Buddhism in Central Asia III. Impacts of Non-Buddhist Influences, Doctrines, edited by Lewis Doney, Carmen Meinert, Henrik H. Sørensen, 1–10. Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2024
Buddhism in Central Asia III. Impacts of Non-Buddhist Influences, Doctrines, edited by Lewis Doney, Carmen Meinert, Henrik H. Sørensen, and Yukiyo Kasai, 350–372. Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2024
With the rise of Amoghavajra (705–774, Chin. Bukong 不空), Esoteric Buddhism (Chin. mijiao 密教) expe... more With the rise of Amoghavajra (705–774, Chin. Bukong 不空), Esoteric Buddhism (Chin. mijiao 密教) experienced a heyday under Tang Dynasty (618–907, 唐) rule. This Buddhist tradition was transmitted not only within that dynasty’s territory but also in neighbouring regions. In Dunhuang (敦煌), at the westernmost boundary of the Tang Empire, numerous texts found among the hoard of manuscripts in Cave 17 evidence that this Buddhist tradition attracted great interest there, too. Dunhuang was closely connected with its neighbours, such that Esoteric Buddhism was likely transmitted throughout Central Asia, including in Turfan. Many previous studies on Buddhism in Turfan, which was under Uyghur rule at the time, primarily dealt with the Uyghur’s Buddhist worship and did not highlight the transmission of Esoteric Buddhism from Dunhuang to Turfan. This absence resulted from a lack of materials showing Esoteric Buddhism flourishing among the Uyghurs. This paper takes Old Uyghur expressions corresponding to the Chinese Buddhist term wuti toudi/wulun toudi (五體投地/五輪投地) ‘to throw five limbs to the ground’ as a case study that shows the possible transmission of Esoteric Buddhism to a few Uyghur translators during the pre-Mongolian period.
The exchanges between Manichaeism and Buddhism are one of the mostdiscussed topics in the religio... more The exchanges between Manichaeism and Buddhism are one of the mostdiscussed topics in the religious study of Central Asia. Old Uyghur materials are often used in these discussions because the Uyghurs experienced the religious shift from Manichaeism to Buddhism. The sources attest that Manichaean and Buddhist communities co-existed under Uyghur rule, although the period of coexistence was limited. Thus, the texts produced in that period could show traces of exchange between these two religious communities. Previous studies, however, concentrate on the religious exchanges and do not consider the Uyghurs' literary tradition, their historical background, and the language development in Old Uyghur. This paper reexamines the materials cited in previous studies, reconsiders exchanges between the two religious communities under Uyghur rule, and addresses the results of this survey.
The Syntax of Colophons. A Comparative Study across Pothi Manuscripts, 2022
Two different Buddhist traditions played an essential role in introducing Buddhism to the Uyghurs... more Two different Buddhist traditions played an essential role in introducing Buddhism to the Uyghurs-the Tocharian and the Chinese-both of which cultivated their respective Buddhist cultures in the Turfan area. Gradually, the Uyghurs learned increasingly more of Chinese Buddhist culture, due to a close diplomatic relationship the neighbouring oasis state of Dunhuang (敦煌), and the majority of Old Uyghur Buddhist texts were translated from Chinese. However, Old Uyghur book forms and donor colophons show that the Uyghurs did not simply imitate Chinese Buddhist culture. Instead, they developed their own book and manuscript culture from a diverse context, drawing elements from the region's various Buddhist traditions. Moreover, traces even of an Iranian influence can be perceived in the Buddhist colophons-transmitted via Manichaeism.
Various religions were transmitted through the Silk Roads, a famous system of trade routes. For t... more Various religions were transmitted through the Silk Roads, a famous system of trade routes. For this transmission, the Iranian speakers played a vital role. They travelled on the Silk Roads, migrating and establishing colonies alongside their trade networks and leading to the geographical expansion of their activity fields. Because of their vast activities, some Iranian languages are counted as a lingua franca, or the shared language for communication, on the Silk Roads. The Iranian speakers adhered to Buddhism, Christianity (Church of the East), Islam, Manichaeism, or Zoroastrianism. Some kept the religious practices of their homeland in these newly established colonies, while others converted to the local dominant religions. At times, their religious activities resulted in dynamic changes for themselves and their exchange partners whilst, at other times, they led to the establishment of new traditions which became stabilised within their settled communities.
The art objects and written sources found in the Turfan area show the devout worship of various b... more The art objects and written sources found in the Turfan area show the devout worship of various bodhisattvas by the Buddhists who lived in this region. The Uyghurs were undoubtedly one of the most influential groups there. Chinese Buddhist impact from Dunhuang became an essential factor for the Uyghurs after most of them converted to Buddhism. Some scriptural sources in Old Uyghur had a close relationship with their Chinese versions widespread in Dunhuang. Thus, there were exchanges between Buddhist communities in Dunhuang and Turfan through which some buddha and bodhisattva cults were probably shared. One of those cults was that of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. In Dunhuang, one has both written and figurative sources that show the relevance of the Avalokiteśvara cult. Significantly, the Chinese prayer texts describe Avalokiteśvara as a saviour from diseases and guide to paradise. In Turfan, on the contrary, the written sources in Old Uyghur neither focus on the cult nor refer to any of this bodhisattva’s roles mentioned above, although many banner paintings in Turfan were devoted to Avalokiteśvara. The gap of this bodhisattva’s appearance in the written and artistic sources from Turfan is thought to be due to that both Uyghurs and Chinese involved in Buddhist activities. The cult of Avalokiteśvara, which was strongly impacted by Chinese Buddhism, was probably represented in both the Chinese Buddhist community in Turfan and the Uyghur Buddhists, who had a close connection to that community.
Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 2022
Talismans are one of the most popular mediums for fulfilling various needs which are familiar in ... more Talismans are one of the most popular mediums for fulfilling various needs which are familiar in daily life. The use of Buddhist talismans is often discussed in connection with the influence of Esoteric Buddhism. The Uyghurs, a Turkish speaking tribe, can also be counted among those who had a custom of using talismans. They established their kingdom in Central Asia in the second half of the 9th century and became Buddhists there by degree. This kingdom had a close relationship with its neighbouring oasis Dunhuang (敦煌), where unique Buddhist texts containing talisman images have been found. By comparison with those Chinese texts, some of the talisman images in Old Uyghur texts have been identified and they indicate the influence of Esoteric Buddhism among the Uyghurs in daily life.
Beşbalıklı Şingko Şeli Tutung Anısına Uluslararası Eski Uygurca Çalıştayı Bildirileri, 4–6 Haziran 2011, Ankara [Papers of the International Workshop Old Uighur Studies in Memory of Şingko Şeli Tutung from Beşbalık, June 4–6. 2011, Ankara],, Ankara: Türk Dil Kurumu, 283–290., 2022
One of the important topics which Prof. Masahiro Shōgaito intensively worked on was the Old Uyghu... more One of the important topics which Prof. Masahiro Shōgaito intensively worked on was the Old Uyghur Abhidharma texts. He already identified several texts belonging to this genre. Recently amongst the Old Uyghur Buddhist texts in which Brāhmī script was partly used further Abhidharma texts were identified. The fragment Ch/U 8159[T III 62] (MIK 030514) can also be counted as one of them. In this fragment the relevant Buddhist terminology dvādaśa-astaṅga pratītyasamutpāda was discussed as the main topic and various theses were quoted. The existence of further Abhidharma texts in Old Uyghur indicates that those texts were intensively studied at least by certain groups of the Uyghur Buddhists.
Once Mt. Wutai, or Five-Peak-Mountain, was recognised as the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī’s domicile in t... more Once Mt. Wutai, or Five-Peak-Mountain, was recognised as the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī’s domicile in this world, that mountain became a popular pilgrimage destination in China. During the Tang period, the special status of that bodhisattva as state protector was reinforced through the Tang emperors’ Buddhist legitimation strategies, and the mountain enjoyed prosperity under royal patronage. Over time, the flourishing Mañjuśrī cult at Mt. Wutai was transmitted to Eastern and Central Asia. Some rulers in Eastern and Central Asia who legitimated their rule in Buddhist contexts seem to have been aware of the special status of the Mañjuśrī cult at Mt. Wutai for themselves and their states. However, the Uyghur rulers seem to have differed because they relied upon non-Buddhist legitimation strategies. The Mañjuśrī cult at Mt. Wutai flourished among Uyghur Buddhists during the Mongolian period. In that period, pilgrims from various regions, including the Uyghurs, visited the mountain. The activities of those pilgrims spread information about the Mañjuśrī cult at Mt. Wutai throughout Eastern and Central Asia.
Buddhism in Central Asia I - Patronage, Legitimation, Sacred Space, and Pilgrimage, edited by Carmen Meinert & Henrik H. Sørensen, 2020
In the middle of the 8th century, Uyghurs, a Turkic speaking nomadic tribe, established their Emp... more In the middle of the 8th century, Uyghurs, a Turkic speaking nomadic tribe, established their Empire, the East Uyghur Kaganate (ca. 744–840), in Mongo- lia. After the demise of this Kaganate, most of them moved into the eastern part of the Tianshan (天山) area, where they founded a new kingdom, the West Uyghur Kingdom (second half 9th c.–13th c.). This kingdom continued to exist even after the rise of Činggiz Khan (1162?–1227), to whom the Uyghur king at that time voluntarily submitted. Throughout this extended period, the Uy- ghurs experienced many cultural, religious, and political changes that had an impact on representations of their rulers’ power. This chapter discusses how the Uyghur rulers officially tried to legitimate their power based on their differ- ent beliefs and political relationships.
Buddhism in Central Asia III. Impacts of Non-Buddhist Influences, Doctrines, edited by Lewis Doney, Carmen Meinert, Henrik H. Sørensen, 1–10. Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2024
Buddhism in Central Asia III. Impacts of Non-Buddhist Influences, Doctrines, edited by Lewis Doney, Carmen Meinert, Henrik H. Sørensen, and Yukiyo Kasai, 350–372. Leiden, Boston: Brill, 2024
With the rise of Amoghavajra (705–774, Chin. Bukong 不空), Esoteric Buddhism (Chin. mijiao 密教) expe... more With the rise of Amoghavajra (705–774, Chin. Bukong 不空), Esoteric Buddhism (Chin. mijiao 密教) experienced a heyday under Tang Dynasty (618–907, 唐) rule. This Buddhist tradition was transmitted not only within that dynasty’s territory but also in neighbouring regions. In Dunhuang (敦煌), at the westernmost boundary of the Tang Empire, numerous texts found among the hoard of manuscripts in Cave 17 evidence that this Buddhist tradition attracted great interest there, too. Dunhuang was closely connected with its neighbours, such that Esoteric Buddhism was likely transmitted throughout Central Asia, including in Turfan. Many previous studies on Buddhism in Turfan, which was under Uyghur rule at the time, primarily dealt with the Uyghur’s Buddhist worship and did not highlight the transmission of Esoteric Buddhism from Dunhuang to Turfan. This absence resulted from a lack of materials showing Esoteric Buddhism flourishing among the Uyghurs. This paper takes Old Uyghur expressions corresponding to the Chinese Buddhist term wuti toudi/wulun toudi (五體投地/五輪投地) ‘to throw five limbs to the ground’ as a case study that shows the possible transmission of Esoteric Buddhism to a few Uyghur translators during the pre-Mongolian period.
The exchanges between Manichaeism and Buddhism are one of the mostdiscussed topics in the religio... more The exchanges between Manichaeism and Buddhism are one of the mostdiscussed topics in the religious study of Central Asia. Old Uyghur materials are often used in these discussions because the Uyghurs experienced the religious shift from Manichaeism to Buddhism. The sources attest that Manichaean and Buddhist communities co-existed under Uyghur rule, although the period of coexistence was limited. Thus, the texts produced in that period could show traces of exchange between these two religious communities. Previous studies, however, concentrate on the religious exchanges and do not consider the Uyghurs' literary tradition, their historical background, and the language development in Old Uyghur. This paper reexamines the materials cited in previous studies, reconsiders exchanges between the two religious communities under Uyghur rule, and addresses the results of this survey.
The Syntax of Colophons. A Comparative Study across Pothi Manuscripts, 2022
Two different Buddhist traditions played an essential role in introducing Buddhism to the Uyghurs... more Two different Buddhist traditions played an essential role in introducing Buddhism to the Uyghurs-the Tocharian and the Chinese-both of which cultivated their respective Buddhist cultures in the Turfan area. Gradually, the Uyghurs learned increasingly more of Chinese Buddhist culture, due to a close diplomatic relationship the neighbouring oasis state of Dunhuang (敦煌), and the majority of Old Uyghur Buddhist texts were translated from Chinese. However, Old Uyghur book forms and donor colophons show that the Uyghurs did not simply imitate Chinese Buddhist culture. Instead, they developed their own book and manuscript culture from a diverse context, drawing elements from the region's various Buddhist traditions. Moreover, traces even of an Iranian influence can be perceived in the Buddhist colophons-transmitted via Manichaeism.
Various religions were transmitted through the Silk Roads, a famous system of trade routes. For t... more Various religions were transmitted through the Silk Roads, a famous system of trade routes. For this transmission, the Iranian speakers played a vital role. They travelled on the Silk Roads, migrating and establishing colonies alongside their trade networks and leading to the geographical expansion of their activity fields. Because of their vast activities, some Iranian languages are counted as a lingua franca, or the shared language for communication, on the Silk Roads. The Iranian speakers adhered to Buddhism, Christianity (Church of the East), Islam, Manichaeism, or Zoroastrianism. Some kept the religious practices of their homeland in these newly established colonies, while others converted to the local dominant religions. At times, their religious activities resulted in dynamic changes for themselves and their exchange partners whilst, at other times, they led to the establishment of new traditions which became stabilised within their settled communities.
The art objects and written sources found in the Turfan area show the devout worship of various b... more The art objects and written sources found in the Turfan area show the devout worship of various bodhisattvas by the Buddhists who lived in this region. The Uyghurs were undoubtedly one of the most influential groups there. Chinese Buddhist impact from Dunhuang became an essential factor for the Uyghurs after most of them converted to Buddhism. Some scriptural sources in Old Uyghur had a close relationship with their Chinese versions widespread in Dunhuang. Thus, there were exchanges between Buddhist communities in Dunhuang and Turfan through which some buddha and bodhisattva cults were probably shared. One of those cults was that of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. In Dunhuang, one has both written and figurative sources that show the relevance of the Avalokiteśvara cult. Significantly, the Chinese prayer texts describe Avalokiteśvara as a saviour from diseases and guide to paradise. In Turfan, on the contrary, the written sources in Old Uyghur neither focus on the cult nor refer to any of this bodhisattva’s roles mentioned above, although many banner paintings in Turfan were devoted to Avalokiteśvara. The gap of this bodhisattva’s appearance in the written and artistic sources from Turfan is thought to be due to that both Uyghurs and Chinese involved in Buddhist activities. The cult of Avalokiteśvara, which was strongly impacted by Chinese Buddhism, was probably represented in both the Chinese Buddhist community in Turfan and the Uyghur Buddhists, who had a close connection to that community.
Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 2022
Talismans are one of the most popular mediums for fulfilling various needs which are familiar in ... more Talismans are one of the most popular mediums for fulfilling various needs which are familiar in daily life. The use of Buddhist talismans is often discussed in connection with the influence of Esoteric Buddhism. The Uyghurs, a Turkish speaking tribe, can also be counted among those who had a custom of using talismans. They established their kingdom in Central Asia in the second half of the 9th century and became Buddhists there by degree. This kingdom had a close relationship with its neighbouring oasis Dunhuang (敦煌), where unique Buddhist texts containing talisman images have been found. By comparison with those Chinese texts, some of the talisman images in Old Uyghur texts have been identified and they indicate the influence of Esoteric Buddhism among the Uyghurs in daily life.
Beşbalıklı Şingko Şeli Tutung Anısına Uluslararası Eski Uygurca Çalıştayı Bildirileri, 4–6 Haziran 2011, Ankara [Papers of the International Workshop Old Uighur Studies in Memory of Şingko Şeli Tutung from Beşbalık, June 4–6. 2011, Ankara],, Ankara: Türk Dil Kurumu, 283–290., 2022
One of the important topics which Prof. Masahiro Shōgaito intensively worked on was the Old Uyghu... more One of the important topics which Prof. Masahiro Shōgaito intensively worked on was the Old Uyghur Abhidharma texts. He already identified several texts belonging to this genre. Recently amongst the Old Uyghur Buddhist texts in which Brāhmī script was partly used further Abhidharma texts were identified. The fragment Ch/U 8159[T III 62] (MIK 030514) can also be counted as one of them. In this fragment the relevant Buddhist terminology dvādaśa-astaṅga pratītyasamutpāda was discussed as the main topic and various theses were quoted. The existence of further Abhidharma texts in Old Uyghur indicates that those texts were intensively studied at least by certain groups of the Uyghur Buddhists.
Once Mt. Wutai, or Five-Peak-Mountain, was recognised as the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī’s domicile in t... more Once Mt. Wutai, or Five-Peak-Mountain, was recognised as the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī’s domicile in this world, that mountain became a popular pilgrimage destination in China. During the Tang period, the special status of that bodhisattva as state protector was reinforced through the Tang emperors’ Buddhist legitimation strategies, and the mountain enjoyed prosperity under royal patronage. Over time, the flourishing Mañjuśrī cult at Mt. Wutai was transmitted to Eastern and Central Asia. Some rulers in Eastern and Central Asia who legitimated their rule in Buddhist contexts seem to have been aware of the special status of the Mañjuśrī cult at Mt. Wutai for themselves and their states. However, the Uyghur rulers seem to have differed because they relied upon non-Buddhist legitimation strategies. The Mañjuśrī cult at Mt. Wutai flourished among Uyghur Buddhists during the Mongolian period. In that period, pilgrims from various regions, including the Uyghurs, visited the mountain. The activities of those pilgrims spread information about the Mañjuśrī cult at Mt. Wutai throughout Eastern and Central Asia.
Buddhism in Central Asia I - Patronage, Legitimation, Sacred Space, and Pilgrimage, edited by Carmen Meinert & Henrik H. Sørensen, 2020
In the middle of the 8th century, Uyghurs, a Turkic speaking nomadic tribe, established their Emp... more In the middle of the 8th century, Uyghurs, a Turkic speaking nomadic tribe, established their Empire, the East Uyghur Kaganate (ca. 744–840), in Mongo- lia. After the demise of this Kaganate, most of them moved into the eastern part of the Tianshan (天山) area, where they founded a new kingdom, the West Uyghur Kingdom (second half 9th c.–13th c.). This kingdom continued to exist even after the rise of Činggiz Khan (1162?–1227), to whom the Uyghur king at that time voluntarily submitted. Throughout this extended period, the Uy- ghurs experienced many cultural, religious, and political changes that had an impact on representations of their rulers’ power. This chapter discusses how the Uyghur rulers officially tried to legitimate their power based on their differ- ent beliefs and political relationships.
Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 109, 2019
a book review on Siglinde Dietz, Mehmet Ölmez, Klaus Röhrborn: Die Alttürkische Xuanzang-Biograph... more a book review on Siglinde Dietz, Mehmet Ölmez, Klaus Röhrborn: Die Alttürkische Xuanzang-Biographie V. Nach der Handschrift von Paris und St. Petersburg sowie nach dem Transkript von Annemarie v. Gabain ediert, übersetzt und kommentiert, which was published in 2015 in Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
Iranian speakers had their homeland in Central Asia, some of them are known as the dominating tra... more Iranian speakers had their homeland in Central Asia, some of them are known as the dominating traders on the Silk Road up to China. Through their trade activities they came in contact with various religions—Zoroastrianism, Manichaeism, Buddhism and Christianity. Because of their religious diversity, they often played a major role as the cultural intermediaries in Central and Eastern Asia and the contact with them often triggered dynamic change for several ethnic groups. Iranian speakers were also impacted by others in their religious orientation.
Since their activities covered wide geographical regions and periods, this special issue aims to offer a platform for discussion between scholars from Europe and Asia from various fields. The exchange of new sources will shed new light on Iranian speaker’s activities and their religious situation.
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Papers by Yukiyo Kasai
Since their activities covered wide geographical regions and periods, this special issue aims to offer a platform for discussion between scholars from Europe and Asia from various fields. The exchange of new sources will shed new light on Iranian speaker’s activities and their religious situation.
The special issue is available in online: https://er.ceres.rub.de/index.php/ER/issue/view/191