Coup-proofing—that is, measures aimed at preventing military coups and ensuring military loyalty—... more Coup-proofing—that is, measures aimed at preventing military coups and ensuring military loyalty—has been a key feature of civil–military relations in Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) states. Just as the MENA region has been one of the most coup-prone regions in the world, coup-proofing has been an essential instrument of regime survival in Arab countries. The most commonly found coup-proofing strategies in the region include (a) so-called “communal coup-proofing,” involving the appointment of individuals to key positions within the military based on family, ethnic, or religious ties; (b) providing the military with corporate and/or private benefits in order to ensure its loyalty; (c) creating parallel military forces in addition to the regular military, so as to “counter-balance” the latter; (d) monitoring of the military through a vast internal security and intelligence apparatus; and (e) promoting professionalism, and thus political neutrality, within the military. The exp...
This case study has been developed in the framework of the EU-funded “Study on smuggling of migra... more This case study has been developed in the framework of the EU-funded “Study on smuggling of migrants: characteristics, responses and cooperation with third countries”. Five case studies served as an information collection tool to contribute to the data collection of the larger study, in order to provide detailed information on the phenomenon of migrant smuggling and policies to address it as occurring in particular countries or along particular route segments. The rationale for the decision on case study countries and route segments covered has been made based on their relevance according to indicators such as the number of irregular migrants apprehended (particularly based on Frontex data), border type, modus operandi, migration route and relationship with third countries, following the requirements in line with the tender specifications for the Study. In this case study Ethiopia was selected as the country of departure, with Libya chosen as a transit country and Malta and Italy as...
In recent years, migration across the Mediterranean has become an issue of growing concern to the... more In recent years, migration across the Mediterranean has become an issue of growing concern to the countries of the region and beyond. It has also become a rather divisive issue between the two shores of the Mediterranean, as the interests of countries to the North and those of the South have often conflicted in questions related to migration in the region. For the countries along the southern rim of the Mediterranean, the situation has in many ways been more complex. As far as they themselves have become destination or transit countries for would-be migrants coming from further south, they too have come to view irregular migration as a growing burden, and have been espousing an increasingly restrictive immigration control agenda. On the other hand, as migrant-sending countries, southern Mediterranean countries have also been interested in opening channels for legal migration into the EU for their citizens in order to relieve pressure on their saturated labor markets. As a consequence of these diverging interests, collaboration between the countries north and south of the Mediterranean in the area of migration policy has generally been rather difficult to achieve, and at times the migration issue has led to considerable tensions between north and south Mediterranean countries. The aim of this volume is twofold: to offer a broader perspective on the migration-development nexus, and to give a stronger voice to the often-overheard voices of southern Mediterranean countries on migration and development issues. The majority of the contributions contained in this volume explore various facets of the relationship between migration and development from the perspective of the countries along the southern rim of the Mediterranean, although some of them also provide critical analyses of EU policies in this area.
Security sector reform (SSR) is a key concern in th e current transformations which are sweeping ... more Security sector reform (SSR) is a key concern in th e current transformations which are sweeping across much of the Arab world. Given the crucial role security institutions have played in sustaining authoritarian regimes in the region, any transformation towards more democratic rule will necessarily also have to include a reform of these countries’ security sectors towards greater transparency, accountability and democratic control. This article explores the challenges and prospects of security sector reform in the first Arab country to have overthrown its autocratic leader, Tunisia. The main arguments advanced in this article are that the key SSR challenges in Tunisia since the fa ll of Ben Ali have been the reform of the country’s internal security apparatus and the judiciary, whereas military reforms are of limited importance. Even though in both of these ar eas actual reforms have been rather modest so far, and have focused more on purges rath er than on structural transformatio...
Coup-proofing—that is, measures aimed at preventing military coups and ensuring military loyalty—... more Coup-proofing—that is, measures aimed at preventing military coups and ensuring military loyalty—has been a key feature of civil–military relations in Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) states. Just as the MENA region has been one of the most coup-prone regions in the world, coup-proofing has been an essential instrument of regime survival in Arab countries. The most commonly found coup-proofing strategies in the region include (a) so-called “communal coup-proofing,” involving the appointment of individuals to key positions within the military based on family, ethnic, or religious ties; (b) providing the military with corporate and/or private benefits in order to ensure its loyalty; (c) creating parallel military forces in addition to the regular military, so as to “counter-balance” the latter; (d) monitoring of the military through a vast internal security and intelligence apparatus; and (e) promoting professionalism, and thus political neutrality, within the military. The exp...
As popular uprisings, demanding greater political freedoms and in several countries even regime c... more As popular uprisings, demanding greater political freedoms and in several countries even regime change, swept across much of the Arab world, a crucial role has been played by the armed forces of these countries in confronting the pro-reform movements. Practically all Arab countries can be described as military-based regimes, where the armed forces have been at the core of the political system, even though the status and role of the military has varied significantly from one country to the next. Moreover, powerful military forces, as well as a robust security apparatus more generally, have been seen by many, as one, if not the main, obstacle to political reform and democratization in the region.
While migrants travelling from sub-Saharan Africa to Europe are often lured by a somewhat distort... more While migrants travelling from sub-Saharan Africa to Europe are often lured by a somewhat distorted image about what will expect them at their intended destination, for many migrants the journey itself often also turns out to be a rather traumatic experience. En route to Europe, irregular migrants often encounter extreme hardships, either as a result of difficult travelling conditions, or due to abuses by state officials or migrant smugglers; indeed many of them never reach their final destination. Researchers in this field are only just beginning to systematically collect data on migrant deaths, but it can be assumed that the death toll of irregular migrants attempting to reach Europe from the African continent numbers in the thousands per year. Threats to migrants’ safety and lives during their journey from sub-Saharan Africa to Europe come from at least three main sources: harsh and indeed often extremely dangerous travel conditions, as well as mistreatment suffered at the hands ...
Coup-proofing—that is, measures aimed at preventing military coups and ensuring military loyalty—... more Coup-proofing—that is, measures aimed at preventing military coups and ensuring military loyalty—has been a key feature of civil–military relations in Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) states. Just as the MENA region has been one of the most coup-prone regions in the world, coup-proofing has been an essential instrument of regime survival in Arab countries. The most commonly found coup-proofing strategies in the region include (a) so-called “communal coup-proofing,” involving the appointment of individuals to key positions within the military based on family, ethnic, or religious ties; (b) providing the military with corporate and/or private benefits in order to ensure its loyalty; (c) creating parallel military forces in addition to the regular military, so as to “counter-balance” the latter; (d) monitoring of the military through a vast internal security and intelligence apparatus; and (e) promoting professionalism, and thus political neutrality, within the military. The exp...
This case study has been developed in the framework of the EU-funded “Study on smuggling of migra... more This case study has been developed in the framework of the EU-funded “Study on smuggling of migrants: characteristics, responses and cooperation with third countries”. Five case studies served as an information collection tool to contribute to the data collection of the larger study, in order to provide detailed information on the phenomenon of migrant smuggling and policies to address it as occurring in particular countries or along particular route segments. The rationale for the decision on case study countries and route segments covered has been made based on their relevance according to indicators such as the number of irregular migrants apprehended (particularly based on Frontex data), border type, modus operandi, migration route and relationship with third countries, following the requirements in line with the tender specifications for the Study. In this case study Ethiopia was selected as the country of departure, with Libya chosen as a transit country and Malta and Italy as...
In recent years, migration across the Mediterranean has become an issue of growing concern to the... more In recent years, migration across the Mediterranean has become an issue of growing concern to the countries of the region and beyond. It has also become a rather divisive issue between the two shores of the Mediterranean, as the interests of countries to the North and those of the South have often conflicted in questions related to migration in the region. For the countries along the southern rim of the Mediterranean, the situation has in many ways been more complex. As far as they themselves have become destination or transit countries for would-be migrants coming from further south, they too have come to view irregular migration as a growing burden, and have been espousing an increasingly restrictive immigration control agenda. On the other hand, as migrant-sending countries, southern Mediterranean countries have also been interested in opening channels for legal migration into the EU for their citizens in order to relieve pressure on their saturated labor markets. As a consequence of these diverging interests, collaboration between the countries north and south of the Mediterranean in the area of migration policy has generally been rather difficult to achieve, and at times the migration issue has led to considerable tensions between north and south Mediterranean countries. The aim of this volume is twofold: to offer a broader perspective on the migration-development nexus, and to give a stronger voice to the often-overheard voices of southern Mediterranean countries on migration and development issues. The majority of the contributions contained in this volume explore various facets of the relationship between migration and development from the perspective of the countries along the southern rim of the Mediterranean, although some of them also provide critical analyses of EU policies in this area.
Security sector reform (SSR) is a key concern in th e current transformations which are sweeping ... more Security sector reform (SSR) is a key concern in th e current transformations which are sweeping across much of the Arab world. Given the crucial role security institutions have played in sustaining authoritarian regimes in the region, any transformation towards more democratic rule will necessarily also have to include a reform of these countries’ security sectors towards greater transparency, accountability and democratic control. This article explores the challenges and prospects of security sector reform in the first Arab country to have overthrown its autocratic leader, Tunisia. The main arguments advanced in this article are that the key SSR challenges in Tunisia since the fa ll of Ben Ali have been the reform of the country’s internal security apparatus and the judiciary, whereas military reforms are of limited importance. Even though in both of these ar eas actual reforms have been rather modest so far, and have focused more on purges rath er than on structural transformatio...
Coup-proofing—that is, measures aimed at preventing military coups and ensuring military loyalty—... more Coup-proofing—that is, measures aimed at preventing military coups and ensuring military loyalty—has been a key feature of civil–military relations in Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) states. Just as the MENA region has been one of the most coup-prone regions in the world, coup-proofing has been an essential instrument of regime survival in Arab countries. The most commonly found coup-proofing strategies in the region include (a) so-called “communal coup-proofing,” involving the appointment of individuals to key positions within the military based on family, ethnic, or religious ties; (b) providing the military with corporate and/or private benefits in order to ensure its loyalty; (c) creating parallel military forces in addition to the regular military, so as to “counter-balance” the latter; (d) monitoring of the military through a vast internal security and intelligence apparatus; and (e) promoting professionalism, and thus political neutrality, within the military. The exp...
As popular uprisings, demanding greater political freedoms and in several countries even regime c... more As popular uprisings, demanding greater political freedoms and in several countries even regime change, swept across much of the Arab world, a crucial role has been played by the armed forces of these countries in confronting the pro-reform movements. Practically all Arab countries can be described as military-based regimes, where the armed forces have been at the core of the political system, even though the status and role of the military has varied significantly from one country to the next. Moreover, powerful military forces, as well as a robust security apparatus more generally, have been seen by many, as one, if not the main, obstacle to political reform and democratization in the region.
While migrants travelling from sub-Saharan Africa to Europe are often lured by a somewhat distort... more While migrants travelling from sub-Saharan Africa to Europe are often lured by a somewhat distorted image about what will expect them at their intended destination, for many migrants the journey itself often also turns out to be a rather traumatic experience. En route to Europe, irregular migrants often encounter extreme hardships, either as a result of difficult travelling conditions, or due to abuses by state officials or migrant smugglers; indeed many of them never reach their final destination. Researchers in this field are only just beginning to systematically collect data on migrant deaths, but it can be assumed that the death toll of irregular migrants attempting to reach Europe from the African continent numbers in the thousands per year. Threats to migrants’ safety and lives during their journey from sub-Saharan Africa to Europe come from at least three main sources: harsh and indeed often extremely dangerous travel conditions, as well as mistreatment suffered at the hands ...
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