Articles by Gregory Leighton
History. The Journal of the Historical Association, 2022
The history of southern Baltic region (Prussia) from the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries has on... more The history of southern Baltic region (Prussia) from the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries has only received increased attention from ‘Western’ scholars in the last three decades. It has remained peripheral within traditional ‘Western’ scholarship on the premodern world.
As a result, we are still left with a wide variety of questions, especially concerning the place of this area in the broader medieval world. This paper addresses two of these questions: To what extent did medieval contemporaries in Prussia know about their broader world, and the peoples within it? How were people from these regions, such as the Indian Subcontinent or Africa, depicted, understood, and communicated?
One answer lay in the literature produced by the knights in the Order. In the context of the plethora of studies on race and globality in the premodern world, the Baltic region has of yet received minimal attention. However, an investigation into the rich sources available reveals the presence in the region of the story of Barlaam and Josaphat, a Christian version of the Life of the Buddha and the first example of ‘global literature’ associated with the Middle Ages. By analysing the surviving examples in the region, this paper will place the region of Prussia within the new concept of the Global Middle Ages and reveal the perception of the southern realms of the world in one of medieval Europe’s furthest cultural outposts.
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The Routledge Handbook of East and East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 500-1300, edited by Florin Curta, 2021
This contribution outlines the general developments in the crusading movement in the Baltic zone ... more This contribution outlines the general developments in the crusading movement in the Baltic zone (Latvia, Estonia, Poland, Lithuania, and Russia) up to 1300. It discusses the spread of the crusading movement and the establishment of the military orders in the Baltic from 1147-1237. Following this, it discusses the history of the Teutonic Order, one of the main agents in the crusading movement in the region, from 1226-1300. The final section discusses newer trends in approaching the crusade movement in the Baltic, focusing on the experiences and motivations of participants.
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Studia Slavica et Balcanica Petropolitana, 2021
This article presents a study of how women (specifically nuns and abbesses) in medieval Livonia e... more This article presents a study of how women (specifically nuns and abbesses) in medieval Livonia expressed authority. Given the significant increase in accessible academic work on the crusading movement in the eastern Baltic, scholarly considerations of the visual culture of this region, and reconsiderations of the roles played by women in the medieval world in general, this article turns from the central regions of the study of Medieval Europe to the periphery. It begins by providing a historical overview of the sources, commenting on the sparsity of specific representations of women in the narrative texts for the Livonian crusades produced in the 13th century. Following this overview, it analyses the representations of women in the vast amount of charter evidence available for the study of Livonia. The first part of the article looks at the ways these institutions were patronized as a result of their intercessory authority. Looking at donations from the 13th to the 15th century, this article also comments on the ways in which private citizens, church officials, and members of the Teutonic Order viewed these intercessory powers. The second part also considers the economic authority gained by these institutions, particularly in the form of land donations. Finally, this article addresses the ways in which women of authority styled themselves in the written documents and depicted their power in the form of visual media, particularly on seals but also in the form of architecture.
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Medievalista-Online, 2021
This foreword outlines a special issue of Medievalista-Online that focuses on the history and act... more This foreword outlines a special issue of Medievalista-Online that focuses on the history and activities of the Military Orders, assessing them from a broad perspective including their foundations and material culture in the Latin East, to their properties in Spain, and their presence in Western Europe.
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Acta Historica Universitatis Klaipedensis, vol. 41 [ Aspects of Southeast Baltic Social History: The 14th to the 18th Centuries = Baltijos pietrytinės pakrantės socialinės istorijos aspektai XIV–XVIII amžiais], pp. 25-52, 2020
in the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the region of Žemaitija (Samogitia) was still conteste... more in the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the region of Žemaitija (Samogitia) was still contested between the teutonic Knights and the grand Dukes of lithuania. its conquest and conversion were the final objective of the teutonic order's campaigns in the southern Baltic region. the article assesses the language and ideology of crusading and holy war concerning the conquest of Žemaitija, as reflected in selected correspondence from the period by the teutonic order. it begins with a historical overview of the problem, along with a brief outline of the donations of Žemaitija to the teutonic Knights at the end of the 14th and the beginning of the 15th century. following this, the paper outlines the use of specific themes from the crusading movement in the 14th century in Prussia, before examining the presence (or lack thereof) of these elements concerning Žemaitija. other specific themes are identified and discussed concerning the ideological expression of the teutonic order's mission and image in its external correspondence, one being the depiction of Žemaitija as the end of Christendom (daz ende der cristenheit). this article suggests that this was an attempt to fit the conquests into a broader framework: Žemaitija was depicted as the successor to the order's earlier wars against the Prussians. finally, the article discusses the presence of this imagery in the visual culture of the ordensland, particularly in Königsberg Cathedral and its surrounding pilgrimage churches.-gy; visual culture of Prussia. anotaCija XiV a. pabaigoje-XV a. pradžioje Vokiečių ordino riteriai ir lietuvos didieji kunigaikščiai tebesivaržė dėl Žemaitijos. jos nukariavimas ir krikštas buvo Vokiečių ordino kampanijų pietiniame Baltijos jūros regione galutinis tikslas. Straipsnyje analizuojamos retorika ir ideologija, taikytos kryžiaus žygių ir šven-tojo karo metu, siekiant užkariauti Žemaitiją, ir atsiskleidžiančios šio laikotarpio Vokiečių ordino rinkti-nėje korespondencijoje. Straipsnio pradžioje pateikiama klausimo istorinė apžvalga ir užsimenama apie Žemaitijos užrašymus Vokiečių ordinui XiV a. pabaigoje ir XV a. pradžioje. toliau aptariami konkretūs siužetai, kuriuos kryžiaus žygių judėjimas eksploatavo Prūsijoje XiV a., ir gilinamasi kiek (ir ar) šie siu-žetai buvo taikomi ir Žemaitijai. Kiti konkretūs siužetai nustatyti ir aptarti nagrinėjant Vokiečių ordino misijos ir vaizdinio ideologinę raišką jo išorinėje korespondencijoje; vienas jų vaizdavo Žemaitiją kaip krikščionijos pakraštį (daz ende der cristenheit). Straipsnis suponuoja, kad tai buvo bandymas parodyti užkariavimus platesniame kontekste-Žemaitiją siekta vaizduoti kaip ankstesnių ordino karų prieš prū-sus "įpėdinę". galiausiai straipsnyje analizuojamos šios vaizduotės apraiškos Vokiečių ordino valdų Prū-sijoje vizualiojoje kultūroje, ypač Karaliaučiaus katedroje ir aplinkinėse piligrimų lankytose bažnyčiose. PagrinDiniai ŽoDŽiai: Vokiečių ordinas; Žemaitija; šventasis karas; kryžiaus žygiai Baltijos regione; vėlyvieji kryžiaus žygiai; kryžiaus žygių ideologija; Prūsijos vizualioji kultūra.
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Ephemeris Napocensis, 2019
This collaborative article provides the first in-depth analysis of the fresco of St Christopher i... more This collaborative article provides the first in-depth analysis of the fresco of St Christopher in the castle of the Teutonic Order at Lochstedt. It first contextualizes the placement of the Christopher fresco in relation to the other images in the castle, followed by a new dating of the image to c. 1420–1430, not the late fourteenth century. Based on these findings, a specific patron of the fresco emerges, Heinrich von Plauen, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order. The fresco is then analyzed within the context of Alexei Lidov’s theory of hierotopy (the creation of sacred spaces). Using the links between the iconography of the image, its popularity in late medieval Germany and the events surrounding the Heinrich von Plauen’s tenure as Grand Master, the article suggests the reasons for which Heinrich chose the image to decorate his private quarters in the castle. It concludes by demonstrating that the image of St. Christopher at Lochstedt serves as a rare example of the creation of private sacred spaces in Late Medieval Prussia.
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Ephemeris Naopciensis, 2019
This collaborative article provides the first in-depth analysis of the fresco of St Christopher i... more This collaborative article provides the first in-depth analysis of the fresco of St Christopher in the castle of the Teutonic Order at Lochstedt. It first contextualizes the placement of the Christopher fresco in relation to the other images in the castle, followed by a new dating of the image to c. 1420–1430, not the late fourteenth century. Based on these findings, a specific patron of the fresco emerges, Heinrich von Plauen, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order. The fresco is then analyzed within the context of Alexei Lidov’s theory of hierotopy (the creation of sacred spaces). Using the links between the iconography of the image, its popularity in late medieval Germany and the events surrounding the Heinrich von Plauen’s tenure as Grand Master, the article suggests the reasons for which Heinrich chose the image to decorate his private quarters in the castle. It concludes by demonstrating that the image of St. Christopher at Lochstedt serves as a rare example of the creation of private sacred spaces in Late Medieval Prussia.
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Zapiski Historyczne, 2020
This article summarizes the history of the relics of St Barbara in Althaus Kulm (Starogród Chełmi... more This article summarizes the history of the relics of St Barbara in Althaus Kulm (Starogród Chełmiński), a topic with extensive research in Polish and German circles, but only recently addressed by scholarship in English. It begins with an overview of the relics' history and a summary of St Barbara's vita, pointing out the quick rise in her cult in the Teu-tonic Order's Prussian territory (Ordensland). Following this, it assesses the function of the relics through three lenses: warfare, daily life, and as a symbol of the Order's power using three methodological frameworks. These are hierophany (manifestations of the sacred) for warfare, naming practices for studying the impact of St Barbara on the local population, and as a reflection of the Order's territorial power (Landesherrschaft). The article ultimately demonstrates that the relics were a significant element of the multifaceted structure of religious life in medieval Prussia, both within and outside of the Teutonic Order. Appended to the text are two previously unpublished accounts of the relics of St Barbara and their arrival in Althaus, demonstrating the reputation of the shrine not just in the Ordensland, but within Christendom. It concludes with a summary of the research findings, and a consideration of these findings in light of more 'recent' interpretations of the Teutonic Order and the Prussian Crusades.
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Zeitschrift für Ostmitteleuropa-Forschung, 2020
This article analyzes crusading in Prussia (present-day Poland, Lithuania, and parts of
Russia) a... more This article analyzes crusading in Prussia (present-day Poland, Lithuania, and parts of
Russia) as a specific form of experience, specifically by examining two elements of that
experience: the use and function of relics, and the perception of crusading in Prussia as a
pilgrimage.It also analyzes the role of other objects, namely banners and images, to assess the religious elements of the crusade experience in Prussia. It then proceeds to the veneration of relics at shrines throughout Prussia by crusaders, demonstrating the role of these shrines in reinforcing the religious experience of crusading in Prussia. What emerges is a more complete picture of how people in the Middle Ages perceived crusading and holy war on the last pagan frontier of Europe.
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Journal of Medieval History, 2018
This article defines 'sacred landscape' as a combination of factors that the two authoritative ch... more This article defines 'sacred landscape' as a combination of factors that the two authoritative chroniclers of the crusades in Prussia, Peter of Dusburg and Nicolaus of Jeroschin, present in their texts. These are the intersection of hierophanies (manifestations of the sacred), martyrdom, relic veneration and pilgrimage activities at specific locations over time: connecting them can account for the Teutonic Order's role in the sacralisation of Prussia. To map the growth of this concept, the article uses Geographical Information Systems (GIS) in combination with textual analysis, providing a visual and spatial representation of the landscape propagated by the Order. The succeeding period of crusades in the Baltic, namely those against Lithuania in the fourteenth century, shows how the places founded during the thirteenth century functioned as pilgrimage centres for knights going toward the frontier. This article considers to what extent the Teutonic Order's crusades to Prussia in the thirteenth century created a sacred landscape.
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Talks by Gregory Leighton
This draft paper is part of the broader theme of my doctoral research, which focuses on the perce... more This draft paper is part of the broader theme of my doctoral research, which focuses on the perceptions and ideology of crusading in the Baltic among members of the Military Orders. It surveys the major historical chronicles produced within the Teutonic Order, as well as texts from the later fourteenth century that have received less consideration. Given the evidence presented in the chronicles, the present paper argues that there existed a concept of Christian geography in the Baltic, particularly with respect to castles built by the Teutonic Order.
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Drafts by Gregory Leighton
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This is an outline of a paper that I am currently writing, to be published next year by the Malbo... more This is an outline of a paper that I am currently writing, to be published next year by the Malbork Castle Museum Press. In it, I am looking at the role played by church officials in Prussia as patrons of art, especially the so-called Beautiful Style type of stone sculptures. It looks at the presence of bishops and church officials from all four bishoprics of Prussia in Prague and the Kingdom of Bohemia from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century, and will also provide an analysis of the iconography and significance of known works of stone sculpture in medieval Prussia. I am especially open to comments and suggestions.
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Zapiski Historyczne, 2020
The following is an abstract of an article forthcoming in Zapiski Historyczne this month. A full ... more The following is an abstract of an article forthcoming in Zapiski Historyczne this month. A full version of the publication will be uploaded as soon as the publication is released.
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The following is a draft in progress set for publication in 'After the Crusade - Ending the Fight... more The following is a draft in progress set for publication in 'After the Crusade - Ending the Fight, Reorganizing Society', the second volume of proceedings from the 9th Quadrennial Conference of the Society for the Study of the Crusades and the Latin East, Odense, 2016. It discusses the 're-organization' and spiritual foundation of the Teutonic Order's 'Ordensstaat' in Prussia, alongside the real need for re-organization within the Order in light of its criticisms in the 14th century.
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The file is a draft appendix of my PhD thesis that tabulates the relics held in the commanderies ... more The file is a draft appendix of my PhD thesis that tabulates the relics held in the commanderies of the Teutonic Order as recorded in the 'Gross Aemterburch des Deutschen Ordens' and the 'Marienburger Aemterbuch'. The appendix shows the variety of relics that were kept in these castles by the Order in the late medieval period, and helps to postulate the role played by relics on the later crusades in Lithuania, known as the 'Reisen'.
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Articles by Gregory Leighton
As a result, we are still left with a wide variety of questions, especially concerning the place of this area in the broader medieval world. This paper addresses two of these questions: To what extent did medieval contemporaries in Prussia know about their broader world, and the peoples within it? How were people from these regions, such as the Indian Subcontinent or Africa, depicted, understood, and communicated?
One answer lay in the literature produced by the knights in the Order. In the context of the plethora of studies on race and globality in the premodern world, the Baltic region has of yet received minimal attention. However, an investigation into the rich sources available reveals the presence in the region of the story of Barlaam and Josaphat, a Christian version of the Life of the Buddha and the first example of ‘global literature’ associated with the Middle Ages. By analysing the surviving examples in the region, this paper will place the region of Prussia within the new concept of the Global Middle Ages and reveal the perception of the southern realms of the world in one of medieval Europe’s furthest cultural outposts.
Russia) as a specific form of experience, specifically by examining two elements of that
experience: the use and function of relics, and the perception of crusading in Prussia as a
pilgrimage.It also analyzes the role of other objects, namely banners and images, to assess the religious elements of the crusade experience in Prussia. It then proceeds to the veneration of relics at shrines throughout Prussia by crusaders, demonstrating the role of these shrines in reinforcing the religious experience of crusading in Prussia. What emerges is a more complete picture of how people in the Middle Ages perceived crusading and holy war on the last pagan frontier of Europe.
Talks by Gregory Leighton
Drafts by Gregory Leighton
As a result, we are still left with a wide variety of questions, especially concerning the place of this area in the broader medieval world. This paper addresses two of these questions: To what extent did medieval contemporaries in Prussia know about their broader world, and the peoples within it? How were people from these regions, such as the Indian Subcontinent or Africa, depicted, understood, and communicated?
One answer lay in the literature produced by the knights in the Order. In the context of the plethora of studies on race and globality in the premodern world, the Baltic region has of yet received minimal attention. However, an investigation into the rich sources available reveals the presence in the region of the story of Barlaam and Josaphat, a Christian version of the Life of the Buddha and the first example of ‘global literature’ associated with the Middle Ages. By analysing the surviving examples in the region, this paper will place the region of Prussia within the new concept of the Global Middle Ages and reveal the perception of the southern realms of the world in one of medieval Europe’s furthest cultural outposts.
Russia) as a specific form of experience, specifically by examining two elements of that
experience: the use and function of relics, and the perception of crusading in Prussia as a
pilgrimage.It also analyzes the role of other objects, namely banners and images, to assess the religious elements of the crusade experience in Prussia. It then proceeds to the veneration of relics at shrines throughout Prussia by crusaders, demonstrating the role of these shrines in reinforcing the religious experience of crusading in Prussia. What emerges is a more complete picture of how people in the Middle Ages perceived crusading and holy war on the last pagan frontier of Europe.