I study practices that aim to transform subjective experience—from meditation and hypnosis to placebos, prayer, and psychedelics. I am particularly interested in how these practices can modulate feelings of agency and ownership, so that inner thoughts and sensations can come to feel as if they are emerging from a source beyond the self. My work combines phenomenology, neuroscience and ethnography to shed light on the plasticity of consciousness.
I work as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Social and Transcultural Psychiatry at McGill University/Jewish General Hospital in Montreal. Previously I did my PhD in Neuroscience at McGill and then worked as a postdoctoral fellow with Tanya Luhrmann in the Stanford Department of Anthropology. Before my doctorate, I completed a master's in neuroscience and an undergraduate in psychology, philosophy, and world religions, all at McGill. Supervisors: T. M. Luhrmann, Laurence Kirmayer, Amir Raz, Daniel Margulies, and Soham Rej
There are communities in which hearing voices frequently is common and expected, and in which par... more There are communities in which hearing voices frequently is common and expected, and in which participants are not expected to have a need for care. This paper compares the ideas and practices of these communities. We observe that these communities utilize cultural models to identify and to explain voice-like events—and that there are some common features to these models across communities. All communities teach participants to “discern,” or identify accurately, the legitimate voice of the spirit or being who speaks. We also observe that there are roughly two methods taught to participants to enable them to experience spirits (or other invisible beings): trained attention to inner experience, and repeated speech to the invisible other. We also observe that all of these communities model a learning process in which the ability to hear spirit (or invisible others) becomes more skilled with practice, and in which what they hear becomes clearer over time. Practice—including the practice of discernment—is presumed to change experience. We also note that despite these shared cultural ideas and practices, there is considerable individual variation in experience—some of which may reflect psychotic process, and some perhaps not. We suggest that voice-like events in this context may be shaped by cognitive expectation and trained practice as well as an experiential pathway, and that researchers could explore these common features both as a way to help those struggling with psychosis, and to consider the possibility that expectations and practice may affect the voice-hearing experience.
International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 2020
The science of contemplation has focused on mindfulness in a manner quite disproportionate to its... more The science of contemplation has focused on mindfulness in a manner quite disproportionate to its use in contemplative traditions.Mindfulness, as understood within the scientific community, is a practice that invites practitioners to disattend to words and images. The practitioner is meant to experience things as they “really are,” unfolding here and now in the flux of embodied sensations. Yet the use of words and images, together with intentions, is a farmore common contemplative practice. The authors present ethnographic research with a syncretic contemplative tradition, Integral Transformative practice (ITP), which grew out of the Human Potential Movement of the 1960s. The authors focus on the practice of “affirmations,” in which practitioners seek to actualize spiritual goals by imagining future possibilities. Our ethnographic account invites new avenues for psychological research to illuminate the role of words and images in contemplation.
Some people seem to have a 'talent' for spiritual experience: they readily sense the presence of ... more Some people seem to have a 'talent' for spiritual experience: they readily sense the presence of supernatural beings, receive special messages from God, and report intense feelings of self-transcendence, awe and wonder. Here we review converging strands of evidence to argue that the trait of 'absorption' captures a general proclivity for having spiritual experiences. Participants scoring highly on the Tellegen Absorption Scale report vivid experiences of hearing God's voice during prayer, intense mystical experiences in response to psychedelics or placebo brain-stimulation, and strong feelings of presence and transcendence when confronted with natural beauty, virtual reality, or music. Several mechanisms may help to explain the relationship between absorption and spiritual experience. We suggest that absorption captures an experiential mindset that intensifies inner and outer sensory experience in ways that reflect both prior expectation and novel sensory engagement. It seems to enable that which must be imagined to feel more real.
Cognitive neuroscientists rarely consider the influence that body position exerts on brain activi... more Cognitive neuroscientists rarely consider the influence that body position exerts on brain activity; yet, postural variation holds important implications for the acquisition and interpretation of neuroimaging data. Whereas participants in most behavioral and EEG experiments sit upright, many prominent brain imaging techniques (e.g., fMRI) require participants to lie supine. Here we demonstrate that physical comportment profoundly alters baseline brain activity as measured by magnetoencephalography (MEG)—an imaging modality that permits multipostural acquisition. We collected resting-state MEG data from 12 healthy participants in three postures (lying supine, reclining at 45°, and sitting upright). Source-modeling analysis revealed a broadly distributed influence of posture on resting brain function. Sitting upright versus lying supine was associated with greater high-frequency (i.e., beta and gamma) activity in widespread parieto-occipital cortex. Moreover, sitting upright and reclining postures correlated with dampened activity in prefrontal regions across a range of bandwidths (i.e., from alpha to low gamma). The observed effects were large, with a mean Cohen's d of 0.95 (SD = 0.23). In addition to neural activity, physiological parameters such as muscle tension and eye blinks may have contributed to these posture-dependent changes in brain signal. Regardless of the underlying mechanisms, however, the present results have important implications for the acquisition and interpretation of multimodal imaging data (e.g., studies combining fMRI or PET with EEG or MEG). More broadly, our findings indicate that generalizing results—from supine neuroimaging measurements to erect positions typical of ecological human behavior—would call for considering the influence that posture wields on brain dynamics.
Commentary on ‘Better than sham? A double-blind placebo-controlled neurofeedback study in primary... more Commentary on ‘Better than sham? A double-blind placebo-controlled neurofeedback study in primary insomnia’, by Schabus et al. 2017 (doi:10.1093/brain/awx011)
Neurofeedback ranks high on the list of ostensibly ‘scientific’ tools available for moulding brain function and bolstering mental processes. And yet, as with other popular techniques such as computerized brain games, a dearth of robust evidence and well-controlled studies characterizes the research sphere of neurofeedback. In this issue of Brain, Schabus and co-workers report a carefully crafted experiment probing the treatment of insomnia; their findings suggest that the benefits of neurofeedback may derive largely from placebo-like effects (Schabus et al., 2017).
This opening chapter introduces the theme of the book and discusses the potential value of bridgi... more This opening chapter introduces the theme of the book and discusses the potential value of bridging empirical studies of hypnosis and meditation. It offers a review of the different sections of the volume and synthesizes the overarching themes. Whereas numerous studies have documented the beneficial impact of hypnosis and meditation, few have harnessed these unique phenomena together, either clinically or as a means of illuminating cognitive questions. Yet, while historically and pragmatically distinct, hypnosis and meditation share much in the way of phenomenology, neurocognitive mechanisms, and potential therapeutic prospects. The marriage of these seemingly disparate yet overlapping contemplative practices promises to improve our scientific understanding of each, as well as unravel the underlying mechanisms. This chapter explores how crosstalk between the domains of hypnosis and meditation fosters novel approaches to self-regulation, binds subjective experience to brain science, and advances the empirical study of consciousness and cognition.
Meditation and hypnosis both aim to facilitate cognitive-emotional flexibility, i.e., the “de-aut... more Meditation and hypnosis both aim to facilitate cognitive-emotional flexibility, i.e., the “de-automatization” of thought and behavior. However, little research or theory has addressed how internal thought patterns might change after such interventions, even though alterations in the internal flow of consciousness may precede externally observable changes in behavior. This chapter outlines three mechanisms by which meditation or hypnosis might alter or reduce automatic associations and elaborations of spontaneous thought: by an overall reduction of the chaining of thoughts into an associative stream; by de-automatizing and diversifying the content of thought chains (i.e., increasing thought flexibility or variety); and, finally, by re-automatizing chains of thought along desired or valued paths (i.e., forming new, voluntarily chosen mental habits). The authors discuss behavioral and cognitive neuroscientific evidence demonstrating the influence of hypnosis and meditation on internal cognition and highlight the putative neurobiological basis, as well as potential benefits, of these forms of de-automatization.
Cognitive scientists typically classify cognitive processes as either controlled or automatic. Wh... more Cognitive scientists typically classify cognitive processes as either controlled or automatic. Whereas controlled processes are slow and effortful, automatic processes are fast and involuntary. Over the past decade, we have propelled a research trajectory investigating how top-down influence in the form of suggestion can allow individuals to modulate the automaticity of cognitive processes. Here we present an overarching array of converging findings that collectively indicate that certain individuals can derail involuntary processes, such as reading, by " unringing " the proverbial bell. We examine replications of these effects from both our own laboratory and independent groups, and extend our Stroop findings to several other well-established automatic paradigms, including the McGurk effect. We thus demonstrate how, in the case of highly suggestible individuals, suggestion seems to wield control over a process that is likely even more automatic than the Stroop effect. Finally, we present findings from two novel experimental paradigms exploring the potential of shifting automaticity in the opposite direction e i.e., transforming, without practice, a controlled task into one that is automatic. Drawing on related evidence from the neuroscience of contemplative practices, we discuss how these findings pave the road to a more scientific understanding of voluntary control and automaticity, and expound on their possible experimental and therapeutic applications.
Disparate theoretical viewpoints construe hypnotic suggestibility either as a stable trait, large... more Disparate theoretical viewpoints construe hypnotic suggestibility either as a stable trait, largely determined by underlying cognitive aptitude, or as a flexible skill amenable to attitudinal factors including beliefs and expectations. Circumscribed findings support both views. The present study attempted to consolidate these orthogonal perspectives through the lens of expectancy modification. We surreptitiously controlled light and sound stimuli to convince participants that they were responding strongly to hypnotic suggestions for visual and auditory hallucinations. Extending our previous findings, we indexed hypnotic suggestibility by de-automatizing an involuntary audiovisual phenomenon—the McGurk effect. Here we show that, regardless of expectancy modification, the experimental procedure led to heightened expectations concerning future hypnotic response. We found little effect of expectation, however, on actual response to suggestion. Our findings intimate that, at least in the present experimental context, expectation hardly correlates with—and is unlikely to be a primary determinant of—high hypnotic suggestibility.
Meditation is a family of mental practices that encompasses a wide array of techniques employing ... more Meditation is a family of mental practices that encompasses a wide array of techniques employing distinctive mental strategies. We systematically reviewed 78 functional neuroimaging (fMRI and PET) studies of meditation, and used activation likelihood estimation to meta-analyze 257 peak foci from 31 experiments involving 527 participants. We found reliably dissociable patterns of brain activation and deactivation for four common styles of meditation (focused attention, mantra recitation, open monitoring , and compassion/loving-kindness), and suggestive differences for three others (visualization, sense-withdrawal, and non-dual awareness practices). Overall, dissociable activation patterns are congruent with the psychological and behavioral aims of each practice. Some brain areas are recruited consistently across multiple techniques—including insula, pre/supplementary motor cortices, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, and frontopolar cortex—but convergence is the exception rather than the rule. A preliminary effect-size meta-analysis found medium effects for both activations (d = 0.59) and deactivations (d = −0.74), suggesting potential practical significance. Our meta-analysis supports the neu-rophysiological dissociability of meditation practices, but also raises many methodological concerns and suggests avenues for future research.
Placebo response shares phenomenology and likely overlaps with substrates of cognition and person... more Placebo response shares phenomenology and likely overlaps with substrates of cognition and personality. However, inconsistent findings abound regarding the potential link between suggestibility and responding to placebos. Here we directly probe whether suggestibility of the hypnotic type influences placebo response. Fifty healthy undergraduates underwent a standard measure of hypnotic suggestibility — the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility. These participants later ingested a placebo capsule in one of two similar conditions: (a) relaxation, wherein we identified the capsule as a strong dose of an herbal sedative, or (b) control, wherein we identified the capsule as inert. We indexed placebo response via changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and self-report measures of relaxation and drowsiness. We hypothesized that placebo response and hypnotic suggestibility would correlate positively in the relaxation condition. Hypnotic suggestibility correlated with subjective but not physiological response to ingesting the placebo sedative capsule. Here we report preliminary findings demonstrating a correlation between hypnotic suggestibility and subjective placebo response.
Neurofeedback, one of the primary examples of self-regulation, designates a collection of techniq... more Neurofeedback, one of the primary examples of self-regulation, designates a collection of techniques that train the brain and help to improve its function. Since coming on the scene in the 1960s, electroencephalography-neurofeedback has become a treatment vehicle for a host of mental disorders; however, its clinical effectiveness remains controversial. Modern imaging technologies of the living human brain (e.g., real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging) and increasingly rigorous research protocols that utilize such methodol-ogies begin to shed light on the underlying mechanisms that may facilitate more effective clinical applications. In this paper we focus on recent technological advances in the field of human brain imaging and discuss how these modern methods may influence the field of neurofeedback. Toward this end, we outline the state of the evidence and sketch out future directions to further explore the potential merits of this contentious therapeutic prospect.
This review investigates how recent neuroimaging findings on vulnerability for depression and the... more This review investigates how recent neuroimaging findings on vulnerability for depression and the mechanisms of mindfulness may serve to inform and enhance the understanding that is guiding the use of mindfulness training in the prevention and treatment of recurrent and chronic depression. In particular, we review evidence suggesting that alterations in default-mode-network activity and connectivity represent a fundamental deficit underlying cognitive vulnerability for depression and explore the ways in which mindfulness meditation may reverse such alterations. Furthermore, we discuss findings from studies that have investigated the effects of mindfulness on emotion-regulatory capacities. These findings suggest mindful emotion regulation has a characteristic neural signature that is particularly conducive to therapeutic learning. We conclude that training in mindfulness has unique strengths for addressing neural mechanisms associated with cognitive vulnerabilities for recurrent and chronic depression and propose future lines of research to more effectively harness this potential.
Neuroimaging researchers tacitly assume that body-position scantily affects neural activity. Howe... more Neuroimaging researchers tacitly assume that body-position scantily affects neural activity. However, whereas participants in most psychological experiments sit upright, many modern neuroimaging techniques (e.g., fMRI) require participants to lie supine. Sparse findings from elec-troencephalography and positron emission tomography suggest that body position influences cognitive processes and neural activity. Here we leverage multi-postural magnetoen-cephalography (MEG) to further unravel how physical stance alters baseline brain activity. We present resting-state MEG data from 12 healthy participants in three orthostatic conditions (i.e., lying supine, reclined at 45°, and sitting upright). Our findings demonstrate that upright, compared to reclined or supine, posture increases left-hemisphere high-frequency oscillatory activity over common speech areas. This proof-of-concept experiment establishes the feasibility of using MEG to examine the influence of posture on brain dynamics. We highlight the advantages and methodological challenges inherent to this approach and lay the foundation for future studies to further investigate this important, albeit little-acknowledged, procedural caveat.
While most experts agree on the limitations of neuroimaging, the unversed public—and indeed many ... more While most experts agree on the limitations of neuroimaging, the unversed public—and indeed many a scholar—often valorizes brain imaging without heeding its shortcomings. Here we test the boundaries of this phenomenon, which we term neuroenchantment. How much are individuals ready to believe when encountering improbable information through the guise of neuroscience? We introduced participants to a crudely-built mock brain scanner, explaining that the machine would measure neural activity, analyze the data, and then infer the content of complex thoughts. Using a classic magic trick, we crafted an illusion whereby the imaging technology seemed to decipher the internal thoughts of participants. We found that most students—even undergraduates with advanced standing in neuroscience and psychology, who have been taught the shortcomings of neuroimaging—deemed such unlikely technology highly plausi
A benchmark experimental conflict task, the Stroop interference effect, probes selective attentio... more A benchmark experimental conflict task, the Stroop interference effect, probes selective attention. Regarding individual differences, accounts from multiple independent research groups have shown that a specific suggestion to obviate word meaning can reduce the Stroop interference effect in high-but usually not low-hypnotizable participants. Here we report findings from functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) showing that high-hypnotizable participants, compared with low-hypnotizables, may maintain a distinct baseline of attention even outside of hypnosis or suggestion. Although previous neuroimaging investigation of suggestion-induced Stroop reduction implicated a locus of brain regions prominently including the anterior cingulate cortex, here we observed suggestion-free group differences focal to the fusiform gyrus and pulvinar nucleus of the thalamus — regions associated with word reading and visual attention, respectively. We contextualize our findings in terms of earlier efforts that have attempted to link hypnotizability and baseline performance of attention.
Cognitive scientists routinely distinguish between controlled and automatic mental processes. Thr... more Cognitive scientists routinely distinguish between controlled and automatic mental processes. Through learning, practice, and exposure, controlled processes can become automatic; however, whether automatic processes can become deautomatized – recuperated under the purview of control – remains unclear. Here we show that a suggestion derails a deeply ingrained process involving involuntary audiovisual integration. We compared the performance of highly versus less hypnotically suggestible individuals (HSIs versus LSIs) in a classic McGurk paradigm – a perceptual illusion task demonstrating the influence of visual facial movements on auditory speech percepts. Following a posthyp-notic suggestion to prioritize auditory input, HSIs but not LSIs manifested fewer illusory auditory perceptions and correctly identified more auditory percepts. Our findings demonstrate that a suggestion deautomatized a ballistic audiovisual process in HSIs. In addition to guiding our knowledge regarding theories and mechanisms of automaticity, the present findings pave the road to a more scientific understanding of top-down effects and multisensory integration.
Neurofeedback draws on multiple techniques that propel
both healthy and patient populations to se... more Neurofeedback draws on multiple techniques that propel both healthy and patient populations to self-regulate neural activity. Since the 1970s, numerous accounts have promoted electroencephalography-neurofeedback as a viable treatment for a host of mental disorders. Today, while the number of health care providers referring patients to neurofeedback practitioners increases steadily, substantial methodological and conceptual caveats continue to pervade empirical reports. And yet, nascent imaging technologies (e.g., real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging) and increasingly rigorous protocols are paving the road towards more effective applications and a better scientific understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Here, we outline common neurofeedback methods, illuminate the tenuous state of the evidence, and sketch out future directions to further unravel the potential merits of this contentious therapeutic prospect.
At least for some individuals, suggestion seems capable of easing certain automatic processes bac... more At least for some individuals, suggestion seems capable of easing certain automatic processes back into the purview of control. Unrelated to hypnosis and suggestion, a number of accounts have challenged the automaticity of the Stroop effect, demonstrating reduction of Stroop interference (Besner, 2001; Besner and Stolz, 1999a, 1999b, 1999c; Besner, Stolz & Boutilier, 1997; Dishon-Berkovits & Algom, 2000; Kuhl and Kazén, 1999; Long and Prat, 2002; Melara and Algom, 2003; Pansky and Algom, 2002). Furthermore, as Kihlstrom (2011) acknowledges and as we expound on elsewhere in this issue (Lifshitz, Campbell & Raz, 2012), findings from meditative practices coincide with the effects of suggestion on Stroop performance. In this paper we review converging evidence from multiple independent groups of researchers replicating the removal of Stroop interference as a function of suggestion, and expound on nuances of nomenclature regarding suggestibility (Kihlstrom, 2011).
There are communities in which hearing voices frequently is common and expected, and in which par... more There are communities in which hearing voices frequently is common and expected, and in which participants are not expected to have a need for care. This paper compares the ideas and practices of these communities. We observe that these communities utilize cultural models to identify and to explain voice-like events—and that there are some common features to these models across communities. All communities teach participants to “discern,” or identify accurately, the legitimate voice of the spirit or being who speaks. We also observe that there are roughly two methods taught to participants to enable them to experience spirits (or other invisible beings): trained attention to inner experience, and repeated speech to the invisible other. We also observe that all of these communities model a learning process in which the ability to hear spirit (or invisible others) becomes more skilled with practice, and in which what they hear becomes clearer over time. Practice—including the practice of discernment—is presumed to change experience. We also note that despite these shared cultural ideas and practices, there is considerable individual variation in experience—some of which may reflect psychotic process, and some perhaps not. We suggest that voice-like events in this context may be shaped by cognitive expectation and trained practice as well as an experiential pathway, and that researchers could explore these common features both as a way to help those struggling with psychosis, and to consider the possibility that expectations and practice may affect the voice-hearing experience.
International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 2020
The science of contemplation has focused on mindfulness in a manner quite disproportionate to its... more The science of contemplation has focused on mindfulness in a manner quite disproportionate to its use in contemplative traditions.Mindfulness, as understood within the scientific community, is a practice that invites practitioners to disattend to words and images. The practitioner is meant to experience things as they “really are,” unfolding here and now in the flux of embodied sensations. Yet the use of words and images, together with intentions, is a farmore common contemplative practice. The authors present ethnographic research with a syncretic contemplative tradition, Integral Transformative practice (ITP), which grew out of the Human Potential Movement of the 1960s. The authors focus on the practice of “affirmations,” in which practitioners seek to actualize spiritual goals by imagining future possibilities. Our ethnographic account invites new avenues for psychological research to illuminate the role of words and images in contemplation.
Some people seem to have a 'talent' for spiritual experience: they readily sense the presence of ... more Some people seem to have a 'talent' for spiritual experience: they readily sense the presence of supernatural beings, receive special messages from God, and report intense feelings of self-transcendence, awe and wonder. Here we review converging strands of evidence to argue that the trait of 'absorption' captures a general proclivity for having spiritual experiences. Participants scoring highly on the Tellegen Absorption Scale report vivid experiences of hearing God's voice during prayer, intense mystical experiences in response to psychedelics or placebo brain-stimulation, and strong feelings of presence and transcendence when confronted with natural beauty, virtual reality, or music. Several mechanisms may help to explain the relationship between absorption and spiritual experience. We suggest that absorption captures an experiential mindset that intensifies inner and outer sensory experience in ways that reflect both prior expectation and novel sensory engagement. It seems to enable that which must be imagined to feel more real.
Cognitive neuroscientists rarely consider the influence that body position exerts on brain activi... more Cognitive neuroscientists rarely consider the influence that body position exerts on brain activity; yet, postural variation holds important implications for the acquisition and interpretation of neuroimaging data. Whereas participants in most behavioral and EEG experiments sit upright, many prominent brain imaging techniques (e.g., fMRI) require participants to lie supine. Here we demonstrate that physical comportment profoundly alters baseline brain activity as measured by magnetoencephalography (MEG)—an imaging modality that permits multipostural acquisition. We collected resting-state MEG data from 12 healthy participants in three postures (lying supine, reclining at 45°, and sitting upright). Source-modeling analysis revealed a broadly distributed influence of posture on resting brain function. Sitting upright versus lying supine was associated with greater high-frequency (i.e., beta and gamma) activity in widespread parieto-occipital cortex. Moreover, sitting upright and reclining postures correlated with dampened activity in prefrontal regions across a range of bandwidths (i.e., from alpha to low gamma). The observed effects were large, with a mean Cohen's d of 0.95 (SD = 0.23). In addition to neural activity, physiological parameters such as muscle tension and eye blinks may have contributed to these posture-dependent changes in brain signal. Regardless of the underlying mechanisms, however, the present results have important implications for the acquisition and interpretation of multimodal imaging data (e.g., studies combining fMRI or PET with EEG or MEG). More broadly, our findings indicate that generalizing results—from supine neuroimaging measurements to erect positions typical of ecological human behavior—would call for considering the influence that posture wields on brain dynamics.
Commentary on ‘Better than sham? A double-blind placebo-controlled neurofeedback study in primary... more Commentary on ‘Better than sham? A double-blind placebo-controlled neurofeedback study in primary insomnia’, by Schabus et al. 2017 (doi:10.1093/brain/awx011)
Neurofeedback ranks high on the list of ostensibly ‘scientific’ tools available for moulding brain function and bolstering mental processes. And yet, as with other popular techniques such as computerized brain games, a dearth of robust evidence and well-controlled studies characterizes the research sphere of neurofeedback. In this issue of Brain, Schabus and co-workers report a carefully crafted experiment probing the treatment of insomnia; their findings suggest that the benefits of neurofeedback may derive largely from placebo-like effects (Schabus et al., 2017).
This opening chapter introduces the theme of the book and discusses the potential value of bridgi... more This opening chapter introduces the theme of the book and discusses the potential value of bridging empirical studies of hypnosis and meditation. It offers a review of the different sections of the volume and synthesizes the overarching themes. Whereas numerous studies have documented the beneficial impact of hypnosis and meditation, few have harnessed these unique phenomena together, either clinically or as a means of illuminating cognitive questions. Yet, while historically and pragmatically distinct, hypnosis and meditation share much in the way of phenomenology, neurocognitive mechanisms, and potential therapeutic prospects. The marriage of these seemingly disparate yet overlapping contemplative practices promises to improve our scientific understanding of each, as well as unravel the underlying mechanisms. This chapter explores how crosstalk between the domains of hypnosis and meditation fosters novel approaches to self-regulation, binds subjective experience to brain science, and advances the empirical study of consciousness and cognition.
Meditation and hypnosis both aim to facilitate cognitive-emotional flexibility, i.e., the “de-aut... more Meditation and hypnosis both aim to facilitate cognitive-emotional flexibility, i.e., the “de-automatization” of thought and behavior. However, little research or theory has addressed how internal thought patterns might change after such interventions, even though alterations in the internal flow of consciousness may precede externally observable changes in behavior. This chapter outlines three mechanisms by which meditation or hypnosis might alter or reduce automatic associations and elaborations of spontaneous thought: by an overall reduction of the chaining of thoughts into an associative stream; by de-automatizing and diversifying the content of thought chains (i.e., increasing thought flexibility or variety); and, finally, by re-automatizing chains of thought along desired or valued paths (i.e., forming new, voluntarily chosen mental habits). The authors discuss behavioral and cognitive neuroscientific evidence demonstrating the influence of hypnosis and meditation on internal cognition and highlight the putative neurobiological basis, as well as potential benefits, of these forms of de-automatization.
Cognitive scientists typically classify cognitive processes as either controlled or automatic. Wh... more Cognitive scientists typically classify cognitive processes as either controlled or automatic. Whereas controlled processes are slow and effortful, automatic processes are fast and involuntary. Over the past decade, we have propelled a research trajectory investigating how top-down influence in the form of suggestion can allow individuals to modulate the automaticity of cognitive processes. Here we present an overarching array of converging findings that collectively indicate that certain individuals can derail involuntary processes, such as reading, by " unringing " the proverbial bell. We examine replications of these effects from both our own laboratory and independent groups, and extend our Stroop findings to several other well-established automatic paradigms, including the McGurk effect. We thus demonstrate how, in the case of highly suggestible individuals, suggestion seems to wield control over a process that is likely even more automatic than the Stroop effect. Finally, we present findings from two novel experimental paradigms exploring the potential of shifting automaticity in the opposite direction e i.e., transforming, without practice, a controlled task into one that is automatic. Drawing on related evidence from the neuroscience of contemplative practices, we discuss how these findings pave the road to a more scientific understanding of voluntary control and automaticity, and expound on their possible experimental and therapeutic applications.
Disparate theoretical viewpoints construe hypnotic suggestibility either as a stable trait, large... more Disparate theoretical viewpoints construe hypnotic suggestibility either as a stable trait, largely determined by underlying cognitive aptitude, or as a flexible skill amenable to attitudinal factors including beliefs and expectations. Circumscribed findings support both views. The present study attempted to consolidate these orthogonal perspectives through the lens of expectancy modification. We surreptitiously controlled light and sound stimuli to convince participants that they were responding strongly to hypnotic suggestions for visual and auditory hallucinations. Extending our previous findings, we indexed hypnotic suggestibility by de-automatizing an involuntary audiovisual phenomenon—the McGurk effect. Here we show that, regardless of expectancy modification, the experimental procedure led to heightened expectations concerning future hypnotic response. We found little effect of expectation, however, on actual response to suggestion. Our findings intimate that, at least in the present experimental context, expectation hardly correlates with—and is unlikely to be a primary determinant of—high hypnotic suggestibility.
Meditation is a family of mental practices that encompasses a wide array of techniques employing ... more Meditation is a family of mental practices that encompasses a wide array of techniques employing distinctive mental strategies. We systematically reviewed 78 functional neuroimaging (fMRI and PET) studies of meditation, and used activation likelihood estimation to meta-analyze 257 peak foci from 31 experiments involving 527 participants. We found reliably dissociable patterns of brain activation and deactivation for four common styles of meditation (focused attention, mantra recitation, open monitoring , and compassion/loving-kindness), and suggestive differences for three others (visualization, sense-withdrawal, and non-dual awareness practices). Overall, dissociable activation patterns are congruent with the psychological and behavioral aims of each practice. Some brain areas are recruited consistently across multiple techniques—including insula, pre/supplementary motor cortices, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, and frontopolar cortex—but convergence is the exception rather than the rule. A preliminary effect-size meta-analysis found medium effects for both activations (d = 0.59) and deactivations (d = −0.74), suggesting potential practical significance. Our meta-analysis supports the neu-rophysiological dissociability of meditation practices, but also raises many methodological concerns and suggests avenues for future research.
Placebo response shares phenomenology and likely overlaps with substrates of cognition and person... more Placebo response shares phenomenology and likely overlaps with substrates of cognition and personality. However, inconsistent findings abound regarding the potential link between suggestibility and responding to placebos. Here we directly probe whether suggestibility of the hypnotic type influences placebo response. Fifty healthy undergraduates underwent a standard measure of hypnotic suggestibility — the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility. These participants later ingested a placebo capsule in one of two similar conditions: (a) relaxation, wherein we identified the capsule as a strong dose of an herbal sedative, or (b) control, wherein we identified the capsule as inert. We indexed placebo response via changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and self-report measures of relaxation and drowsiness. We hypothesized that placebo response and hypnotic suggestibility would correlate positively in the relaxation condition. Hypnotic suggestibility correlated with subjective but not physiological response to ingesting the placebo sedative capsule. Here we report preliminary findings demonstrating a correlation between hypnotic suggestibility and subjective placebo response.
Neurofeedback, one of the primary examples of self-regulation, designates a collection of techniq... more Neurofeedback, one of the primary examples of self-regulation, designates a collection of techniques that train the brain and help to improve its function. Since coming on the scene in the 1960s, electroencephalography-neurofeedback has become a treatment vehicle for a host of mental disorders; however, its clinical effectiveness remains controversial. Modern imaging technologies of the living human brain (e.g., real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging) and increasingly rigorous research protocols that utilize such methodol-ogies begin to shed light on the underlying mechanisms that may facilitate more effective clinical applications. In this paper we focus on recent technological advances in the field of human brain imaging and discuss how these modern methods may influence the field of neurofeedback. Toward this end, we outline the state of the evidence and sketch out future directions to further explore the potential merits of this contentious therapeutic prospect.
This review investigates how recent neuroimaging findings on vulnerability for depression and the... more This review investigates how recent neuroimaging findings on vulnerability for depression and the mechanisms of mindfulness may serve to inform and enhance the understanding that is guiding the use of mindfulness training in the prevention and treatment of recurrent and chronic depression. In particular, we review evidence suggesting that alterations in default-mode-network activity and connectivity represent a fundamental deficit underlying cognitive vulnerability for depression and explore the ways in which mindfulness meditation may reverse such alterations. Furthermore, we discuss findings from studies that have investigated the effects of mindfulness on emotion-regulatory capacities. These findings suggest mindful emotion regulation has a characteristic neural signature that is particularly conducive to therapeutic learning. We conclude that training in mindfulness has unique strengths for addressing neural mechanisms associated with cognitive vulnerabilities for recurrent and chronic depression and propose future lines of research to more effectively harness this potential.
Neuroimaging researchers tacitly assume that body-position scantily affects neural activity. Howe... more Neuroimaging researchers tacitly assume that body-position scantily affects neural activity. However, whereas participants in most psychological experiments sit upright, many modern neuroimaging techniques (e.g., fMRI) require participants to lie supine. Sparse findings from elec-troencephalography and positron emission tomography suggest that body position influences cognitive processes and neural activity. Here we leverage multi-postural magnetoen-cephalography (MEG) to further unravel how physical stance alters baseline brain activity. We present resting-state MEG data from 12 healthy participants in three orthostatic conditions (i.e., lying supine, reclined at 45°, and sitting upright). Our findings demonstrate that upright, compared to reclined or supine, posture increases left-hemisphere high-frequency oscillatory activity over common speech areas. This proof-of-concept experiment establishes the feasibility of using MEG to examine the influence of posture on brain dynamics. We highlight the advantages and methodological challenges inherent to this approach and lay the foundation for future studies to further investigate this important, albeit little-acknowledged, procedural caveat.
While most experts agree on the limitations of neuroimaging, the unversed public—and indeed many ... more While most experts agree on the limitations of neuroimaging, the unversed public—and indeed many a scholar—often valorizes brain imaging without heeding its shortcomings. Here we test the boundaries of this phenomenon, which we term neuroenchantment. How much are individuals ready to believe when encountering improbable information through the guise of neuroscience? We introduced participants to a crudely-built mock brain scanner, explaining that the machine would measure neural activity, analyze the data, and then infer the content of complex thoughts. Using a classic magic trick, we crafted an illusion whereby the imaging technology seemed to decipher the internal thoughts of participants. We found that most students—even undergraduates with advanced standing in neuroscience and psychology, who have been taught the shortcomings of neuroimaging—deemed such unlikely technology highly plausi
A benchmark experimental conflict task, the Stroop interference effect, probes selective attentio... more A benchmark experimental conflict task, the Stroop interference effect, probes selective attention. Regarding individual differences, accounts from multiple independent research groups have shown that a specific suggestion to obviate word meaning can reduce the Stroop interference effect in high-but usually not low-hypnotizable participants. Here we report findings from functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) showing that high-hypnotizable participants, compared with low-hypnotizables, may maintain a distinct baseline of attention even outside of hypnosis or suggestion. Although previous neuroimaging investigation of suggestion-induced Stroop reduction implicated a locus of brain regions prominently including the anterior cingulate cortex, here we observed suggestion-free group differences focal to the fusiform gyrus and pulvinar nucleus of the thalamus — regions associated with word reading and visual attention, respectively. We contextualize our findings in terms of earlier efforts that have attempted to link hypnotizability and baseline performance of attention.
Cognitive scientists routinely distinguish between controlled and automatic mental processes. Thr... more Cognitive scientists routinely distinguish between controlled and automatic mental processes. Through learning, practice, and exposure, controlled processes can become automatic; however, whether automatic processes can become deautomatized – recuperated under the purview of control – remains unclear. Here we show that a suggestion derails a deeply ingrained process involving involuntary audiovisual integration. We compared the performance of highly versus less hypnotically suggestible individuals (HSIs versus LSIs) in a classic McGurk paradigm – a perceptual illusion task demonstrating the influence of visual facial movements on auditory speech percepts. Following a posthyp-notic suggestion to prioritize auditory input, HSIs but not LSIs manifested fewer illusory auditory perceptions and correctly identified more auditory percepts. Our findings demonstrate that a suggestion deautomatized a ballistic audiovisual process in HSIs. In addition to guiding our knowledge regarding theories and mechanisms of automaticity, the present findings pave the road to a more scientific understanding of top-down effects and multisensory integration.
Neurofeedback draws on multiple techniques that propel
both healthy and patient populations to se... more Neurofeedback draws on multiple techniques that propel both healthy and patient populations to self-regulate neural activity. Since the 1970s, numerous accounts have promoted electroencephalography-neurofeedback as a viable treatment for a host of mental disorders. Today, while the number of health care providers referring patients to neurofeedback practitioners increases steadily, substantial methodological and conceptual caveats continue to pervade empirical reports. And yet, nascent imaging technologies (e.g., real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging) and increasingly rigorous protocols are paving the road towards more effective applications and a better scientific understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Here, we outline common neurofeedback methods, illuminate the tenuous state of the evidence, and sketch out future directions to further unravel the potential merits of this contentious therapeutic prospect.
At least for some individuals, suggestion seems capable of easing certain automatic processes bac... more At least for some individuals, suggestion seems capable of easing certain automatic processes back into the purview of control. Unrelated to hypnosis and suggestion, a number of accounts have challenged the automaticity of the Stroop effect, demonstrating reduction of Stroop interference (Besner, 2001; Besner and Stolz, 1999a, 1999b, 1999c; Besner, Stolz & Boutilier, 1997; Dishon-Berkovits & Algom, 2000; Kuhl and Kazén, 1999; Long and Prat, 2002; Melara and Algom, 2003; Pansky and Algom, 2002). Furthermore, as Kihlstrom (2011) acknowledges and as we expound on elsewhere in this issue (Lifshitz, Campbell & Raz, 2012), findings from meditative practices coincide with the effects of suggestion on Stroop performance. In this paper we review converging evidence from multiple independent groups of researchers replicating the removal of Stroop interference as a function of suggestion, and expound on nuances of nomenclature regarding suggestibility (Kihlstrom, 2011).
This chapter explores psychedelics as catalysts of spontaneous thought. Classic serotonergic psyc... more This chapter explores psychedelics as catalysts of spontaneous thought. Classic serotonergic psychedelics such as psilocybin, LSD, and ayahuasca can induce potent alterations in cognition and perception. The chapter reviews research on these substances through the lens of cultural neurophenomenology, which aims to trace how neurobiology and sociocultural factors interact to shape experience. After a decades-long hiatus, the scientific study of psychedelics is rediscovering the potential of these substances to promote creative insight, evoke mystical experiences, and improve clinical outcomes. Moreover, neuroimaging experiments have begun to unravel the influence of psychedelics on large-scale connectivity networks of the human brain. Tapping perspectives from the social sciences, the chapter underscores how culture and context constrain the flexible cognitive states brought about by psychedelics. This integrative approach suggests that seemingly spontaneous psychedelic thought patterns reflect a complex interaction of biological, cognitive, and cultural factors—from pharmacology and brain function to ritual, belief, and expectation.
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Papers by Michael Lifshitz
flux of embodied sensations. Yet the use of words and images, together with intentions, is a farmore common contemplative practice. The authors present ethnographic research with a syncretic contemplative tradition, Integral Transformative practice (ITP), which grew out of the Human Potential Movement of the 1960s. The authors focus on the practice of
“affirmations,” in which practitioners seek to actualize spiritual goals by imagining future possibilities. Our ethnographic account invites new avenues for psychological research to illuminate the role of words and images in contemplation.
Neurofeedback ranks high on the list of ostensibly ‘scientific’ tools available for moulding brain function and bolstering mental processes. And yet, as with other popular techniques such as computerized brain games, a dearth of robust evidence and well-controlled studies characterizes the research sphere of neurofeedback. In this issue of Brain, Schabus and co-workers report a carefully crafted experiment probing the treatment of insomnia; their findings suggest that the benefits of neurofeedback may derive largely from placebo-like effects (Schabus et al., 2017).
the overarching themes. Whereas numerous studies have documented the beneficial impact of hypnosis and meditation, few have harnessed these unique phenomena together, either clinically or as a means of illuminating cognitive questions. Yet, while historically and pragmatically distinct, hypnosis and meditation share much in the way of phenomenology, neurocognitive mechanisms, and potential therapeutic prospects. The marriage of these seemingly disparate yet overlapping contemplative practices promises to improve our scientific understanding of each, as well as unravel the underlying mechanisms. This chapter explores how crosstalk between the domains of hypnosis and meditation fosters novel approaches to self-regulation, binds subjective experience to brain science, and advances the empirical study of consciousness and cognition.
flow of consciousness may precede externally observable changes in
behavior. This chapter outlines three mechanisms by which meditation or hypnosis might alter or reduce automatic associations and elaborations of spontaneous thought: by an overall reduction of the chaining of thoughts
into an associative stream; by de-automatizing and diversifying the content of thought chains (i.e., increasing thought flexibility or variety); and, finally, by re-automatizing chains of thought along desired or valued paths (i.e., forming new, voluntarily chosen mental habits). The authors discuss behavioral and cognitive neuroscientific evidence demonstrating the influence of hypnosis and meditation on internal cognition and highlight the putative neurobiological basis, as well as potential benefits, of these forms of de-automatization.
visual and auditory hallucinations. Extending our previous findings, we indexed hypnotic suggestibility by de-automatizing an involuntary audiovisual phenomenon—the McGurk
effect. Here we show that, regardless of expectancy modification, the experimental procedure led to heightened expectations concerning future hypnotic response. We found little effect of expectation, however, on actual response to suggestion. Our findings intimate that, at least in the present experimental context, expectation hardly correlates with—and is unlikely to be a primary determinant of—high hypnotic suggestibility.
mindfulness may serve to inform and enhance the understanding that is guiding the use of mindfulness training in
the prevention and treatment of recurrent and chronic depression. In particular, we review evidence suggesting that
alterations in default-mode-network activity and connectivity represent a fundamental deficit underlying cognitive
vulnerability for depression and explore the ways in which mindfulness meditation may reverse such alterations.
Furthermore, we discuss findings from studies that have investigated the effects of mindfulness on emotion-regulatory
capacities. These findings suggest mindful emotion regulation has a characteristic neural signature that is particularly
conducive to therapeutic learning. We conclude that training in mindfulness has unique strengths for addressing neural
mechanisms associated with cognitive vulnerabilities for recurrent and chronic depression and propose future lines of
research to more effectively harness this potential.
Here we test the boundaries of this phenomenon, which we term neuroenchantment. How much are individuals ready to believe when encountering improbable information through the guise of neuroscience? We introduced participants to a crudely-built mock brain scanner, explaining that the machine would measure neural activity, analyze the data,
and then infer the content of complex thoughts. Using a classic magic trick, we crafted an illusion whereby the imaging technology seemed to decipher the internal thoughts of participants. We found that most students—even undergraduates with advanced
standing in neuroscience and psychology, who have been taught the shortcomings of neuroimaging—deemed such unlikely technology highly plausi
both healthy and patient populations to self-regulate neural activity. Since the 1970s, numerous accounts have promoted electroencephalography-neurofeedback as a viable
treatment for a host of mental disorders. Today, while the
number of health care providers referring patients to neurofeedback practitioners increases steadily, substantial methodological and conceptual caveats continue to pervade empirical reports. And yet, nascent imaging technologies (e.g., real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging) and increasingly rigorous protocols are paving the road towards
more effective applications and a better scientific understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Here, we outline common neurofeedback methods, illuminate the tenuous state of the evidence, and sketch out future directions to further unravel the potential merits of this contentious therapeutic prospect.
control. Unrelated to hypnosis and suggestion, a number of accounts have challenged the automaticity of the Stroop effect, demonstrating reduction of Stroop interference (Besner, 2001; Besner and Stolz, 1999a, 1999b, 1999c; Besner, Stolz & Boutilier, 1997; Dishon-Berkovits & Algom, 2000; Kuhl and Kazén, 1999; Long and Prat, 2002; Melara and Algom, 2003; Pansky and Algom, 2002). Furthermore, as Kihlstrom (2011) acknowledges and as we expound on elsewhere in this issue (Lifshitz, Campbell & Raz, 2012), findings from meditative practices coincide with the effects of suggestion on Stroop performance. In this paper we review converging evidence from multiple independent groups of researchers replicating the removal of Stroop interference as a function of suggestion, and expound on nuances of nomenclature regarding suggestibility (Kihlstrom, 2011).
flux of embodied sensations. Yet the use of words and images, together with intentions, is a farmore common contemplative practice. The authors present ethnographic research with a syncretic contemplative tradition, Integral Transformative practice (ITP), which grew out of the Human Potential Movement of the 1960s. The authors focus on the practice of
“affirmations,” in which practitioners seek to actualize spiritual goals by imagining future possibilities. Our ethnographic account invites new avenues for psychological research to illuminate the role of words and images in contemplation.
Neurofeedback ranks high on the list of ostensibly ‘scientific’ tools available for moulding brain function and bolstering mental processes. And yet, as with other popular techniques such as computerized brain games, a dearth of robust evidence and well-controlled studies characterizes the research sphere of neurofeedback. In this issue of Brain, Schabus and co-workers report a carefully crafted experiment probing the treatment of insomnia; their findings suggest that the benefits of neurofeedback may derive largely from placebo-like effects (Schabus et al., 2017).
the overarching themes. Whereas numerous studies have documented the beneficial impact of hypnosis and meditation, few have harnessed these unique phenomena together, either clinically or as a means of illuminating cognitive questions. Yet, while historically and pragmatically distinct, hypnosis and meditation share much in the way of phenomenology, neurocognitive mechanisms, and potential therapeutic prospects. The marriage of these seemingly disparate yet overlapping contemplative practices promises to improve our scientific understanding of each, as well as unravel the underlying mechanisms. This chapter explores how crosstalk between the domains of hypnosis and meditation fosters novel approaches to self-regulation, binds subjective experience to brain science, and advances the empirical study of consciousness and cognition.
flow of consciousness may precede externally observable changes in
behavior. This chapter outlines three mechanisms by which meditation or hypnosis might alter or reduce automatic associations and elaborations of spontaneous thought: by an overall reduction of the chaining of thoughts
into an associative stream; by de-automatizing and diversifying the content of thought chains (i.e., increasing thought flexibility or variety); and, finally, by re-automatizing chains of thought along desired or valued paths (i.e., forming new, voluntarily chosen mental habits). The authors discuss behavioral and cognitive neuroscientific evidence demonstrating the influence of hypnosis and meditation on internal cognition and highlight the putative neurobiological basis, as well as potential benefits, of these forms of de-automatization.
visual and auditory hallucinations. Extending our previous findings, we indexed hypnotic suggestibility by de-automatizing an involuntary audiovisual phenomenon—the McGurk
effect. Here we show that, regardless of expectancy modification, the experimental procedure led to heightened expectations concerning future hypnotic response. We found little effect of expectation, however, on actual response to suggestion. Our findings intimate that, at least in the present experimental context, expectation hardly correlates with—and is unlikely to be a primary determinant of—high hypnotic suggestibility.
mindfulness may serve to inform and enhance the understanding that is guiding the use of mindfulness training in
the prevention and treatment of recurrent and chronic depression. In particular, we review evidence suggesting that
alterations in default-mode-network activity and connectivity represent a fundamental deficit underlying cognitive
vulnerability for depression and explore the ways in which mindfulness meditation may reverse such alterations.
Furthermore, we discuss findings from studies that have investigated the effects of mindfulness on emotion-regulatory
capacities. These findings suggest mindful emotion regulation has a characteristic neural signature that is particularly
conducive to therapeutic learning. We conclude that training in mindfulness has unique strengths for addressing neural
mechanisms associated with cognitive vulnerabilities for recurrent and chronic depression and propose future lines of
research to more effectively harness this potential.
Here we test the boundaries of this phenomenon, which we term neuroenchantment. How much are individuals ready to believe when encountering improbable information through the guise of neuroscience? We introduced participants to a crudely-built mock brain scanner, explaining that the machine would measure neural activity, analyze the data,
and then infer the content of complex thoughts. Using a classic magic trick, we crafted an illusion whereby the imaging technology seemed to decipher the internal thoughts of participants. We found that most students—even undergraduates with advanced
standing in neuroscience and psychology, who have been taught the shortcomings of neuroimaging—deemed such unlikely technology highly plausi
both healthy and patient populations to self-regulate neural activity. Since the 1970s, numerous accounts have promoted electroencephalography-neurofeedback as a viable
treatment for a host of mental disorders. Today, while the
number of health care providers referring patients to neurofeedback practitioners increases steadily, substantial methodological and conceptual caveats continue to pervade empirical reports. And yet, nascent imaging technologies (e.g., real-time functional magnetic resonance imaging) and increasingly rigorous protocols are paving the road towards
more effective applications and a better scientific understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Here, we outline common neurofeedback methods, illuminate the tenuous state of the evidence, and sketch out future directions to further unravel the potential merits of this contentious therapeutic prospect.
control. Unrelated to hypnosis and suggestion, a number of accounts have challenged the automaticity of the Stroop effect, demonstrating reduction of Stroop interference (Besner, 2001; Besner and Stolz, 1999a, 1999b, 1999c; Besner, Stolz & Boutilier, 1997; Dishon-Berkovits & Algom, 2000; Kuhl and Kazén, 1999; Long and Prat, 2002; Melara and Algom, 2003; Pansky and Algom, 2002). Furthermore, as Kihlstrom (2011) acknowledges and as we expound on elsewhere in this issue (Lifshitz, Campbell & Raz, 2012), findings from meditative practices coincide with the effects of suggestion on Stroop performance. In this paper we review converging evidence from multiple independent groups of researchers replicating the removal of Stroop interference as a function of suggestion, and expound on nuances of nomenclature regarding suggestibility (Kihlstrom, 2011).