Journal Articles by Benjamin A Morgan
Web3 technologies have demonstrated potential for musicians to reach new audiences and benefit fr... more Web3 technologies have demonstrated potential for musicians to reach new audiences and benefit from new revenue streams.
To date the uptake and exploitation of Web3 technologies among Australian musicians has been limited. This project produced 10 music NFTs with 9 Australian artists to examine the barriers to adoption of Web3 for Australian music communities. Insights were gained through in-depth interviews with participants and via assisting them to bring their NFTs to market. The project was funded by the APRA AMCOS Digital Futures Initiative and administered by the Australia Council for the Arts.
LIsten to the NFTs and podcasts by the researchers about this project at https://mirror.xyz/0xBf1217a01f3b437620E4D7678b4bd2558Dc39FFc
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M/C Journal, 2022
In a 2019 report for the International Journal of Communication, Baym et al. positioned distribut... more In a 2019 report for the International Journal of Communication, Baym et al. positioned distributed blockchain ledger technology, and what would subsequently be referred to as Web3, as a convening technology. Riffing off Barnett, a convening technology “initiates and serves as the focus of a conversation that can address issues far beyond what it may ultimately be able to address itself” (403). The case studies for the Baym et al. research—early, aspirant projects applying the blockchain concept to music publishing and distribution—are described in the piece as speculations or provocations concerning music’s commercial and social future. What is convened in this era (pre-2017 blockchain music discourse and practice) is the potential for change: a type of widespread, broadly discussed, reimagination of the 21st-century music industries, productive precisely because near-future applications suggest the realisation of what Baym et al. call dreams.
In this article, we aim to examine the Web3 music field as it lies some years later. Taking the latter half of 2021 as our subject, we present a survey of where music then resided within Web3, focussing on how the dreams of Baym et al. have morphed and evolved, and materialised and declined, in the intervening years. By investigating the discourse and functionality of 2021’s current crop of music NFTs—just one thread of music Web3’s far-reaching aspiration, but a potent and accessible manifestation nonetheless—we can make a detailed analysis of concept-led application. Volatility remains throughout the broader sector, and all of the projects listed here could be read as conditionally short-term and untested, but what they represent is a series of clearly evolved case studies of the dream, rich precisely because of what is assumed and disregarded.
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Popular Communication, 2020
This article analyzes the perception of recording industry change in Australia through a focus on... more This article analyzes the perception of recording industry change in Australia through a focus on the curated playlist as a sociotechnical intermediary. During the rapid expansion of commercial music streaming services between 2016 and 2018, musician and recording industry enthusiasm for revenue growth was tempered by trepidation surrounding change. This article presents findings from interview research conducted with Australian artists and music industry professionals to provide insight on the promotion of popular music within the often opaque blend of human and algorithmic structures inside the digital music streaming commodity. It explores the apprehension and enthusiasm over the affordances of the new recommendation and discovery ecosystems, centered around the in-house curated Spotify playlist. Debates surrounding the topics of revenue, access, and engagement are explored. Analysis will demonstrate the increasingly influential role music streaming services and recommendation tools are perceived to play in the sectors of retail, promotion, and distribution.
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Cultural Trends, Jan 13, 2016
Ample institutional rhetoric can be found within the creative economy discourse regarding the ide... more Ample institutional rhetoric can be found within the creative economy discourse regarding the idealized role of creative and cultural industries in development as a driver, an embryonic engine, or an instrumental tool. Research regarding how governments and development organizations can help artists and creators in low income countries realize this potential and transform informal (or non-existent) markets into sustainable industry sectors is quite elusive. De Beukelaer’s book focuses on the issues raised around a relatively unexplored question: how can low-income countries build the capacity of their cultural industries?
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Studia Europaea, 2015
Hiring local artists to collaborate on efforts intending to change values and alter behavior is a... more Hiring local artists to collaborate on efforts intending to change values and alter behavior is an approach used by aid organizations in international development. Soft-power campaigns targeting local attitudes are often seen by the development institution as positive collaborations between foreign humanitarians and local artists. “Song for Hawa,” a 2013 collaboration between Liberian artist/rapper Takun J, and the international NGO PCI Media Impact, is a cultural diplomacy campaign intending to engage Liberians about the difficult topic of child rape. This paper discusses concerns with this instrumental approach to culture in development, and difficulties with the impact evaluation of using art to affect social change.
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Book chapters by Benjamin A Morgan
Rethinking the Music Business, 2022
This chapter discusses the reaction of musicians and recording industry professionals to specific... more This chapter discusses the reaction of musicians and recording industry professionals to specific novel affordances of music streaming services which are directly linked to their digital platform nature: third-party playlist promotion and automated recommendation systems. In semi-structured interviews with Australian musicians and industry workers conducted in 2017 and 2018, specific practices in distribution which were adapted to these platform features were avoided, derided or not well understood by the research participants. The chapter will briefly discuss the finding that participants in the Australian music industries were disinterested in these platform affordances, followed by two recent examples of strategies that embrace these platform affordances. This chapter seeks to clarify distinct strategic activities for seeking access to different kinds of playlists. It discusses the (dis)interest in approaching different playlists and clarifies some misconceptions surrounding the concept of playola. The perceived legitimacy of different approaches to promoting music on playlists can be linked to the entrenched European concept of the autonomous artist; negative reactions to these new affordances are framed as a defence of legacy logics of preselection, where workers and intermediaries seek to maintain control over a system which constructs hits and stars, and views valuable music as fundamentally rare.
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Music and Democracy: Participatory Approaches, 2021
At the turn of the 2020s, music is largely distributed and consumed via streaming services. This ... more At the turn of the 2020s, music is largely distributed and consumed via streaming services. This new “moment” in recorded music has attracted a lot of attention from scholars, with the aim of identifying the nature of transformations that are occurring at an economic and/or cultural level. This chapter critically assesses scholarly analyses of music production, distribution, and consumption in the age of streaming services. We note that accounts tend to work with specific assumptions underpinning the association between culture and technology, in particular in relation to the democratization of access. We argue in this chapter that music streaming services become a leitmotiv to anchor discourses about what music should ideally be, thus reproducing narratives that predate the emergence of music streaming.
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The Cultural Turn in International Aid: Impacts and Challenges for Heritage and the Creative Industries (edited by S.Labadi), 2020
In 2014, potential economic interventions in the Republic of Liberia’s music industries were expl... more In 2014, potential economic interventions in the Republic of Liberia’s music industries were explored in early drafts of their Private Sector Development Strategy (PSDS). This chapter reflects on and explicates the process and portions of this qualitative research into the Liberian music industries commissioned by the World Bank. Autoethnographic method, informed by theories from cultural policy, media, and development studies, uncovers how normative ideas and institutional optimism led to well-intentioned, unsuccessful recommendations. Strategy for cultural industry development can be improved to create more realistic, localised, reflexive, and non-linear approaches that value, integrate, and build upon existing informal media markets.
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Theses by Benjamin A Morgan
PhD Thesis, 2021
This thesis examines how recording artists and professionals understood the impact of music strea... more This thesis examines how recording artists and professionals understood the impact of music streaming services in the Australian market between 2017 and 2018. During this period, services such as Spotify and Apple Music emerged as the largest generators of recording revenue for copyright holders following years of rapid global growth. This coincided with an increasing popularity of curated playlists and automated recommendation features, as well as persistent media narratives positioning streaming as economically unfair and/or culturally harmful to popular music. Drawing on twenty-nine semi-structured interviews with Australian musicians and music business professionals, this thesis explores how participants in the music industries understood and responded to the new affordances of music streaming interfaces, the usage data and other metrics generated by these services, and the role these services play within the commercial circulation of recordings.
This thesis finds that during these key years of transition to streaming for the Australian recording industry, specific areas of practice became highly interdependent with streaming services. However, there was little evidence of 'producing for the platform.' Participants described their roles in the music industries as artists, producers, and professionals who work together with interdependent firms and agents to circulate music. Streaming services were positioned as information technology or media firms extending prior functions of radio and retail, rather than as co-producers of musical experience commodities, new versions of record labels, or as 'music companies.' This separation between (creative) production and (mundane) distribution by streaming services reflects boundary disputes over art and commerce, as well as territorial concerns over who are the legitimate producers of popular music. The research finds that participants adjusted their distribution strategies to suit the new environment of streaming services; however, optimising musical production specifically for streaming services was considered inauthentic.
My thesis locates these articulations of industry practice within current debates in music industries research, and related fields including digital media studies, popular music studies, media industry studies, sociology, and cultural economics. I show how current debates about music streaming relate to larger concerns about autonomy in cultural production. The thesis reveals specific areas of industry practice where technological change was embraced, and where existing logics of autonomy were defended. By analysing these understandings of technological change during a period of considerable industry volatility, the thesis seeks to recognise, acknowledge, and contribute to improving the conditions under which musicians and professionals in the music industries derive livelihoods from the creation and circulation of music.
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MA thesis in Cultural Diplomacy and Global Economies, 2015
Creative and cultural industries currently enjoy significant hyperbole as drivers of economic gro... more Creative and cultural industries currently enjoy significant hyperbole as drivers of economic growth and human development in the least developed countries. This optimistic institutional discourse has yet to be matched by practical implementation of economic interventions intended to expand quality, professionalism, opportunities, and revenue in the cultural industry sectors. This hesitancy is examined through a historical overview of the role of culture in international development, and a cross-disciplinary approach will be used to examine concerns and possible frameworks regarding cultural policy in strategic planning in least-developed countries (LDCs). An autoethnographic case study of the music industry sector in Liberia explores the tension, opportunities, and potential drawbacks of an interventionist approach in one of the world's poorest economies. Informal markets, sector gaps, and research gaps present obstacles that necessitate non-instrumental, localized, non-linear approaches and reasonable expectations for sector growth. Can bottom-up sector reform informed by existing practice be encouraged while simultaneously working towards WIPO compliance, strengthening copyright policy, and preparing for the global marketplace? There are many questions to be answered, and key areas where research is needed to begin to answer them shall be identified. Demonstrating legitimate, non-instrumental, intrinsic spillover effect(s) could convince governments to prioritize further development funding of interventions in cultural market sectors. This study hopes to bring us closer to being able to answer the question: are economic interventions in cultural industry sectors in LDCs worth pursuing?
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Reports by Benjamin A Morgan
Web3 is an online ecosystem based on blockchain technologies, involving peer-to-peer transactions... more Web3 is an online ecosystem based on blockchain technologies, involving peer-to-peer transactions and coordination tools. This report examines the what, why, who and where of Web3 for the cultural and creative industries, using examples from visual art, music and games.
In Part 1, the authors ask 'what is Web3?' They provide a non-technical description of its key components. The underlying infrastructure of Web3 – blockchain – achieves common knowledge (agreement on facts) and reduces reliance on institutions and firms, including Web2.0 platforms. The result is that people can coordinate more easily and build or repurpose innovations that serve their needs. Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) are significant for creative practitioners as they can represent property, make it easy to transfer ownership, and can contain metadata used to trace creative works and define how a work is used. Decentralised Autonomous Organisations (DAOs) assist groups to form and manage their affairs, bringing new capabilities through software tools, such as managing contributions and setting rules around participation (governance). Smart contracts are the software components that drive automation and web3 applications, whereby the program carries out contract-like instructions, such as how royalties are to be paid.
Part 1 also addresses the environmental impact of blockchain technology. Understanding the environmental impact of NFTs means looking not just at computational processes involved in maintaining blockchains (mining and staking), but also how digital files are stored in decentralised storage systems. The good news is that the rise of proof-of-stake blockchains is reducing the carbon footprint of blockchain platforms, with Ethereum’s recent transition estimated to have reduced the world’s energy use by 0.2%.
Part 2 examines why artists are using Web3. The authors show how Web3 is enabling ownership of the creative intention of the artist (as opposed to the material form of the artwork); assisting artist collectives to form via DAOs; incentivising artists to understand and feel empowered through metadata; giving gamers ownership over their assets; and providing new means for musicians to reward their fans. Some artists are finding ways to earn money outside of incumbent industry structures and processes as a result – including artists from underprivileged backgrounds and previously marginalised practices. The authors examine these dynamics using examples of Australians who are producing Web3 projects, among them Jan van Schaik’s Lost Tablets NFT series, Emanate and Moda DAO’s work in music, the AAA game Illuvium, and Mimicus Etheriensis – a project designed to draw attention to some of the weaknesses in NFT standards and markets. They also discuss the importance of metadata for this emerging digital economy via the work of Envoke.
Part 3 discusses the findings of a research survey, which asked Australian creative practitioners whether they are using blockchain technologies, and if not, why not. The survey results show that Australian creative practitioners are polarised in their views on Web3. Some see it as a site for opportunity and a means to correct the inequities and exclusions of the cultural economy. Others believe Web3 is undermining cultural value and wasting Earth’s resources. Because of these divergent attitudes, Web3 may never result in a wholesale transformation of the creative industries, and it may even dissuade some artists from engaging in creative collaborations. However, those who are using the technology believe it is here to stay.
Part 4 uses secondary sources to provide an overview of how cultural institutions are responding. Cultural institutions already play a key role in managing records that show the provenance of works and Web3 can extend this role and amplify reputational capital. For instance, the trail of information generated through NFT transfers can provide greater visibility to smaller galleries and collectors as works get picked up by public institutions. However, cultural institutions will also need to learn new skills, including how to manage digital wallets and their associated keys and ensuring ongoing storage of digital works.
Web3 is also raising a new set of questions in relation to intellectual property and consumer protection. In Part 5, the authors step through a series of scenarios that creative practitioners might encounter when developing Web3 projects, and the associated legal questions. These include situations where a project commissions an artist to create an NFT (or where a DAO does); a musician wanting to release an existing song or album as an NFT; when a project wishes to allow owners to re-use a work, and more. Using recent examples and cases, we show how, in general, existing laws still apply. New and unresolved legal areas include questions about who has authorship when an artwork is created by a non-human entity (e.g., AI and generative art), how or whether licences can be transferred along with a token, and whether a DAO can own intellectual property. Some of the grey areas outlined in Part 5 will only be resolved through the courts and legislature over time, and some may require amendments to existing laws before any certainty can be achieved. In the meantime, the onus is on creators and buyers to assess the risks and seek legal advice where necessary.
The key conclusion is that Web3 is not replacing the existing cultural economy, but it is providing creative practitioners with new capabilities. Established markets and processes are beginning to be challenged in a serious way. However, those who resist Web3 will be largely unaffected - for now. Those who choose to take up Web3 may experience significant opportunities – not only new business models, but new collaborations, ways of organising, and new ways to connect with audiences.
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Book Reviews by Benjamin A Morgan
International Journal of Music Business Research, 2023
Computing Taste is a remarkable book about people who design and build commercial music recommend... more Computing Taste is a remarkable book about people who design and build commercial music recommendationsystems.
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Uploads
Journal Articles by Benjamin A Morgan
To date the uptake and exploitation of Web3 technologies among Australian musicians has been limited. This project produced 10 music NFTs with 9 Australian artists to examine the barriers to adoption of Web3 for Australian music communities. Insights were gained through in-depth interviews with participants and via assisting them to bring their NFTs to market. The project was funded by the APRA AMCOS Digital Futures Initiative and administered by the Australia Council for the Arts.
LIsten to the NFTs and podcasts by the researchers about this project at https://mirror.xyz/0xBf1217a01f3b437620E4D7678b4bd2558Dc39FFc
In this article, we aim to examine the Web3 music field as it lies some years later. Taking the latter half of 2021 as our subject, we present a survey of where music then resided within Web3, focussing on how the dreams of Baym et al. have morphed and evolved, and materialised and declined, in the intervening years. By investigating the discourse and functionality of 2021’s current crop of music NFTs—just one thread of music Web3’s far-reaching aspiration, but a potent and accessible manifestation nonetheless—we can make a detailed analysis of concept-led application. Volatility remains throughout the broader sector, and all of the projects listed here could be read as conditionally short-term and untested, but what they represent is a series of clearly evolved case studies of the dream, rich precisely because of what is assumed and disregarded.
Book chapters by Benjamin A Morgan
Theses by Benjamin A Morgan
This thesis finds that during these key years of transition to streaming for the Australian recording industry, specific areas of practice became highly interdependent with streaming services. However, there was little evidence of 'producing for the platform.' Participants described their roles in the music industries as artists, producers, and professionals who work together with interdependent firms and agents to circulate music. Streaming services were positioned as information technology or media firms extending prior functions of radio and retail, rather than as co-producers of musical experience commodities, new versions of record labels, or as 'music companies.' This separation between (creative) production and (mundane) distribution by streaming services reflects boundary disputes over art and commerce, as well as territorial concerns over who are the legitimate producers of popular music. The research finds that participants adjusted their distribution strategies to suit the new environment of streaming services; however, optimising musical production specifically for streaming services was considered inauthentic.
My thesis locates these articulations of industry practice within current debates in music industries research, and related fields including digital media studies, popular music studies, media industry studies, sociology, and cultural economics. I show how current debates about music streaming relate to larger concerns about autonomy in cultural production. The thesis reveals specific areas of industry practice where technological change was embraced, and where existing logics of autonomy were defended. By analysing these understandings of technological change during a period of considerable industry volatility, the thesis seeks to recognise, acknowledge, and contribute to improving the conditions under which musicians and professionals in the music industries derive livelihoods from the creation and circulation of music.
Reports by Benjamin A Morgan
In Part 1, the authors ask 'what is Web3?' They provide a non-technical description of its key components. The underlying infrastructure of Web3 – blockchain – achieves common knowledge (agreement on facts) and reduces reliance on institutions and firms, including Web2.0 platforms. The result is that people can coordinate more easily and build or repurpose innovations that serve their needs. Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) are significant for creative practitioners as they can represent property, make it easy to transfer ownership, and can contain metadata used to trace creative works and define how a work is used. Decentralised Autonomous Organisations (DAOs) assist groups to form and manage their affairs, bringing new capabilities through software tools, such as managing contributions and setting rules around participation (governance). Smart contracts are the software components that drive automation and web3 applications, whereby the program carries out contract-like instructions, such as how royalties are to be paid.
Part 1 also addresses the environmental impact of blockchain technology. Understanding the environmental impact of NFTs means looking not just at computational processes involved in maintaining blockchains (mining and staking), but also how digital files are stored in decentralised storage systems. The good news is that the rise of proof-of-stake blockchains is reducing the carbon footprint of blockchain platforms, with Ethereum’s recent transition estimated to have reduced the world’s energy use by 0.2%.
Part 2 examines why artists are using Web3. The authors show how Web3 is enabling ownership of the creative intention of the artist (as opposed to the material form of the artwork); assisting artist collectives to form via DAOs; incentivising artists to understand and feel empowered through metadata; giving gamers ownership over their assets; and providing new means for musicians to reward their fans. Some artists are finding ways to earn money outside of incumbent industry structures and processes as a result – including artists from underprivileged backgrounds and previously marginalised practices. The authors examine these dynamics using examples of Australians who are producing Web3 projects, among them Jan van Schaik’s Lost Tablets NFT series, Emanate and Moda DAO’s work in music, the AAA game Illuvium, and Mimicus Etheriensis – a project designed to draw attention to some of the weaknesses in NFT standards and markets. They also discuss the importance of metadata for this emerging digital economy via the work of Envoke.
Part 3 discusses the findings of a research survey, which asked Australian creative practitioners whether they are using blockchain technologies, and if not, why not. The survey results show that Australian creative practitioners are polarised in their views on Web3. Some see it as a site for opportunity and a means to correct the inequities and exclusions of the cultural economy. Others believe Web3 is undermining cultural value and wasting Earth’s resources. Because of these divergent attitudes, Web3 may never result in a wholesale transformation of the creative industries, and it may even dissuade some artists from engaging in creative collaborations. However, those who are using the technology believe it is here to stay.
Part 4 uses secondary sources to provide an overview of how cultural institutions are responding. Cultural institutions already play a key role in managing records that show the provenance of works and Web3 can extend this role and amplify reputational capital. For instance, the trail of information generated through NFT transfers can provide greater visibility to smaller galleries and collectors as works get picked up by public institutions. However, cultural institutions will also need to learn new skills, including how to manage digital wallets and their associated keys and ensuring ongoing storage of digital works.
Web3 is also raising a new set of questions in relation to intellectual property and consumer protection. In Part 5, the authors step through a series of scenarios that creative practitioners might encounter when developing Web3 projects, and the associated legal questions. These include situations where a project commissions an artist to create an NFT (or where a DAO does); a musician wanting to release an existing song or album as an NFT; when a project wishes to allow owners to re-use a work, and more. Using recent examples and cases, we show how, in general, existing laws still apply. New and unresolved legal areas include questions about who has authorship when an artwork is created by a non-human entity (e.g., AI and generative art), how or whether licences can be transferred along with a token, and whether a DAO can own intellectual property. Some of the grey areas outlined in Part 5 will only be resolved through the courts and legislature over time, and some may require amendments to existing laws before any certainty can be achieved. In the meantime, the onus is on creators and buyers to assess the risks and seek legal advice where necessary.
The key conclusion is that Web3 is not replacing the existing cultural economy, but it is providing creative practitioners with new capabilities. Established markets and processes are beginning to be challenged in a serious way. However, those who resist Web3 will be largely unaffected - for now. Those who choose to take up Web3 may experience significant opportunities – not only new business models, but new collaborations, ways of organising, and new ways to connect with audiences.
Book Reviews by Benjamin A Morgan
To date the uptake and exploitation of Web3 technologies among Australian musicians has been limited. This project produced 10 music NFTs with 9 Australian artists to examine the barriers to adoption of Web3 for Australian music communities. Insights were gained through in-depth interviews with participants and via assisting them to bring their NFTs to market. The project was funded by the APRA AMCOS Digital Futures Initiative and administered by the Australia Council for the Arts.
LIsten to the NFTs and podcasts by the researchers about this project at https://mirror.xyz/0xBf1217a01f3b437620E4D7678b4bd2558Dc39FFc
In this article, we aim to examine the Web3 music field as it lies some years later. Taking the latter half of 2021 as our subject, we present a survey of where music then resided within Web3, focussing on how the dreams of Baym et al. have morphed and evolved, and materialised and declined, in the intervening years. By investigating the discourse and functionality of 2021’s current crop of music NFTs—just one thread of music Web3’s far-reaching aspiration, but a potent and accessible manifestation nonetheless—we can make a detailed analysis of concept-led application. Volatility remains throughout the broader sector, and all of the projects listed here could be read as conditionally short-term and untested, but what they represent is a series of clearly evolved case studies of the dream, rich precisely because of what is assumed and disregarded.
This thesis finds that during these key years of transition to streaming for the Australian recording industry, specific areas of practice became highly interdependent with streaming services. However, there was little evidence of 'producing for the platform.' Participants described their roles in the music industries as artists, producers, and professionals who work together with interdependent firms and agents to circulate music. Streaming services were positioned as information technology or media firms extending prior functions of radio and retail, rather than as co-producers of musical experience commodities, new versions of record labels, or as 'music companies.' This separation between (creative) production and (mundane) distribution by streaming services reflects boundary disputes over art and commerce, as well as territorial concerns over who are the legitimate producers of popular music. The research finds that participants adjusted their distribution strategies to suit the new environment of streaming services; however, optimising musical production specifically for streaming services was considered inauthentic.
My thesis locates these articulations of industry practice within current debates in music industries research, and related fields including digital media studies, popular music studies, media industry studies, sociology, and cultural economics. I show how current debates about music streaming relate to larger concerns about autonomy in cultural production. The thesis reveals specific areas of industry practice where technological change was embraced, and where existing logics of autonomy were defended. By analysing these understandings of technological change during a period of considerable industry volatility, the thesis seeks to recognise, acknowledge, and contribute to improving the conditions under which musicians and professionals in the music industries derive livelihoods from the creation and circulation of music.
In Part 1, the authors ask 'what is Web3?' They provide a non-technical description of its key components. The underlying infrastructure of Web3 – blockchain – achieves common knowledge (agreement on facts) and reduces reliance on institutions and firms, including Web2.0 platforms. The result is that people can coordinate more easily and build or repurpose innovations that serve their needs. Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) are significant for creative practitioners as they can represent property, make it easy to transfer ownership, and can contain metadata used to trace creative works and define how a work is used. Decentralised Autonomous Organisations (DAOs) assist groups to form and manage their affairs, bringing new capabilities through software tools, such as managing contributions and setting rules around participation (governance). Smart contracts are the software components that drive automation and web3 applications, whereby the program carries out contract-like instructions, such as how royalties are to be paid.
Part 1 also addresses the environmental impact of blockchain technology. Understanding the environmental impact of NFTs means looking not just at computational processes involved in maintaining blockchains (mining and staking), but also how digital files are stored in decentralised storage systems. The good news is that the rise of proof-of-stake blockchains is reducing the carbon footprint of blockchain platforms, with Ethereum’s recent transition estimated to have reduced the world’s energy use by 0.2%.
Part 2 examines why artists are using Web3. The authors show how Web3 is enabling ownership of the creative intention of the artist (as opposed to the material form of the artwork); assisting artist collectives to form via DAOs; incentivising artists to understand and feel empowered through metadata; giving gamers ownership over their assets; and providing new means for musicians to reward their fans. Some artists are finding ways to earn money outside of incumbent industry structures and processes as a result – including artists from underprivileged backgrounds and previously marginalised practices. The authors examine these dynamics using examples of Australians who are producing Web3 projects, among them Jan van Schaik’s Lost Tablets NFT series, Emanate and Moda DAO’s work in music, the AAA game Illuvium, and Mimicus Etheriensis – a project designed to draw attention to some of the weaknesses in NFT standards and markets. They also discuss the importance of metadata for this emerging digital economy via the work of Envoke.
Part 3 discusses the findings of a research survey, which asked Australian creative practitioners whether they are using blockchain technologies, and if not, why not. The survey results show that Australian creative practitioners are polarised in their views on Web3. Some see it as a site for opportunity and a means to correct the inequities and exclusions of the cultural economy. Others believe Web3 is undermining cultural value and wasting Earth’s resources. Because of these divergent attitudes, Web3 may never result in a wholesale transformation of the creative industries, and it may even dissuade some artists from engaging in creative collaborations. However, those who are using the technology believe it is here to stay.
Part 4 uses secondary sources to provide an overview of how cultural institutions are responding. Cultural institutions already play a key role in managing records that show the provenance of works and Web3 can extend this role and amplify reputational capital. For instance, the trail of information generated through NFT transfers can provide greater visibility to smaller galleries and collectors as works get picked up by public institutions. However, cultural institutions will also need to learn new skills, including how to manage digital wallets and their associated keys and ensuring ongoing storage of digital works.
Web3 is also raising a new set of questions in relation to intellectual property and consumer protection. In Part 5, the authors step through a series of scenarios that creative practitioners might encounter when developing Web3 projects, and the associated legal questions. These include situations where a project commissions an artist to create an NFT (or where a DAO does); a musician wanting to release an existing song or album as an NFT; when a project wishes to allow owners to re-use a work, and more. Using recent examples and cases, we show how, in general, existing laws still apply. New and unresolved legal areas include questions about who has authorship when an artwork is created by a non-human entity (e.g., AI and generative art), how or whether licences can be transferred along with a token, and whether a DAO can own intellectual property. Some of the grey areas outlined in Part 5 will only be resolved through the courts and legislature over time, and some may require amendments to existing laws before any certainty can be achieved. In the meantime, the onus is on creators and buyers to assess the risks and seek legal advice where necessary.
The key conclusion is that Web3 is not replacing the existing cultural economy, but it is providing creative practitioners with new capabilities. Established markets and processes are beginning to be challenged in a serious way. However, those who resist Web3 will be largely unaffected - for now. Those who choose to take up Web3 may experience significant opportunities – not only new business models, but new collaborations, ways of organising, and new ways to connect with audiences.