Jimmyn Parc is an associate professor at the University of Malaya, Malaysia. Prior to joining the University of Malaya, he was a visiting lecturer at Sciences Po Paris, France and a researcher at the Institute of Communication Research, Seoul National University. He received a Ph.D. in international studies (with focus on international business and strategy) from the Graduate School of International Studies (GSIS), Seoul National University, Korea and another in economic history from the University of Paris-Sorbonne (Paris IV), France. He has published numerous academic articles and conducted several research projects related to the competitiveness of organizations, industries, and countries. His current research focuses on cultural industries in Asia and Europe, which includes films and music; currently they are at critical juncture in the midst of a changing business and trade environment as well as new challenges in the form of digitization. Professor Parc is also the co-author of The Untold Story of the Korean Film Industry: A Global Business and Economic Perspective, which was published by Palgrave Macmillan in 2021.
A common perception is that a strong copyright regime protects cultural diversity and creativity;... more A common perception is that a strong copyright regime protects cultural diversity and creativity; thus, it should be well developed, implemented, and respected. However, this belief may be different for certain industries or countries. In other words, strong copyright may not bring about a positive impact as expected whereas weak copyright can bring about positive impacts contrary to one’s expectations, which is different from the conventional belief on copyright. This paper explores this issue with the Korea music industry. Although this industry has recently enjoyed global popularity with K-pop, it was lesser-developed as it endured many difficulties over several decades. By comparing and analyzing these two contrasting periods, the case of the Korean music industry demonstrates that both weak and strong copyright has helped with its development. This interesting case can provide meaningful implications regarding the practice and development of copyright and its impact on the growth of the music industry, particularly in the era of digitization.
The Journal of Arts Management, Law, and Society, 2022
There is a widespread belief that the higher the level of subsidies, the better the performance o... more There is a widespread belief that the higher the level of subsidies, the better the performance of film industries (both in quantity and quality). This article focuses on film quality—evaluated by audiences and critics—and scrutinizes this assumption through four selected countries—France, Korea, UK, and US. The main findings of this article are summarized through two points. First, despite the Korean film industry receiving the lowest level of public support, its film quality is higher than that of other selected countries. Second, the impact of subsidies on film quality turns out to be positive for the French, UK, and US films while it is negative or nil for Korean films. Although these results reflect partly differences in the background of each film industry and its public support in the four countries, they suggest that the effectiveness of subsidies and enhancement of film quality can be best achieved by better designing the subsidy schemes—not by increasing their amount.
Depuis quelques années, films et séries télévisées coréens connaissent des succès mondiaux, comme... more Depuis quelques années, films et séries télévisées coréens connaissent des succès mondiaux, comme en témoignent Parasite (2019), Squid Game (2021) et Decision to Leave (2022) ainsi que la reconnaissance dont jouissent, par exemple, les acteurs Youn Yuh-Jung et Song Kang-Ho. Ces succès sont souvent perçus comme des cas exceptionnels reflétant les qualités individuelles des réalisateurs et des acteurs. Ils sont rarement compris pour ce qu’ils sont aussi : les fruits d’une industrie devenue puissante parce que capable de saisir et de combiner rapidement les opportunités économiques et culturelles qui s’offrent à elle. Le développement de cette industrie et les politiques qui ont permis sa forte croissance font le sujet de cet article.
In recent years, there have been many voices in Korea arguing that a few commercially successful ... more In recent years, there have been many voices in Korea arguing that a few commercially successful films take up the opportunities for the exhibition of other films and thus limit the selection of titles available for moviegoers, a trend dubbed the "screen monopoly". In seeking a solution, a number of scholars have looked to the anti-screen monopoly "regulations" in France, but without providing rigorous or persuasive evidence. By comparing the appropriate variables of Korea and France, this paper argues that the Korean film market is less monopolised than France despite the non-existence of these regulations. Furthermore, it demonstrates that Korea has more diversity than France. As a result, this paper concludes that introducing the French antiscreen monopoly regulations in Korea does not seem a beneficial option. The findings in this paper suggest a strong need to reexamine the effectiveness of government policies in the cultural industry.
Hollywood studios have actively sought to export more films to China in order to benefit from its... more Hollywood studios have actively sought to export more films to China in order to benefit from its huge film market. Facing this expansion, the Chinese government has introduced quotas in order to restrict the market access of foreign films while protecting its domestic film industry and preserving Chinese values. Nonetheless, this protectionism has brought about an unexpected effect; a limited number of Hollywood films in China have been able to attract large audiences and even exert a strong influence upon society. This paper examines how this paradox has been possible. First, it compares the level of China's overall protectionism with other countries. Second, China's two main policy instruments in the domestic market are scrutinized: import quota (buy-out and revenue-sharing models) and screen quota. In revealing their true effects, this paper demonstrates that these instruments of protection have produced unexpected negative business practices that foster rather favorable conditions for US films in China which is contrary to what the Chinese government is seeking to achieve. This paper did not incorporate data from 2020 and beyond due to the disruption caused by the COVID-19 global pandemic.
In 2018, the European Parliament passed legislation that would require streaming platforms to hos... more In 2018, the European Parliament passed legislation that would require streaming platforms to host at least 30 percent European local content as well as contribute to the development of European audiovisual productions. This law was passed in the hope that it would enhance cultural diversity within the region’s audiovisual sector. By taking a closer look at the Netflix series Emily in Paris, this paper examines the true impact of these policy measures. The research suggests that, although passed with good intentions, they are ineffective as the definition of “European content” is not clear. Furthermore, these two measures are contradictory as they ignore the quality aspect of content which is the crucial ingredient for success. Therefore, the European Union should reconsider the way in which it categorizes European content or at least revise the laws on funding European productions.
This paper argues that the impact of Hallyu (the Korean Wave) on the Korean economy has only been... more This paper argues that the impact of Hallyu (the Korean Wave) on the Korean economy has only been effective in boosting related sectors, such as cosmetics, fashion, and tourism. Interestingly, the Korean government has tried to take credit for the emergence of the Korean Wave and has exaggerated its economic impact while publicizing its "contribution." The economic benefits of such nation branding based on Korean cultural contents have been largely offset by the government's actions that have made cultural contents a target during diplomatic conflicts. The analysis in this paper leads to the following conclusions. First, much of government support is mistargeted and ineffective due to lack of transparency. Second, the government has intervened more in cultural industries as the subsidies it provided increased its stake in this sector. Third, the media and academics report and study the government's supposed contribution to increase their revenues and advance their careers. These factors have created vested interests that benefit from government support for cultural industries, creating a vicious circle that further boosts such support. This paper argues that businesses and artists should be credited with the emergence of the Korean Wave. The government should instead focus on fostering a business-friendly environment that enables companies to further advance Korea's cultural industries to a truly global level.
A common perception is that a strong copyright regime protects cultural diversity and creativity;... more A common perception is that a strong copyright regime protects cultural diversity and creativity; thus, it should be well developed, implemented, and respected. However, this belief may be different for certain industries or countries. In other words, strong copyright may not bring about a positive impact as expected whereas weak copyright can bring about positive impacts contrary to one’s expectations, which is different from the conventional belief on copyright. This paper explores this issue with the Korea music industry. Although this industry has recently enjoyed global popularity with K-pop, it was lesser-developed as it endured many difficulties over several decades. By comparing and analyzing these two contrasting periods, the case of the Korean music industry demonstrates that both weak and strong copyright has helped with its development. This interesting case can provide meaningful implications regarding the practice and development of copyright and its impact on the growth of the music industry, particularly in the era of digitization.
The Journal of Arts Management, Law, and Society, 2022
There is a widespread belief that the higher the level of subsidies, the better the performance o... more There is a widespread belief that the higher the level of subsidies, the better the performance of film industries (both in quantity and quality). This article focuses on film quality—evaluated by audiences and critics—and scrutinizes this assumption through four selected countries—France, Korea, UK, and US. The main findings of this article are summarized through two points. First, despite the Korean film industry receiving the lowest level of public support, its film quality is higher than that of other selected countries. Second, the impact of subsidies on film quality turns out to be positive for the French, UK, and US films while it is negative or nil for Korean films. Although these results reflect partly differences in the background of each film industry and its public support in the four countries, they suggest that the effectiveness of subsidies and enhancement of film quality can be best achieved by better designing the subsidy schemes—not by increasing their amount.
Depuis quelques années, films et séries télévisées coréens connaissent des succès mondiaux, comme... more Depuis quelques années, films et séries télévisées coréens connaissent des succès mondiaux, comme en témoignent Parasite (2019), Squid Game (2021) et Decision to Leave (2022) ainsi que la reconnaissance dont jouissent, par exemple, les acteurs Youn Yuh-Jung et Song Kang-Ho. Ces succès sont souvent perçus comme des cas exceptionnels reflétant les qualités individuelles des réalisateurs et des acteurs. Ils sont rarement compris pour ce qu’ils sont aussi : les fruits d’une industrie devenue puissante parce que capable de saisir et de combiner rapidement les opportunités économiques et culturelles qui s’offrent à elle. Le développement de cette industrie et les politiques qui ont permis sa forte croissance font le sujet de cet article.
In recent years, there have been many voices in Korea arguing that a few commercially successful ... more In recent years, there have been many voices in Korea arguing that a few commercially successful films take up the opportunities for the exhibition of other films and thus limit the selection of titles available for moviegoers, a trend dubbed the "screen monopoly". In seeking a solution, a number of scholars have looked to the anti-screen monopoly "regulations" in France, but without providing rigorous or persuasive evidence. By comparing the appropriate variables of Korea and France, this paper argues that the Korean film market is less monopolised than France despite the non-existence of these regulations. Furthermore, it demonstrates that Korea has more diversity than France. As a result, this paper concludes that introducing the French antiscreen monopoly regulations in Korea does not seem a beneficial option. The findings in this paper suggest a strong need to reexamine the effectiveness of government policies in the cultural industry.
Hollywood studios have actively sought to export more films to China in order to benefit from its... more Hollywood studios have actively sought to export more films to China in order to benefit from its huge film market. Facing this expansion, the Chinese government has introduced quotas in order to restrict the market access of foreign films while protecting its domestic film industry and preserving Chinese values. Nonetheless, this protectionism has brought about an unexpected effect; a limited number of Hollywood films in China have been able to attract large audiences and even exert a strong influence upon society. This paper examines how this paradox has been possible. First, it compares the level of China's overall protectionism with other countries. Second, China's two main policy instruments in the domestic market are scrutinized: import quota (buy-out and revenue-sharing models) and screen quota. In revealing their true effects, this paper demonstrates that these instruments of protection have produced unexpected negative business practices that foster rather favorable conditions for US films in China which is contrary to what the Chinese government is seeking to achieve. This paper did not incorporate data from 2020 and beyond due to the disruption caused by the COVID-19 global pandemic.
In 2018, the European Parliament passed legislation that would require streaming platforms to hos... more In 2018, the European Parliament passed legislation that would require streaming platforms to host at least 30 percent European local content as well as contribute to the development of European audiovisual productions. This law was passed in the hope that it would enhance cultural diversity within the region’s audiovisual sector. By taking a closer look at the Netflix series Emily in Paris, this paper examines the true impact of these policy measures. The research suggests that, although passed with good intentions, they are ineffective as the definition of “European content” is not clear. Furthermore, these two measures are contradictory as they ignore the quality aspect of content which is the crucial ingredient for success. Therefore, the European Union should reconsider the way in which it categorizes European content or at least revise the laws on funding European productions.
This paper argues that the impact of Hallyu (the Korean Wave) on the Korean economy has only been... more This paper argues that the impact of Hallyu (the Korean Wave) on the Korean economy has only been effective in boosting related sectors, such as cosmetics, fashion, and tourism. Interestingly, the Korean government has tried to take credit for the emergence of the Korean Wave and has exaggerated its economic impact while publicizing its "contribution." The economic benefits of such nation branding based on Korean cultural contents have been largely offset by the government's actions that have made cultural contents a target during diplomatic conflicts. The analysis in this paper leads to the following conclusions. First, much of government support is mistargeted and ineffective due to lack of transparency. Second, the government has intervened more in cultural industries as the subsidies it provided increased its stake in this sector. Third, the media and academics report and study the government's supposed contribution to increase their revenues and advance their careers. These factors have created vested interests that benefit from government support for cultural industries, creating a vicious circle that further boosts such support. This paper argues that businesses and artists should be credited with the emergence of the Korean Wave. The government should instead focus on fostering a business-friendly environment that enables companies to further advance Korea's cultural industries to a truly global level.
Creative Context: Creativity and Innovation in the Media and Cultural Industries, 2020
There have been a number of voices calling for the implementation of a tighter copyrights regime ... more There have been a number of voices calling for the implementation of a tighter copyrights regime in this era of digitization that will help deter the copying of established works. Such an approach though is counterproductive. Although imitation is often considered as a negative practice in our time, throughout history it has been perceived very differently. This chapter focuses on the true role of imitation and reveals the real nature of the relationship between copying, creativity, and diversity. It argues that contrary to prevailing beliefs, imitation and copying do not restrict cultural creativity or diversity but in fact support them further. The findings of this chapter suggest that imitation within the copyrights regime should be carefully reconsidered and that maybe the core issue is about earnings, rather than cultural creativity or diversity.
Potential Benefits of an Australia-EU Free Trade Agreement: Key Issues and Options, 2018
Free trade agreements (FTAs) aim to achieve further economic development for the participants. In... more Free trade agreements (FTAs) aim to achieve further economic development for the participants. In this respect, the opportunities offered to the European Union (EU) by an Australia-EU FTA are crucial for Europe’s economic future. This is further highlighted by two situations and their consequent effects on the EU economy: (1) the United Kingdom’s exit from the EU (Brexit) and (2) the United States’ hesitations regarding the EU’s global strategy. This chapter argues that the Australia-EU FTA will result in positive effects in the EU for two main reasons. First, Australia is attractive because of its high-quality economic governance—the authors argue that governance is the most important issue in the long run for a mutually beneficial FTA that covers regulation-intensive topics such as technical barriers to trade and services. Second, as Australia has deep political and economic relations with East and South-East Asian countries, the Australia-EU FTA should be used as a key instrument in the EU strategy towards Asian countries with great potential and rapidly growing economies.
Potential Benefits of an Australia-EU Free Trade Agreement: Key Issues and Options, 2018
This chapter covers audio-visual services in the Australia-EU Free Trade Agreement (FTA). It show... more This chapter covers audio-visual services in the Australia-EU Free Trade Agreement (FTA). It shows that the Australian film market has potential—demand size, cultural diversity, supply size—to attract the EU film industry, and hence to envisage negotiations favourably. An overview is presented of audio-visual provisions in the FTAs concluded to-date by Australia and the EU. The level of protection granted by existing Australian and EU regulatory barriers is assessed. The chapter argues that the Australia-EU FTA negotiators should seek to increase market access by improving the provisions on co-production that exist in the Australia-Korea and Korea-EU FTAs. These provisions have the merit not only of reducing the remaining regulatory barriers, but also of offering some opportunities to address the problems raised by large and increasing subsidies: subsidies are fast becoming the most important global problem facing the film industries.
This chapter assesses whether Korean film policies have been instrumental for the success of the ... more This chapter assesses whether Korean film policies have been instrumental for the success of the Korean film industry. The major finding of this analysis is that protectionist policies in the film industry have played an insignificant role. First, the import quota regime did not limit the size of the Korean audiences that watched foreign films, but rather strongly induced Korean filmmakers to produce poor quality movies. Second, the screen quota system has not ensured that the domestic audience will watch these movies. Finally, the subsidy policy was barely noticeable before the late 1990s and is now too late and too small to be credited for any significant impact on the success of the Korean film industry which began from the early 1990s. The results of this chapter suggest that business activities under market-friendly conditions are the key factor toward enhancing competitiveness of the film industry. Furthermore, it recommends that policymakers in other countries review their own policies that advocate protectionism as a way to make their film industry more competitive and attractive.
Corporate Espionage, Geopolitics, and Diplomacy Issues in International Business, 2016
Today's mantra in many political and business circles is that stringent copyrights are needed for... more Today's mantra in many political and business circles is that stringent copyrights are needed for fostering cultural creativity and that piracy is the greatest obstacle toward creativity. If that were true, the success of Korean pop music or K-pop should never have occurred. This chapter seeks to explain this apparent paradox through three steps. First, today's mantra has little basis. Most of the existing world culture has been created without copyrights, and economic analysis stresses that stringent copyrights exacerbate monopolistic behavior that suffocates cultural. Second, this chapter analyzes the competitiveness of the current K-pop scene that has little relationship with stringent copyright regulations. Third, the same approach is utilized in order to demonstrate a fascinating relationship between the competitiveness gaining process and piracy suggesting that piracy actually helped the development and competitiveness of K-pop. The main lesson of this chapter is that only " well-balanced " copyright regulations are friendly to cultural creativity.
The European Centre for International Political Economy (ECIPE) is pleased to announce a call for... more The European Centre for International Political Economy (ECIPE) is pleased to announce a call for papers on the film industries and policies in Asia-Pacific countries. Selected papers will be published in a special issue of a Social Sciences Citation Index (Clarivate Analytics) journal and authors of these papers will also be invited to a conference organized by ECIPE where they will have the opportunity to present their work.
Topic for the Special Issue and Conference Europe, like many regions in the world, is faced with the growing dominance of Hollywood films and US media service providers like Netflix and Amazon Prime. In response, a number of European countries have developed various measures to protect their film and media industries. These efforts have all been pursued under the name of cultural diversity and creativity, specifically as part of the Diversity of Cultural Expression as advocated by UNESCO. Yet, despite these protectionist measures, Europe’s cultural industries have not shown any significant improvement in their attractiveness nor have they achieved any true cultural diversity. By contrast, the film industries in several Asian countries, such as China, Japan, Korea, and India, have demonstrated better results while also facing the same pressures. How to assess and explain these achievements and what is the key to their strong showing? At the same time, not all countries in Asia have enjoyed such success. A few in the region have only been able to display a limited performance on par with their European counterparts. It would be meaningful here to examine why this is the case.
In this regard, this special issue will seek to analyze the way Asia-Pacific countries have reacted to the dominance of Hollywood films by looking at both successful cases and examples of where some have underachieved. It will also explore the respective film policies of these countries. As a result, this special issue on film industries and their policies will be a meaningful contribution toward helping countries develop more effectively their film industries. This would be a step in the direction of achieving true cultural diversity where a number of film industries among diverse countries are in competition.
We welcome any papers that deal with the topics mentioned above in relation to the aims for this special issue. Please note that the topics for submitted papers must be within a specific geographical area, namely Northeast Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia & the Himalayas, and Australasia & the Pacific Islands.
This international conference aims to shed light on the phenomenon of the diffusion of Asian cult... more This international conference aims to shed light on the phenomenon of the diffusion of Asian culture in the European context, in particular on four axes of interrogation: the production of cultural goods; the political competition in the global arena for cultural hegemony; glocalization, i.e., the adaptation of production to local contexts; and reception by consumers.
The direct economic contribution of Hallyu — the ‘Korean wave’ of popular culture — is small, but... more The direct economic contribution of Hallyu — the ‘Korean wave’ of popular culture — is small, but the benefits to Korea can extend well beyond the culture industry.
Uploads
Papers by Jimmyn Parc
Topic for the Special Issue and Conference
Europe, like many regions in the world, is faced with the growing dominance of Hollywood films and US media service providers like Netflix and Amazon Prime. In response, a number of European countries have developed various measures to protect their film and media industries. These efforts have all been pursued under the name of cultural diversity and creativity, specifically as part of the Diversity of Cultural Expression as advocated by UNESCO. Yet, despite these protectionist measures, Europe’s cultural industries have not shown any significant improvement in their attractiveness nor have they achieved any true cultural diversity. By contrast, the film industries in several Asian countries, such as China, Japan, Korea, and India, have demonstrated better results while also facing the same pressures. How to assess and explain these achievements and what is the key to their strong showing? At the same time, not all countries in Asia have enjoyed such success. A few in the region have only been able to display a limited performance on par with their European counterparts. It would be meaningful here to examine why this is the case.
In this regard, this special issue will seek to analyze the way Asia-Pacific countries have reacted to the dominance of Hollywood films by looking at both successful cases and examples of where some have underachieved. It will also explore the respective film policies of these countries. As a result, this special issue on film industries and their policies will be a meaningful contribution toward helping countries develop more effectively their film industries. This would be a step in the direction of achieving true cultural diversity where a number of film industries among diverse countries are in competition.
We welcome any papers that deal with the topics mentioned above in relation to the aims for this special issue. Please note that the topics for submitted papers must be within a specific geographical area, namely Northeast Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia & the Himalayas, and Australasia & the Pacific Islands.
https://euroasie.sciencesconf.org/
Paris 14-16 December 2022