Lecturer in Peace and Conflict Studies at the University of Manchester, specialising in nations and nationalism; symbols; identity studies; post-conflict state- and nation-building; post-colonial nation-states Address: Manchester, United Kingdom
Rethinking peace and conflict studies, Sep 15, 2018
This chapter explores the role of flags in commemorations of the past, the representation of nati... more This chapter explores the role of flags in commemorations of the past, the representation of national identities, and their role in imaginings of nationhood. Taking the national flag of Timor-Leste and the Fretilin party flag as case studies, it examines how an historical national identity and heritage can be enshrined in these powerful symbols. Tracing the recent history of the half-island and the Indonesian occupation (1975–1999), these two flags demonstrate the fluid nature of symbols, and how their meanings can be flexible to adapt to changing political circumstances. In the post-independence state, the national and Fretilin flags are two of the most widely recognised symbols of resistance, struggle, and suffering, in light of the recent past, and are thus fundamental markers of contemporary East Timorese nationalism.
Rethinking peace and conflict studies, Sep 15, 2018
This chapter expands upon the study of the symbolic functions of national heroes to consider the ... more This chapter expands upon the study of the symbolic functions of national heroes to consider the role of contemporary public figures and popular leaders in imaginings of nationhood and identity. It incorporates theories of charismatic leadership to analyse how popular leaders can become hero-figures by adapting their visual and discursive self-presentation to nationalist narratives, in order to be incorporated into popular imaginings as the personification of the national character. The chapter analyses the ways in which Xanana Gusmao, former Commander in Chief of the resistance movement and one of the most popular public figures in Timor-Leste, presents himself to the national community. By analysing the ways in which he is symbolically represented, it is possible to see how the symbolic capital he acquired from his role in the liberation struggle is drawn upon to legitimise his current position in national politics. Further, the case study of Xanana Gusmao affords insight into how a social hierarchy has been established in post-independence Timor-Leste, based on contributions to the liberation struggle, and how symbolic capital has remained in the hands of a select few resistance-era leaders since the return to independence.
Political Symbols and National Identity in Timor-Leste, 2018
Building on an analysis of the symbolic representation of an evolving nationalism at the level of... more Building on an analysis of the symbolic representation of an evolving nationalism at the level of the political elite, this chapter explores how the reconceptualised struggle is visually represented at a grassroots level through street art. Street art is a primary medium of expression for the Geracao Foun (the ‘new generation’), a younger generation of East Timorese who have been culturally and politically alienated from nation-building. This marginalisation is largely because their cultural-linguistic and educational backgrounds differ significantly to that of the older generation, to which the state’s leadership belongs. The chapter examines representations of the redefined struggle, peace, and unity as tropes of nationalist narratives. Applying theories of youth subcultures, it examines how the generation gap—one of the most pervasive social divisions of the post-independence state—is negotiated by the Geracao Foun. It outlines the inherent tension of subcultures that is present ...
Political Symbols and National Identity in Timor-Leste, 2018
This chapter expands upon the study of the symbolic functions of national heroes to consider the ... more This chapter expands upon the study of the symbolic functions of national heroes to consider the role of contemporary public figures and popular leaders in imaginings of nationhood and identity. It incorporates theories of charismatic leadership to analyse how popular leaders can become hero-figures by adapting their visual and discursive self-presentation to nationalist narratives, in order to be incorporated into popular imaginings as the personification of the national character. The chapter analyses the ways in which Xanana Gusmao, former Commander in Chief of the resistance movement and one of the most popular public figures in Timor-Leste, presents himself to the national community. By analysing the ways in which he is symbolically represented, it is possible to see how the symbolic capital he acquired from his role in the liberation struggle is drawn upon to legitimise his current position in national politics. Further, the case study of Xanana Gusmao affords insight into how...
Political Symbols and National Identity in Timor-Leste, 2018
This chapter explores the role of flags in commemorations of the past, the representation of nati... more This chapter explores the role of flags in commemorations of the past, the representation of national identities, and their role in imaginings of nationhood. Taking the national flag of Timor-Leste and the Fretilin party flag as case studies, it examines how an historical national identity and heritage can be enshrined in these powerful symbols. Tracing the recent history of the half-island and the Indonesian occupation (1975–1999), these two flags demonstrate the fluid nature of symbols, and how their meanings can be flexible to adapt to changing political circumstances. In the post-independence state, the national and Fretilin flags are two of the most widely recognised symbols of resistance, struggle, and suffering, in light of the recent past, and are thus fundamental markers of contemporary East Timorese nationalism.
This chapter expands upon the study of the symbolic functions of national heroes to consider the ... more This chapter expands upon the study of the symbolic functions of national heroes to consider the role of contemporary public figures and popular leaders in imaginings of nationhood and identity. It incorporates theories of charismatic leadership to analyse how popular leaders can become hero-figures by adapting their visual and discursive self-presentation to nationalist narratives, in order to be incorporated into popular imaginings as the personification of the national character. The chapter analyses the ways in which Xanana Gusmao, former Commander in Chief of the resistance movement and one of the most popular public figures in Timor-Leste, presents himself to the national community. By analysing the ways in which he is symbolically represented, it is possible to see how the symbolic capital he acquired from his role in the liberation struggle is drawn upon to legitimise his current position in national politics. Further, the case study of Xanana Gusmao affords insight into how a social hierarchy has been established in post-independence Timor-Leste, based on contributions to the liberation struggle, and how symbolic capital has remained in the hands of a select few resistance-era leaders since the return to independence.
Social media platforms such as Facebook and X (formerly Twitter) set their core aim as bring- ing... more Social media platforms such as Facebook and X (formerly Twitter) set their core aim as bring- ing people and communities closer together. Yet, they resemble a digital communicative battleground in which hate speech is increasingly present. Hate speech is not benign. It is the communicative driver of group oppression. It is therefore imperative to disarm this digital communicative battlefield by (a) regulating and redesigning social media platforms to prevent them from playing an active and enabling role in the dissemination of hate speech and (b) empowering citizen-users and local civil associations to recognise and actively counter hate speech. This top-down and bottom-up approach necessarily enforces responsibility and builds capacity. This requires that we adapt and combine three aspects of communicative peacebuilding: first, the (re)building of civil-communicative institu- tions; second, the use of digital citizenship educational programmes to support the development of civil-communicative skills for using social media; and third, the identification and use of local civil capacity and knowledge, which manifests in the present context in the use of local evidence-based anti-hate speech interventions. We argue that this interdisciplinary combinatorial approach has the potential to be effective because it combines two things: it places responsibility on relevant actors to both make social media safer and to navigate it harmlessly and responsibly; and it simultaneously helps build the capacity for actively identifying and countering hate speech in civil societies.
Political Symbols and National Identity in Timor-Leste, 2018
This chapter analyses monuments and memorials as key markers of national identity, embedded in th... more This chapter analyses monuments and memorials as key markers of national identity, embedded in the landscape. Taking examples of military, religious, and civilian monuments and memorials, it explores the symbolic representation of struggle and suffering as core tenets of contemporary East Timorese nationalism. Memorials and commemorative monuments take on a heightened significance in post-conflict states, especially in the East Timorese context where the presence of the dead is keenly felt and believed to have an active influence on social life. An analysis of these identity symbols reveals numerous symbolic conflicts: from the appropriation of nationalist figures by the Indonesian state and post-independence re-appropriation by the East Timorese people, to grassroots memorials that claim ownership of key symbols of nationalism that had previously been monopolised by the resistance-era leadership. Memorials and commemorations built at a grassroots level raise issues of victimhood and recognition, and an analysis of the Santa Cruz memorial elucidates how state national identity narratives can be contested, negotiated, and influenced from the bottom-up.
Since regaining its independence in 2002, nation-building has been the focus of much scholarly re... more Since regaining its independence in 2002, nation-building has been the focus of much scholarly research on Timor-Leste. National identity construction is a crucial aspect of this process, yet the ways in which this identity is officially represented has been largely overlooked. This article takes the national flag of Timor-Leste as a case study to explore the ways in which a historic East Timorese national identity has been symbolically constructed and visually embodied. By considering the potency of flags in an East Timorese cultural context, and by analysing the origins of Timor-Leste's flag alongside that of the political party Fretilin (Frente Revolucionária do Timor-Leste Independente), it becomes clear that post-independence re-imaginings of its symbolism have rendered it a powerful national symbol in the contemporary nation-state.
Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, 2016
Of the challenges confronting the nation-building project in Timor-Leste, the “generation gap” is... more Of the challenges confronting the nation-building project in Timor-Leste, the “generation gap” is one of the most important. The history of Timor-Leste, characterized by foreign occupations by both Portugal and Indonesia, has produced an emerging national identity founded on the concept of suffering in the name of national self-determination. Official state narratives that outline a national identity based on the recent struggle for independence have privileged the generation of East Timorese whose members led the resistance movement against the Indonesian occupation. This emphasis has not only overlooked youth involvement in the liberation struggle, but it has also estranged the younger generation of East Timorese from the nation-state. The examination of street art, the medium most accessible to members of Timor-Leste’s Geração Foun, or “new generation”, permits exploration of the ways that they identify with official notions of an emerging national identity.
Rethinking peace and conflict studies, Sep 15, 2018
This chapter explores the role of flags in commemorations of the past, the representation of nati... more This chapter explores the role of flags in commemorations of the past, the representation of national identities, and their role in imaginings of nationhood. Taking the national flag of Timor-Leste and the Fretilin party flag as case studies, it examines how an historical national identity and heritage can be enshrined in these powerful symbols. Tracing the recent history of the half-island and the Indonesian occupation (1975–1999), these two flags demonstrate the fluid nature of symbols, and how their meanings can be flexible to adapt to changing political circumstances. In the post-independence state, the national and Fretilin flags are two of the most widely recognised symbols of resistance, struggle, and suffering, in light of the recent past, and are thus fundamental markers of contemporary East Timorese nationalism.
Rethinking peace and conflict studies, Sep 15, 2018
This chapter expands upon the study of the symbolic functions of national heroes to consider the ... more This chapter expands upon the study of the symbolic functions of national heroes to consider the role of contemporary public figures and popular leaders in imaginings of nationhood and identity. It incorporates theories of charismatic leadership to analyse how popular leaders can become hero-figures by adapting their visual and discursive self-presentation to nationalist narratives, in order to be incorporated into popular imaginings as the personification of the national character. The chapter analyses the ways in which Xanana Gusmao, former Commander in Chief of the resistance movement and one of the most popular public figures in Timor-Leste, presents himself to the national community. By analysing the ways in which he is symbolically represented, it is possible to see how the symbolic capital he acquired from his role in the liberation struggle is drawn upon to legitimise his current position in national politics. Further, the case study of Xanana Gusmao affords insight into how a social hierarchy has been established in post-independence Timor-Leste, based on contributions to the liberation struggle, and how symbolic capital has remained in the hands of a select few resistance-era leaders since the return to independence.
Political Symbols and National Identity in Timor-Leste, 2018
Building on an analysis of the symbolic representation of an evolving nationalism at the level of... more Building on an analysis of the symbolic representation of an evolving nationalism at the level of the political elite, this chapter explores how the reconceptualised struggle is visually represented at a grassroots level through street art. Street art is a primary medium of expression for the Geracao Foun (the ‘new generation’), a younger generation of East Timorese who have been culturally and politically alienated from nation-building. This marginalisation is largely because their cultural-linguistic and educational backgrounds differ significantly to that of the older generation, to which the state’s leadership belongs. The chapter examines representations of the redefined struggle, peace, and unity as tropes of nationalist narratives. Applying theories of youth subcultures, it examines how the generation gap—one of the most pervasive social divisions of the post-independence state—is negotiated by the Geracao Foun. It outlines the inherent tension of subcultures that is present ...
Political Symbols and National Identity in Timor-Leste, 2018
This chapter expands upon the study of the symbolic functions of national heroes to consider the ... more This chapter expands upon the study of the symbolic functions of national heroes to consider the role of contemporary public figures and popular leaders in imaginings of nationhood and identity. It incorporates theories of charismatic leadership to analyse how popular leaders can become hero-figures by adapting their visual and discursive self-presentation to nationalist narratives, in order to be incorporated into popular imaginings as the personification of the national character. The chapter analyses the ways in which Xanana Gusmao, former Commander in Chief of the resistance movement and one of the most popular public figures in Timor-Leste, presents himself to the national community. By analysing the ways in which he is symbolically represented, it is possible to see how the symbolic capital he acquired from his role in the liberation struggle is drawn upon to legitimise his current position in national politics. Further, the case study of Xanana Gusmao affords insight into how...
Political Symbols and National Identity in Timor-Leste, 2018
This chapter explores the role of flags in commemorations of the past, the representation of nati... more This chapter explores the role of flags in commemorations of the past, the representation of national identities, and their role in imaginings of nationhood. Taking the national flag of Timor-Leste and the Fretilin party flag as case studies, it examines how an historical national identity and heritage can be enshrined in these powerful symbols. Tracing the recent history of the half-island and the Indonesian occupation (1975–1999), these two flags demonstrate the fluid nature of symbols, and how their meanings can be flexible to adapt to changing political circumstances. In the post-independence state, the national and Fretilin flags are two of the most widely recognised symbols of resistance, struggle, and suffering, in light of the recent past, and are thus fundamental markers of contemporary East Timorese nationalism.
This chapter expands upon the study of the symbolic functions of national heroes to consider the ... more This chapter expands upon the study of the symbolic functions of national heroes to consider the role of contemporary public figures and popular leaders in imaginings of nationhood and identity. It incorporates theories of charismatic leadership to analyse how popular leaders can become hero-figures by adapting their visual and discursive self-presentation to nationalist narratives, in order to be incorporated into popular imaginings as the personification of the national character. The chapter analyses the ways in which Xanana Gusmao, former Commander in Chief of the resistance movement and one of the most popular public figures in Timor-Leste, presents himself to the national community. By analysing the ways in which he is symbolically represented, it is possible to see how the symbolic capital he acquired from his role in the liberation struggle is drawn upon to legitimise his current position in national politics. Further, the case study of Xanana Gusmao affords insight into how a social hierarchy has been established in post-independence Timor-Leste, based on contributions to the liberation struggle, and how symbolic capital has remained in the hands of a select few resistance-era leaders since the return to independence.
Social media platforms such as Facebook and X (formerly Twitter) set their core aim as bring- ing... more Social media platforms such as Facebook and X (formerly Twitter) set their core aim as bring- ing people and communities closer together. Yet, they resemble a digital communicative battleground in which hate speech is increasingly present. Hate speech is not benign. It is the communicative driver of group oppression. It is therefore imperative to disarm this digital communicative battlefield by (a) regulating and redesigning social media platforms to prevent them from playing an active and enabling role in the dissemination of hate speech and (b) empowering citizen-users and local civil associations to recognise and actively counter hate speech. This top-down and bottom-up approach necessarily enforces responsibility and builds capacity. This requires that we adapt and combine three aspects of communicative peacebuilding: first, the (re)building of civil-communicative institu- tions; second, the use of digital citizenship educational programmes to support the development of civil-communicative skills for using social media; and third, the identification and use of local civil capacity and knowledge, which manifests in the present context in the use of local evidence-based anti-hate speech interventions. We argue that this interdisciplinary combinatorial approach has the potential to be effective because it combines two things: it places responsibility on relevant actors to both make social media safer and to navigate it harmlessly and responsibly; and it simultaneously helps build the capacity for actively identifying and countering hate speech in civil societies.
Political Symbols and National Identity in Timor-Leste, 2018
This chapter analyses monuments and memorials as key markers of national identity, embedded in th... more This chapter analyses monuments and memorials as key markers of national identity, embedded in the landscape. Taking examples of military, religious, and civilian monuments and memorials, it explores the symbolic representation of struggle and suffering as core tenets of contemporary East Timorese nationalism. Memorials and commemorative monuments take on a heightened significance in post-conflict states, especially in the East Timorese context where the presence of the dead is keenly felt and believed to have an active influence on social life. An analysis of these identity symbols reveals numerous symbolic conflicts: from the appropriation of nationalist figures by the Indonesian state and post-independence re-appropriation by the East Timorese people, to grassroots memorials that claim ownership of key symbols of nationalism that had previously been monopolised by the resistance-era leadership. Memorials and commemorations built at a grassroots level raise issues of victimhood and recognition, and an analysis of the Santa Cruz memorial elucidates how state national identity narratives can be contested, negotiated, and influenced from the bottom-up.
Since regaining its independence in 2002, nation-building has been the focus of much scholarly re... more Since regaining its independence in 2002, nation-building has been the focus of much scholarly research on Timor-Leste. National identity construction is a crucial aspect of this process, yet the ways in which this identity is officially represented has been largely overlooked. This article takes the national flag of Timor-Leste as a case study to explore the ways in which a historic East Timorese national identity has been symbolically constructed and visually embodied. By considering the potency of flags in an East Timorese cultural context, and by analysing the origins of Timor-Leste's flag alongside that of the political party Fretilin (Frente Revolucionária do Timor-Leste Independente), it becomes clear that post-independence re-imaginings of its symbolism have rendered it a powerful national symbol in the contemporary nation-state.
Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, 2016
Of the challenges confronting the nation-building project in Timor-Leste, the “generation gap” is... more Of the challenges confronting the nation-building project in Timor-Leste, the “generation gap” is one of the most important. The history of Timor-Leste, characterized by foreign occupations by both Portugal and Indonesia, has produced an emerging national identity founded on the concept of suffering in the name of national self-determination. Official state narratives that outline a national identity based on the recent struggle for independence have privileged the generation of East Timorese whose members led the resistance movement against the Indonesian occupation. This emphasis has not only overlooked youth involvement in the liberation struggle, but it has also estranged the younger generation of East Timorese from the nation-state. The examination of street art, the medium most accessible to members of Timor-Leste’s Geração Foun, or “new generation”, permits exploration of the ways that they identify with official notions of an emerging national identity.
Political Graffiti in Critical Times: The Aesthetics of Street Politics Edited by Ricardo Campos, Andrea Pavoni, and Yiannis Zaimakis, 2021
Timor-Leste is one of the world’s youngest nation-states and home to a vibrant, politically activ... more Timor-Leste is one of the world’s youngest nation-states and home to a vibrant, politically active street art scene. Despite a violent past of foreign occupation, East Timorese artists have much hope for a prosperous future, reflected in the graffiti scene since independence in 2002. Their graffiti is reactionary and responsive to national politics, providing a visual commentary of society and hopes for the nation. Contextualised in post-independence socio-political challenges, this chapter explores how artists use public spaces to offer an alternative vision for the politics of their nation, especially in times of political crisis, by engaging with creative peacebuilding initiatives, including sport. Key words: Timor-Leste; street art; crisis; peacebuilding; national identity; sport.
Street art and graffiti represent a diverse range of artistic, social, cultural and political pra... more Street art and graffiti represent a diverse range of artistic, social, cultural and political practices in urban landscapes, whereby people publicly mark their different intentions with potential impacts on communities. Street art can be both contributor to, and commentary on, contested spaces, and thus produces spatial realities in dynamic and temporal ways. It provides rich insights into socities, cultures, social issues, trends and political discourse, and spatial and territorial identities and claims. This paper argues that graffiti is a valuable source of knowledge in conflict-affected societies undergoing social and political transformation. In this paper, we develop a framework for critically analysing graffiti and street art in conflict-affected societies. More specifically, this framework enables deeper understanding fo the extent to which graffiti plays a role in not only commenting on public and political discourse relating to peace and conflict, but in shaping it, and how graffiti and street art may aid in the management of contested spaces, the promotion of peace, and our understanding of everyday experiences of politically-divided territories. We draw on research findings from Colombia, Cyprus, Iraq, Northern Ireland and Timor-Leste to evidence the paper's conceptual claims.
This book presents a critical study of political symbols and national identity construction as pa... more This book presents a critical study of political symbols and national identity construction as part of the ongoing nation-building project in post-conflict Timor-Leste. Due to the recent nature of Timor-Leste's internationally recognised statehood, the process of consolidating a unified national identity is complex and far from complete. Informed by primary ethnographic fieldwork, this study outlines and examines the core tenets of an East Timorese national identity, their origins, and their significance within national politics. Through an analysis of a range of flags, monuments, national heroes, and street art, I analyse how this collective identity is symbolically embodied and visually represented in order to trace the evolution of popular imaginings of national identity that has taken place in since independence was regained in 2002. I argue that the past struggle for independence from foreign occupation was the primary component in framing nation-building in the early years of the post-independence state. Within the first decade of self-determination, evident symbolic conflicts have taken place at a grassroots level that interpret, challenge, and negotiate a top-down approach to identity construction and nation-building. As a result, political symbolism has visually represented how aspects of an evolving national identity have been reimagined in relation to the changing social, economic, and political needs of the nation. This book highlights the core tenets of East Timorese nationalism that have remained unchanged and retain significant symbolic capital, and those elements that have been reinterpreted in relation to the changing circumstances of the nation-building project. The book's broader applications include a framework for an analysis of nation-building and the construction of national identity in new nation-states in similar post-conflict contexts, and of identity symbols and visual representation in contemporary politics.
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Papers by Catherine Arthur
Key words: Timor-Leste; street art; crisis; peacebuilding; national identity; sport.