The Brooklyn snake papyrus (c. 380-343 BC) has intrigued Egyptologists since its publication in 1... more The Brooklyn snake papyrus (c. 380-343 BC) has intrigued Egyptologists since its publication in 1989. Thirty-seven of the 38 entries in the first half of the text describe individual snakes, as well as outline the physical effects of their bites, which has enabled the scientific identification of many to the species level. However, the identity of the last animal listed in the treatise, the 'kArA', is debated. The text describes the animal as green with three divisions on its head or back and possessing the ability to change colour, features that have suggested to many scholars that the kArA is a chameleon (Family Chamaeleonidae), but because these lizards are not dangerous to humans, its apparent association with venomous snakes has caused others to doubt this conclusion. Reference in the text to the creature possessing "two legs under it" has added to the confusion. Here I present information that has not been considered previously, which further supports the earlier identification of the kArA as a chameleon and explains why its grouping with snakes may have been considered logical according to the taxonomy used by the ancient Egyptians.
The Egyptology literature sometimes refers to the presence of ‘dragonflies’ in Egyptian tomb scen... more The Egyptology literature sometimes refers to the presence of ‘dragonflies’ in Egyptian tomb scenes, but is this identification accurate? Many of the creatures labelled as such are morphologically incorrect, displaying antennae and/or legs that are too long, bulbous abdomens, and/or extra wings. Despite these anomalies, some images do indeed resemble dragonflies, especially those found in tomb scenes in later periods. Here we present the first known identification of a dragonfly nymph in an Old Kingdom scene at Saqqara, which reveals Egyptian knowledge and observation of the natural history of these insects. Furthermore, while butterflies appear early in the artistic record, ‘dragonflies’ are not represented in marsh scenes until the late Fifth Dynasty. Their occurrence thus corresponds with a period of environmental change in Egypt that was marked by unusually low Nile floods. The warm backwaters that resulted from the changed river conditions will have encouraged a substantial increase in the range and quantity of common aquatic insects, such as mayflies, midges, mosquitoes, as well as their predators: dragonflies and damselflies. We propose that heightened awareness of these insects in the late Fifth Dynasty led to the introduction of the ‘dragonfly’ motif and that, in addition, it represents a composite type incorporating the features of a range of hovering, fast-moving insects that are reliably found near water. Other composite insect types have been proposed in Egyptian art, such as the ‘bee’ motif and the use of Monarch butterflies to represent the insects as a group. The ‘dragonfly/flying insect’ image may similarly represent a merging of ecologically-related species in order to represent a type, with variability in the features of the motif indicating the artists’ conflation of visually- and behaviourally-similar marsh insects. The humble ‘dragonfly’ thus offers us unexpected insights into changing environmental conditions during the Old Kingdom period and the impact of animals on Egyptian cultural expression.
The core tenet of modern Integrated Pest Management (IPM) advocates a combination of methods to s... more The core tenet of modern Integrated Pest Management (IPM) advocates a combination of methods to suppress and live with pest populations rather than simply obliterating them via environmentally damaging pesticides. Ecologists often trace the roots of the modern IPM movement to the late nineteenth century when farmers and others drew on common knowledge about insect biology to devise "multitactical strategies” by which to control them (Kogan 1998: 244), but archaeological evidence suggests that this approach is much more ancient (Panagiotakopulu et al. 1995).
Representations of reptiles are relatively rare in Egyptian rock art. Here we present a petroglyp... more Representations of reptiles are relatively rare in Egyptian rock art. Here we present a petroglyph found at the site of el-Hosh that closely resembles a chameleon, a morphologically distinct type of lizard. In evaluating the image, we provide a comprehensive review of the limited evidence for chameleons in other Egyptian graphical depictions and texts, revealing previously unrecognised examples found in New Kingdom tomb decorations. We conclude that the el-Hosh creature was likely executed during the Dynastic period or later, and was inspired by the observation of a chameleon, the precise species of which cannot be determined.
Evans, L. The Good Shepherd’s flock: Insights from ancient Egyptian art. In: Warfe A.R., Gill J.C... more Evans, L. The Good Shepherd’s flock: Insights from ancient Egyptian art. In: Warfe A.R., Gill J.C.R., Hamilton C.R., Pettman A.J., and Stewart D.A. (eds), Dust, Demons and Pots: Studies in Honour of Colin A. Hope (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 289), ISBN: 978-904-294-136-6 (Leiden: Peeters, 2020).
We know that the natural world held great significance for the ancient Egyptians because many env... more We know that the natural world held great significance for the ancient Egyptians because many environmental features, such as plants, animals, landmarks, the sun, moon and stars, became the focus of religious, architectural, literary and artistic expression. But what did the Egyptian people actually think of nature and how did they view their place within it? Understanding how they related intrinsically to their surroundings is important because this will have influenced how the Egyptians reacted to both environmental opportunities and challenges. Drawing on mythological and other allusions that highlight equality between all living creatures, it has generally been concluded that the Egyptians did not view humankind as a dominant force in the natural world, but just one part of a larger cosmic unity. A harmonious cultural response would be expected to have a limited physical impact on the environment, to shun expressions of human superiority, and to embrace all aspects of nature without prejudice. I propose, however, that the restricted range of plants and animals depicted in Egyptian cultural material, clear differences in the ways that humans and animals were represented, and modification of the landscape through cultural and economic activities, instead point to the Egyptians having adopted a more hierarchical and dominating approach to the natural world than is commonly accepted. This chapter explores ancient Egyptian and Egyptological environmental attitudes through an examination of artistic, literary, and physical data, and suggests that Egyptian values may have been closer to our own than we realise. See: https://www.equinoxpub.com/home/profane-landscapes-sacred-spaces/
Despite the ubiquitous presence and vital role of invertebrates in all known ecological systems, ... more Despite the ubiquitous presence and vital role of invertebrates in all known ecological systems, insects and arachnids are largely viewed as repugnant by people. Consequently, until nature intervenes in the form of infestations, swarms or plagues, we largely prefer to ignore them, lest our attention invite unwelcome interaction. In contrast, the people of ancient Egypt did not distance themselves from invertebrates but instead celebrated their myriad forms. Egyptian appreciation of insects and arachnids is reflected in a range of art, artefacts, and texts dating from the predynastic era until the Greco-Roman period, revealing many positive cultural roles, from practical to conceptual. By assigning them a useful function, they were rendered visible and relevant to Egyptian society. The Egyptians’ example suggests that as necessity forces us to acknowledge the value of invertebrates—from their function as pollinators to becoming future food sources—our respect for them may also grow.
The advantage of using DStretch®–image enhancement software developed for rock art research–for t... more The advantage of using DStretch®–image enhancement software developed for rock art research–for the analysis and recording of ancient Egyptian wall paintings is demonstrated via its application at the cemetery site of Beni Hassan. DStretch® enhanced photographs of painted surfaces enable obscure or faded details to be viewed by artificially highlighting traces of remaining pigment. Trial use of DStretch® for the examination of wall paintings at Beni Hassan has revealed or confirmed new images of pigs and bats (animals that are rarely attested in Egyptian art), and a highly unusual depiction of a vulture, exposing features that were otherwise unavailable visually. When used in conjunction with digital epigraphy, DStretch® offers an invaluable tool for achieving a more complete record of Egypt's artistic legacy.
Egyptologists have struggled to understand the role of pigs due to the relatively scarce archaeol... more Egyptologists have struggled to understand the role of pigs due to the relatively scarce archaeological evidence that attests to their existence in ancient Egyptian life. Yet despite the poor record at our disposal, a picture has emerged of a complex relationship with this animal, one that perhaps tells us more about the Egyptians’ zoological interests than their more positive attitude towards other species. It is thus significant that a new and highly unusual image of a pig has recently been identified at the Middle Kingdom cemetery of Beni Hassan, one that may shed new light on the Egyptians’ interactions with the animals.
The bee hieroglyph is one of the most recognisable animal images in Egyptian art and inscriptions... more The bee hieroglyph is one of the most recognisable animal images in Egyptian art and inscriptions. The motif reliably shows the insect with five legs – four limbs under its thorax and a longer fifth leg that extends to the rear of its body. Bees possess six legs; therefore, to conform with Egyptian principles of graphic representation, the bee glyph should either display all six legs or a side-view with just three. The meaning of the bee’s enigmatic fifth leg is discussed and a possible interpretation proposed.
A recent field survey of the elite Middle Kingdom cemetery at Beni Hassan has revealed many unusu... more A recent field survey of the elite Middle Kingdom cemetery at Beni Hassan has revealed many unusual animal motifs, including examples of creatures that are rarely attested in the artistic record and entirely new scenes. Two case studies are presented to illustrate the rich zoological repertoire at the site and its potential to enlighten our understanding of the Egyptians’ intriguing relationship with the animal world. These are confirmation of a tame Egyptian mongoose represented in the Eleventh Dynasty tomb of Baqet I (no. 29) and a new image of a pelican in full color in the Eleventh Dynasty tomb of Baqet II (no. 33).
The Saqqara tomb of Niankhkhnum and Khnumhotep has been the subject of considerable debate. Uniqu... more The Saqqara tomb of Niankhkhnum and Khnumhotep has been the subject of considerable debate. Unique wall scenes in which the tomb-owners hold hands and embrace have led to much speculation about their relationship: some scholars suggest that the two were simply brothers and show filial affection, others have proposed that they were twins, ranging from identical to conjoined siblings, while a third hypothesis views their relationship as homosexual. Recent re-examination of the tomb’s decorative programme has revealed a significant number of paired images in which scenes or elements of a motif ‘mirror’ one another. Many of these motifs are either the first known examples in an elite tomb or images that are exclusive to this tomb. We propose that these unusual doubles allude to the tomb-owners’ relationship, adding further support to the proposal that Niankhkhnum and Khnumhotep were identical twins.
A review of butterflies depicted in ancient Egyptian tomb scenes and other artifacts dating from ... more A review of butterflies depicted in ancient Egyptian tomb scenes and other artifacts dating from the predynastic period (c. 3000 BCE) until the end of the pharaonic era (c. 100 BCE) reveals a wide spectrum of stylistic changes over time. A cladistic analysis shows relative consistency of style during the Old Kingdom period, copying of old styles during the Middle Kingdom period, and a deviation from tradition during the New Kingdom period. The utility of a cladistic approach in assigning dates and localities to ancient Egyptian artifacts with unknown origins is demonstrated. We discuss lepidopteran symbolism in ancient Egypt, and investigate how some of these depictions may highlight historical shifts in species ranges since pharaonic times.
A brief overview of currently known depictions of arachnids – namely, ticks, scorpions, and spide... more A brief overview of currently known depictions of arachnids – namely, ticks, scorpions, and spiders - in ancient Egyptian art, including some tentative observations regarding their cultural reception. Arachnids provide an interesting case study as they highlight the iconographic choices made by the Egyptians, allowing exploration of their wider meaning and the motivation behind their representation.
The Brooklyn snake papyrus (c. 380-343 BC) has intrigued Egyptologists since its publication in 1... more The Brooklyn snake papyrus (c. 380-343 BC) has intrigued Egyptologists since its publication in 1989. Thirty-seven of the 38 entries in the first half of the text describe individual snakes, as well as outline the physical effects of their bites, which has enabled the scientific identification of many to the species level. However, the identity of the last animal listed in the treatise, the 'kArA', is debated. The text describes the animal as green with three divisions on its head or back and possessing the ability to change colour, features that have suggested to many scholars that the kArA is a chameleon (Family Chamaeleonidae), but because these lizards are not dangerous to humans, its apparent association with venomous snakes has caused others to doubt this conclusion. Reference in the text to the creature possessing "two legs under it" has added to the confusion. Here I present information that has not been considered previously, which further supports the earlier identification of the kArA as a chameleon and explains why its grouping with snakes may have been considered logical according to the taxonomy used by the ancient Egyptians.
The Egyptology literature sometimes refers to the presence of ‘dragonflies’ in Egyptian tomb scen... more The Egyptology literature sometimes refers to the presence of ‘dragonflies’ in Egyptian tomb scenes, but is this identification accurate? Many of the creatures labelled as such are morphologically incorrect, displaying antennae and/or legs that are too long, bulbous abdomens, and/or extra wings. Despite these anomalies, some images do indeed resemble dragonflies, especially those found in tomb scenes in later periods. Here we present the first known identification of a dragonfly nymph in an Old Kingdom scene at Saqqara, which reveals Egyptian knowledge and observation of the natural history of these insects. Furthermore, while butterflies appear early in the artistic record, ‘dragonflies’ are not represented in marsh scenes until the late Fifth Dynasty. Their occurrence thus corresponds with a period of environmental change in Egypt that was marked by unusually low Nile floods. The warm backwaters that resulted from the changed river conditions will have encouraged a substantial increase in the range and quantity of common aquatic insects, such as mayflies, midges, mosquitoes, as well as their predators: dragonflies and damselflies. We propose that heightened awareness of these insects in the late Fifth Dynasty led to the introduction of the ‘dragonfly’ motif and that, in addition, it represents a composite type incorporating the features of a range of hovering, fast-moving insects that are reliably found near water. Other composite insect types have been proposed in Egyptian art, such as the ‘bee’ motif and the use of Monarch butterflies to represent the insects as a group. The ‘dragonfly/flying insect’ image may similarly represent a merging of ecologically-related species in order to represent a type, with variability in the features of the motif indicating the artists’ conflation of visually- and behaviourally-similar marsh insects. The humble ‘dragonfly’ thus offers us unexpected insights into changing environmental conditions during the Old Kingdom period and the impact of animals on Egyptian cultural expression.
The core tenet of modern Integrated Pest Management (IPM) advocates a combination of methods to s... more The core tenet of modern Integrated Pest Management (IPM) advocates a combination of methods to suppress and live with pest populations rather than simply obliterating them via environmentally damaging pesticides. Ecologists often trace the roots of the modern IPM movement to the late nineteenth century when farmers and others drew on common knowledge about insect biology to devise "multitactical strategies” by which to control them (Kogan 1998: 244), but archaeological evidence suggests that this approach is much more ancient (Panagiotakopulu et al. 1995).
Representations of reptiles are relatively rare in Egyptian rock art. Here we present a petroglyp... more Representations of reptiles are relatively rare in Egyptian rock art. Here we present a petroglyph found at the site of el-Hosh that closely resembles a chameleon, a morphologically distinct type of lizard. In evaluating the image, we provide a comprehensive review of the limited evidence for chameleons in other Egyptian graphical depictions and texts, revealing previously unrecognised examples found in New Kingdom tomb decorations. We conclude that the el-Hosh creature was likely executed during the Dynastic period or later, and was inspired by the observation of a chameleon, the precise species of which cannot be determined.
Evans, L. The Good Shepherd’s flock: Insights from ancient Egyptian art. In: Warfe A.R., Gill J.C... more Evans, L. The Good Shepherd’s flock: Insights from ancient Egyptian art. In: Warfe A.R., Gill J.C.R., Hamilton C.R., Pettman A.J., and Stewart D.A. (eds), Dust, Demons and Pots: Studies in Honour of Colin A. Hope (Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta 289), ISBN: 978-904-294-136-6 (Leiden: Peeters, 2020).
We know that the natural world held great significance for the ancient Egyptians because many env... more We know that the natural world held great significance for the ancient Egyptians because many environmental features, such as plants, animals, landmarks, the sun, moon and stars, became the focus of religious, architectural, literary and artistic expression. But what did the Egyptian people actually think of nature and how did they view their place within it? Understanding how they related intrinsically to their surroundings is important because this will have influenced how the Egyptians reacted to both environmental opportunities and challenges. Drawing on mythological and other allusions that highlight equality between all living creatures, it has generally been concluded that the Egyptians did not view humankind as a dominant force in the natural world, but just one part of a larger cosmic unity. A harmonious cultural response would be expected to have a limited physical impact on the environment, to shun expressions of human superiority, and to embrace all aspects of nature without prejudice. I propose, however, that the restricted range of plants and animals depicted in Egyptian cultural material, clear differences in the ways that humans and animals were represented, and modification of the landscape through cultural and economic activities, instead point to the Egyptians having adopted a more hierarchical and dominating approach to the natural world than is commonly accepted. This chapter explores ancient Egyptian and Egyptological environmental attitudes through an examination of artistic, literary, and physical data, and suggests that Egyptian values may have been closer to our own than we realise. See: https://www.equinoxpub.com/home/profane-landscapes-sacred-spaces/
Despite the ubiquitous presence and vital role of invertebrates in all known ecological systems, ... more Despite the ubiquitous presence and vital role of invertebrates in all known ecological systems, insects and arachnids are largely viewed as repugnant by people. Consequently, until nature intervenes in the form of infestations, swarms or plagues, we largely prefer to ignore them, lest our attention invite unwelcome interaction. In contrast, the people of ancient Egypt did not distance themselves from invertebrates but instead celebrated their myriad forms. Egyptian appreciation of insects and arachnids is reflected in a range of art, artefacts, and texts dating from the predynastic era until the Greco-Roman period, revealing many positive cultural roles, from practical to conceptual. By assigning them a useful function, they were rendered visible and relevant to Egyptian society. The Egyptians’ example suggests that as necessity forces us to acknowledge the value of invertebrates—from their function as pollinators to becoming future food sources—our respect for them may also grow.
The advantage of using DStretch®–image enhancement software developed for rock art research–for t... more The advantage of using DStretch®–image enhancement software developed for rock art research–for the analysis and recording of ancient Egyptian wall paintings is demonstrated via its application at the cemetery site of Beni Hassan. DStretch® enhanced photographs of painted surfaces enable obscure or faded details to be viewed by artificially highlighting traces of remaining pigment. Trial use of DStretch® for the examination of wall paintings at Beni Hassan has revealed or confirmed new images of pigs and bats (animals that are rarely attested in Egyptian art), and a highly unusual depiction of a vulture, exposing features that were otherwise unavailable visually. When used in conjunction with digital epigraphy, DStretch® offers an invaluable tool for achieving a more complete record of Egypt's artistic legacy.
Egyptologists have struggled to understand the role of pigs due to the relatively scarce archaeol... more Egyptologists have struggled to understand the role of pigs due to the relatively scarce archaeological evidence that attests to their existence in ancient Egyptian life. Yet despite the poor record at our disposal, a picture has emerged of a complex relationship with this animal, one that perhaps tells us more about the Egyptians’ zoological interests than their more positive attitude towards other species. It is thus significant that a new and highly unusual image of a pig has recently been identified at the Middle Kingdom cemetery of Beni Hassan, one that may shed new light on the Egyptians’ interactions with the animals.
The bee hieroglyph is one of the most recognisable animal images in Egyptian art and inscriptions... more The bee hieroglyph is one of the most recognisable animal images in Egyptian art and inscriptions. The motif reliably shows the insect with five legs – four limbs under its thorax and a longer fifth leg that extends to the rear of its body. Bees possess six legs; therefore, to conform with Egyptian principles of graphic representation, the bee glyph should either display all six legs or a side-view with just three. The meaning of the bee’s enigmatic fifth leg is discussed and a possible interpretation proposed.
A recent field survey of the elite Middle Kingdom cemetery at Beni Hassan has revealed many unusu... more A recent field survey of the elite Middle Kingdom cemetery at Beni Hassan has revealed many unusual animal motifs, including examples of creatures that are rarely attested in the artistic record and entirely new scenes. Two case studies are presented to illustrate the rich zoological repertoire at the site and its potential to enlighten our understanding of the Egyptians’ intriguing relationship with the animal world. These are confirmation of a tame Egyptian mongoose represented in the Eleventh Dynasty tomb of Baqet I (no. 29) and a new image of a pelican in full color in the Eleventh Dynasty tomb of Baqet II (no. 33).
The Saqqara tomb of Niankhkhnum and Khnumhotep has been the subject of considerable debate. Uniqu... more The Saqqara tomb of Niankhkhnum and Khnumhotep has been the subject of considerable debate. Unique wall scenes in which the tomb-owners hold hands and embrace have led to much speculation about their relationship: some scholars suggest that the two were simply brothers and show filial affection, others have proposed that they were twins, ranging from identical to conjoined siblings, while a third hypothesis views their relationship as homosexual. Recent re-examination of the tomb’s decorative programme has revealed a significant number of paired images in which scenes or elements of a motif ‘mirror’ one another. Many of these motifs are either the first known examples in an elite tomb or images that are exclusive to this tomb. We propose that these unusual doubles allude to the tomb-owners’ relationship, adding further support to the proposal that Niankhkhnum and Khnumhotep were identical twins.
A review of butterflies depicted in ancient Egyptian tomb scenes and other artifacts dating from ... more A review of butterflies depicted in ancient Egyptian tomb scenes and other artifacts dating from the predynastic period (c. 3000 BCE) until the end of the pharaonic era (c. 100 BCE) reveals a wide spectrum of stylistic changes over time. A cladistic analysis shows relative consistency of style during the Old Kingdom period, copying of old styles during the Middle Kingdom period, and a deviation from tradition during the New Kingdom period. The utility of a cladistic approach in assigning dates and localities to ancient Egyptian artifacts with unknown origins is demonstrated. We discuss lepidopteran symbolism in ancient Egypt, and investigate how some of these depictions may highlight historical shifts in species ranges since pharaonic times.
A brief overview of currently known depictions of arachnids – namely, ticks, scorpions, and spide... more A brief overview of currently known depictions of arachnids – namely, ticks, scorpions, and spiders - in ancient Egyptian art, including some tentative observations regarding their cultural reception. Arachnids provide an interesting case study as they highlight the iconographic choices made by the Egyptians, allowing exploration of their wider meaning and the motivation behind their representation.
The special issue Nr. 2 of the journal Égypte : Afrique & Orient (2021) edited by me! It deals wi... more The special issue Nr. 2 of the journal Égypte : Afrique & Orient (2021) edited by me! It deals with the commensal fauna of ancient Egypt supposed to be absent from historical sources.
The book contains the excavation and recording of Tomb A4 at Meir, the tomb of Niankhpepy the Bla... more The book contains the excavation and recording of Tomb A4 at Meir, the tomb of Niankhpepy the Black, whose son Pepyankh the Black built two communicating tombs A1 and A2 for his father and himself. He then linked the chapel of Tomb A1 to the burial chamber of Tomb A4 via a sloping passage. This is an exceptional example of filial affection in ancient Egypt. The scenes and inscriptions as well as the architecture of Tomb A1 have been re-recorded and are published in this volume. Minor tombs with finds were discovered in the rock-cliff face in the area between Tombs A1 and A4, and have been dated to the late Old Kingdom/early First Intermediate Period.
يحتوي الكتاب على أعمال التنقيب والتسجيل لمقبرة نيانخ-بيبي الأسود في منطقة آثار مير (المقبرة ٲ-٤)، الذي بنى ابنه بيبي-انخ الأسود مقبرتين متصلتين ٲ-١ و ٲ-٢ لوالده ولنفسه. ثم قام بربط غرفة الصلاة في المقبرة ٲ-١ بغرفة الدفن في المقبرة ٲ-٤ عبر ممر منحدر. وهذا مثال استثنائي على مودة الأبناء في مصر القديمة. تم إعادة تسجيل ونشر المناظر والنقوش والهندسة المعمارية للمقبرة ٲ-١ في هذا الكتاب. ويتضمن الكتاب أيضًا وصفًا للمقابر الصغيرة المكتشفة مع اثارها في واجهة الجرف الصخري المحفورة في الجبل في المنطقة الواقعة بين المقابر ٲ-١ و ٲ-٤ ، وتم تحديد تاريخها إلى أواخر عصر المملكة القديمة أو أوائل الفترة الانتقالية الأولى.
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يحتوي الكتاب على أعمال التنقيب والتسجيل لمقبرة نيانخ-بيبي الأسود في منطقة آثار مير (المقبرة ٲ-٤)، الذي بنى ابنه بيبي-انخ الأسود مقبرتين متصلتين ٲ-١ و ٲ-٢ لوالده ولنفسه. ثم قام بربط غرفة الصلاة في المقبرة ٲ-١ بغرفة الدفن في المقبرة ٲ-٤ عبر ممر منحدر. وهذا مثال استثنائي على مودة الأبناء في مصر القديمة. تم إعادة تسجيل ونشر المناظر والنقوش والهندسة المعمارية للمقبرة ٲ-١ في هذا الكتاب. ويتضمن الكتاب أيضًا وصفًا للمقابر الصغيرة المكتشفة مع اثارها في واجهة الجرف الصخري المحفورة في الجبل في المنطقة الواقعة بين المقابر ٲ-١ و ٲ-٤ ، وتم تحديد تاريخها إلى أواخر عصر المملكة القديمة أو أوائل الفترة الانتقالية الأولى.