan Buddhist Monasticism in Contemporary China (Leeds, 2009)
Jansen, B. (2017). Naked Seeing: The Great Perfection, the Wheel of Time, and Visionary Buddhism ... more Jansen, B. (2017). Naked Seeing: The Great Perfection, the Wheel of Time, and Visionary Buddhism in Renaissance Tibet. By Christopher Hatchell . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. Pp. 471. ISBN 10: 0199982910; ISBN 13: 978-0-19-998291-2. International Journal of Asian Studies, 14(2), 226-227. doi:10.1017/S1479591417000092
Review of Shayne Clarke’s Family Matters in Indian Buddhist Monasticism (Hawai’i University Press... more Review of Shayne Clarke’s Family Matters in Indian Buddhist Monasticism (Hawai’i University Press 2014). South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, 2017, 40/1: 211-213.
In The Monastery Rules Berthe Jansen discusses the position of the monasteries in pre-modern Tibe... more In The Monastery Rules Berthe Jansen discusses the position of the monasteries in pre-modern Tibetan Buddhist societies and how that position was informed by the far-reaching relationship of monastic Buddhism with Tibetan society, economy, law, and culture. Jansen focuses her study on monastic guidelines or bca’ yig. The first study of its kind to examine the genre of bca’ yig in detail, the book contains an exploration of parallels of these texts in other Buddhist cultures, their connection to the Vinaya, and their value as sociohistorical source material. The monastic guidelines are witness to certain socioeconomic changes, but they also indicate that the monastery created rules intended to change the monastery in order to preserve it. Jansen argues that the monastic institutions’ influence on society was maintained not merely due to prevailing power-relations, but also because of certain deep-rooted Buddhist beliefs.
This is a panel proposal for the IATS conference 2016. Those interested in participating can cont... more This is a panel proposal for the IATS conference 2016. Those interested in participating can contact us.
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Alexander Reeuwijk, ed. Leiden: Leiden University Press
This article is an investigation of the disciplinarian’s institution, largely viewed from monastic guidelines (bca' yig) written before the 1950s for monasteries of all sorts of different schools, but it also attempts to contrast the earlier period with information on current day affairs.
This study entitled The Monastery Rules: Buddhist Monastic Organization in Pre-modern Tibet discusses the position of the monasteries in Tibetan societies before the 1950s and how that position was formed and informed by Buddhist and monastic notions. This research takes as a point of departure the huge impact of monastic Buddhism on society, economy and law, as well as on a wide range of aspects of Tibetan culture and (popular) religion. Whereas Christian monasticism is only of secondary importance to its faith, Buddhist monasticism is generally seen as primary to Buddhism. Its importance is brought to the fore both in Buddhist doctrine and practice. That Buddhist monastic institutions then not only held their position as a religious ‘driving force’ but also became organizations that dealt with more than religion alone, does therefore not come as a surprise, for, in countries where Buddhism was adopted as the dominant religion, monasteries came to be major players in politics, economics, culture, and society as a whole.
This work examines the impact of Buddhist monastic institutions on Tibetan societies by looking at their monastic policies with regard to organization, economy, justice, and public relations. The primary sources in which these policies can be found are the monastic guidelines (bca’ yig). The earliest extant texts in this genre stem from the 12th century, whereas the lion’s share of the works available were written in the 17th and 18th centuries. As this type of literature has not been studied in any detail, this study contains an exploration of this genre, its parallels in other Buddhist cultures, its connection to the Vinaya (regularly translated as ‘Buddhist monastic law’), and its socio-historical value.
The in-depth study of these texts is supplemented with important information from over twenty interviews, using oral history methods, with elderly Tibetan monks and monks currently involved in monastic organization, collected during fieldwork in India in 2012. By combining methods of history, anthropology, and philology, this study demonstrates that the monastic institution was, in many aspects, guided by Buddhist monastic law and that it was averse to instability and upheaval of the existing social system. The main reason for the strong adherence to the status quo was the obligation monks were seen to hold: to ensure the continued existence of the Buddha’s Teachings. To this end, monks needed to behave well, also in order to be respected by the lay-community. This meant that monks, and thereby monasteries, continuously had to adapt their position to their environments and to change how they treated themselves and others. These changes are attested in the monastic guidelines, which contain rules that are largely aimed to change the monastery in order to preserve it. By this, I show that – contrary to ideas held by many scholars – the monastic institutions’ influence on society was maintained not merely due to existing power-relations, but also because of certain deep-rooted Buddhist beliefs.
Book Reviews by Berthe Jansen
Alexander Reeuwijk, ed. Leiden: Leiden University Press
This article is an investigation of the disciplinarian’s institution, largely viewed from monastic guidelines (bca' yig) written before the 1950s for monasteries of all sorts of different schools, but it also attempts to contrast the earlier period with information on current day affairs.
This study entitled The Monastery Rules: Buddhist Monastic Organization in Pre-modern Tibet discusses the position of the monasteries in Tibetan societies before the 1950s and how that position was formed and informed by Buddhist and monastic notions. This research takes as a point of departure the huge impact of monastic Buddhism on society, economy and law, as well as on a wide range of aspects of Tibetan culture and (popular) religion. Whereas Christian monasticism is only of secondary importance to its faith, Buddhist monasticism is generally seen as primary to Buddhism. Its importance is brought to the fore both in Buddhist doctrine and practice. That Buddhist monastic institutions then not only held their position as a religious ‘driving force’ but also became organizations that dealt with more than religion alone, does therefore not come as a surprise, for, in countries where Buddhism was adopted as the dominant religion, monasteries came to be major players in politics, economics, culture, and society as a whole.
This work examines the impact of Buddhist monastic institutions on Tibetan societies by looking at their monastic policies with regard to organization, economy, justice, and public relations. The primary sources in which these policies can be found are the monastic guidelines (bca’ yig). The earliest extant texts in this genre stem from the 12th century, whereas the lion’s share of the works available were written in the 17th and 18th centuries. As this type of literature has not been studied in any detail, this study contains an exploration of this genre, its parallels in other Buddhist cultures, its connection to the Vinaya (regularly translated as ‘Buddhist monastic law’), and its socio-historical value.
The in-depth study of these texts is supplemented with important information from over twenty interviews, using oral history methods, with elderly Tibetan monks and monks currently involved in monastic organization, collected during fieldwork in India in 2012. By combining methods of history, anthropology, and philology, this study demonstrates that the monastic institution was, in many aspects, guided by Buddhist monastic law and that it was averse to instability and upheaval of the existing social system. The main reason for the strong adherence to the status quo was the obligation monks were seen to hold: to ensure the continued existence of the Buddha’s Teachings. To this end, monks needed to behave well, also in order to be respected by the lay-community. This meant that monks, and thereby monasteries, continuously had to adapt their position to their environments and to change how they treated themselves and others. These changes are attested in the monastic guidelines, which contain rules that are largely aimed to change the monastery in order to preserve it. By this, I show that – contrary to ideas held by many scholars – the monastic institutions’ influence on society was maintained not merely due to existing power-relations, but also because of certain deep-rooted Buddhist beliefs.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00856401.2017.1279727?scroll=top&needAccess=true