The northwestern Negev is an under-researched ecotonal region. We excavated two late Middle Palae... more The northwestern Negev is an under-researched ecotonal region. We excavated two late Middle Palaeolithic open-air sites and recovered rich lithic industries that could be refitted, as well as remains of fauna, and charcoal. Palaeoenvironmental information and dates indicate interesting inter-site differences.
Following renewed excavations at Boker Tachtit (2013-2015), a revised study of the lithic assembl... more Following renewed excavations at Boker Tachtit (2013-2015), a revised study of the lithic assemblage techno-typological characteristics was conducted placing it within a regional context. The growing number of archaeological sites in the Levantine desert regions assigned to the Initial Upper Paleolithic calls for an updated perspective regarding technological affinities and social interaction. Combining the techno-typological data from the new and old excavations at Boker Tachtit with previously published material suggest a transitional continuum within the sequence. The techno-typological shift seen within the Boker Tachtit sequence and its comparison to other assemblages from penecontemporaneous sites in the region indicates that the Initial Upper Paleolithic technological practices evolved through incremental processes resulting in novel technological traits and innovative technological systems.
Classification of the Paleolithic into Lower, Middle, and Upper has both chronological and cultur... more Classification of the Paleolithic into Lower, Middle, and Upper has both chronological and cultural meanings serving as a framework for reconstructing cultural evolution and interpreting behavioral processes. Traditionally, the Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic transition in Eurasia is regarded as a bio-cultural turning point, in which local Neanderthals were replaced by incoming Homo sapiens populations, carrying with them a novel technological repertoire. As such, the basic classification of archeological data into broad spatially and temporally coherent blocks is not neutral and disconnected from the paradigmatic view of a “transition” as a developmental event. Initially, the Initial Upper Paleolithic (IUP) was introduced to describe the first cultural stage within the Upper Paleolithic and was later modified to define the cultural transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic. In the last 20 years, the IUP has increasingly been used as a chronological-biological taxonomic unit to describe modern human dispersals into Eurasia, overriding its use within a cultural taxonomic system. In this paper, we evaluate the applicability of the term as a taxonomic unit. The construction of a chronicle and histories, based on well-documented and published data from the late Middle Paleolithic through to the earliest Upper Paleolithic sites across southwest Asia, are used to evaluate the applicability of the term Initial Upper Paleolithic as a taxonomic unit. Within this perspective, the Middle to-Upper Paleolithic transition is viewed as a social and demographic process that is manifested differently in each of the sub-regions of southwest Asia: the Levant, Southern Caucasus, Armenian Highlands, and the Zagros.
Classification of the Paleolithic into Lower, Middle, and Upper has both chronological and cultur... more Classification of the Paleolithic into Lower, Middle, and Upper has both chronological and cultural meanings serving as a framework for reconstructing cultural evolution and interpreting behavioral processes. Traditionally, the Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic transition in Eurasia is regarded as a bio-cultural turning point, in which local Neanderthals were replaced by incoming Homo sapiens populations, carrying with them a novel technological repertoire. As such, the basic classification of archeological data into broad spatially and temporally coherent blocks is not neutral and disconnected from the paradigmatic view of a “transition” as a developmental event. Initially, the Initial Upper Paleolithic (IUP) was introduced to describe the first cultural stage within the Upper Paleolithic and was later modified to define the cultural transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic. In the last 20 years, the IUP has increasingly been used as a chronological-biological taxonomic unit to describe modern human dispersals into Eurasia, overriding its use within a cultural taxonomic system. In this paper, we evaluate the applicability of the term as a taxonomic unit. The construction of a chronicle and histories, based on well-documented and published data from the late Middle Paleolithic through to the earliest Upper Paleolithic sites across southwest Asia, are used to evaluate the applicability of the term Initial Upper Paleolithic as a taxonomic unit. Within this perspective, the Middle to-Upper Paleolithic transition is viewed as a social and demographic process that is manifested differently in each of the sub-regions of southwest Asia: the Levant, Southern Caucasus, Armenian Highlands, and the Zagros.
This is a report of results from a cursory survey of several Middle Paleolithic find spots from t... more This is a report of results from a cursory survey of several Middle Paleolithic find spots from the Arava, Israel, conducted as part of a broader collaboration between the Dead Sea and Arava Science Center and the Israel Antiquities Authority. A series of find spots were recorded on the eastern flanks of the Zehiha hills and on the northern terraces of Wadi Paran. These finds consist of mostly Middle Paleolithic artifacts including Levallois centripetal, bidirectional and Nubian cores. The presence of Nubian cores within this technological constellation is of interest in light of recent discussions regarding archaeological markers of modern human dispersals out of Africa and feasible routes into Eurasia and Arabia. The Nubian core technology, a specific variant of the Levallois technology is found within a defined and continuous geographic region and is perceived as penecontemporaneous. Sites with a similar technological package are found to the east at Al-Jawf, within the Arabian ...
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2021
The Initial Upper Paleolithic (IUP) is a crucial lithic assemblage type in the archaeology of sou... more The Initial Upper Paleolithic (IUP) is a crucial lithic assemblage type in the archaeology of southwest Asia because it marks a dramatic shift in hominin populations accompanied by technological changes in material culture. This phase is conventionally divided into two chronocultural phases based on the Boker Tachtit site, central Negev, Israel. While lithic technologies at Boker Tachtit are well defined, showing continuity from one phase to another, the absolute chronology is poorly resolved because the radiocarbon method used had a large uncertainty. Nevertheless, Boker Tachtit is considered to be the origin of the succeeding Early Upper Paleolithic Ahmarian tradition that dates in the Negev to ∼42,000 y ago (42 ka). Here, we provide 14C and optically stimulated luminescence dates obtained from a recent excavation of Boker Tachtit. The new dates show that the early phase at Boker Tachtit, the Emirian, dates to 50 through 49 ka, while the late phase dates to 47.3 ka and ends by 44....
Abstract Far’ah II is an open-air site in the north western Negev desert (Israel). Previous excav... more Abstract Far’ah II is an open-air site in the north western Negev desert (Israel). Previous excavations in the 1970’s revealed a rich, in situ Middle Paleolithic (MP) assemblage composed of flint and limestone artifacts, animal bones and charcoal. Renewed excavation at the site were undertaken in 2017, to re-date it and provide a more accurate constrain to the sites’ age, as well as collect samples for paleoclimatic proxies. Our new Optically Stimulated Luminescence and 14C ages together with the stable oxygen isotope signature of the loess sediments, constrain the age of the upper archaeological horizon to
The end of the Pleistocene (~75-15 ka) is a key period for the prehistory of the Nile Valley. The... more The end of the Pleistocene (~75-15 ka) is a key period for the prehistory of the Nile Valley. The climatic fluctuations documented during this period have led human populations from the Middle and Late Palaeolithic to adapt to a changing Nile. In particular, the global shift to more arid conditions regionally translated into the expansion of the Sahara, the lowering of sea levels and the desiccation of some major eastern African lakes. These climatically-induced environmental changes influenced the behaviour of the Nile – although how exactly is still debated – and its role as an ecological refugium for human populations living in its vicinity. Genetic and fossil evidence highlight a strong population substructure in Africa during this period, suggesting the alternation of phases of major dispersals of modern humans within the continent, as well as out-of and back-into Africa, with phases of relative isolation of populations, which might be linked to the creation of environmental re...
Situated at the crossroads of Africa and Eurasia, the Levant is a crucial region for understandin... more Situated at the crossroads of Africa and Eurasia, the Levant is a crucial region for understanding the origins and spread of Upper Paleolithic (UP) traditions associated with the spread of modern humans. Of the two local Early Upper Paleolithic technocomplexes, the Ahmarian and the Levantine Aurignacian, the latter appears to be unique in the endemic UP sequence, exhibiting greater similarity to the West European 'classic' Aurignacian than to the local preceding and proceeding UP entities. Previous publications have mostly focused on the similarities between the two lithic industries and less on studies conducted on Levantine Aurignacian bone tools and ornaments. Here, we present an archaeozoological, technological and use-wear study of ornaments on animal teeth from the Levantine Aurignacian layers at Manot and Hayonim caves (the Galilee, Israel). The selection of taxa, the choice of teeth, the mode of modification, and the use-wear analysis exhibit clear similarities with the European Aurignacian. This, with the technology of the osseous raw material exploitation, the presence of antler simple-base points, and some lithic typotechnological features, suggest a link between the symbolic spheres of the Levantine and the European Aurignacian cultural entities. Such similarity also supports some contribution of European Aurignacians groups to the local cultural entities, intermingling with the local material culture features.
Manot Cave contains important human fossils and archaeological assemblages related to the origin ... more Manot Cave contains important human fossils and archaeological assemblages related to the origin and dispersal of anatomically modern humans and the Upper Paleolithic period. This record is divided between an elevated in situ occupation area and a connecting talus. We, thus, investigated the interplay between the accumulation of the sediments and their associated artifacts in the occupation areas and the translocation of part of these sediments and artifacts down the talus. We examined the lithostratigraphy of two excavation locations in the occupation area (areas E and I), and two in the talus (areas C and D). We also assessed the diagenetic processes that have affected all these areas. A linear array of stalagmites and stalactites separates the occupation area from the talus, demarcating a major topographic barrier between the two. We infer that during human occupation, sediment accumulation of soil, wood ash, and bone was rapid and that some sediments with their associated artifacts overflowed the barrier and translocated down the talus. During periods of nonoccupation, the ash in the occupation area partially dissolved owing to the release of acid from the degrading bat and bird guano, and the layer thicknesses decreased. The south side of the talus (area C) has a normally stratified archaeological record, with the older archaeological materials underlying the younger materials. This suggests that the barrier between the occupation area and area C was relatively shallow and allowed a fairly continuous sediment accumulation in the talus. In the central part of the talus (area D), the stratigraphy is complex and shows mixing, presumably owing to the steep underlying bedrock topography and the mixing that occurs when sediments move down a steep slope. Finally, the distribution of secondary phosphates is consistent with the location of a main cave entrance to the south of the Paleolithic occupation area.
A well-preserved sequence of Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) occupations has been revealed in the p... more A well-preserved sequence of Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) occupations has been revealed in the past decade in Manot Cave, the studies of which shed light on the cultural dynamics and subsistence patterns and paleoenvironment. Most intriguing is the series of overlying Levantine Aurignacian occupation layers, exposed near the entrance to the cave. Area E is considered the inner part of the main activity area in Manot Cave. Remains of intact combustion features, as well as numerous flint artifacts and faunal remains, were found, indicating a high level of preservation. Within a 2.5 m sequence, nine distinct occupation layers were defined. The presence of characteristic flint and osseous industries alongside a rich mollusk assemblage led to the initial association of the sequence as a whole to the Levantine Aurignacian. However, as research advanced and variability in the material culture became apparent, it became clear that a division of the sequence into two phases, early and late, is required. A preliminary study of the assemblage variability implies distinct changes in human behavior between the two phases. Most prominently, these are indicated by a change in bladelet production method and morphology alongside an increase in the significance of the bladelet component within the flint assemblage, the disappearance of composite osseous industries, and a steep decrease in mollusk shell representation in the late occupation phase. Radiocarbon dating indicates a short time span between the two phases. The earlier phase defined as, Levantine Aurignacian, was ascribed an age range of 38-34 ka cal BP with a more constrained age range of 37-35 ka cal BP suggested based on Bayesian models. In the late phase, which is temporarily referred to as "post-Levantine Aurignacian," an age range of 36-33 ka cal BP is suggested.
The transition from the Middle Paleolithic to the Upper Paleolithic in the Levant represents a ma... more The transition from the Middle Paleolithic to the Upper Paleolithic in the Levant represents a major event in human prehistory with regards to the dispersal of modern human populations. Unfortunately, the scarcity of human remains from this period has hampered our ability to study the anatomy of Upper Paleolithic populations. This study describes and examines pedal bones recovered from the Early Upper Paleolithic period at Manot Cave, Israel, from 2014 to 2017. The Manot Cave foot bones include a partial, left foot skeleton comprising a talus, a calcaneus, a cuboid, a first metatarsal, a second metatarsal, a fifth metatarsal, and a hallucal sesamoid. All these remains were found in the same archaeological unit of the cave and belong to a young adult. Shape and size comparisons with Neanderthals, Anatomically Modern Human and modern human foot bones indicate a modern human morphology. In some characteristics, however, the Manot Cave foot bones display a Neanderthal-like pattern. Notably, the Manot Cave foot is remarkable in its overall gracility. A healed traumatic injury in the second metatarsal (Lisfranc's fracture) is most likely due to a remote impact to the dorsum of the foot. This injury, its subsequent debility, and the individual's apparent recovery suggest that the members of the Manot Cave community had a supportive environment, one with mutual responsibilities among the members.
Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews, 2018
The end of the Pleistocene (~75–15 ka) is an intriguing period for the Nile Valley prehistory. Th... more The end of the Pleistocene (~75–15 ka) is an intriguing period for the Nile Valley prehistory. The global shift to more arid conditions regionally translated into the lowering of the Mediterranean Sea level, the desiccation of some major eastern African lakes and the expansion of the Sahara. These climatically induced environmental changes influenced the behavior of the Nile river and the valley's role as an ecological refugium for human populations living in its vicinity. Genetic studies suggest that this period saw several dispersals of modern humans “out-of” and “backinto” Africa. Although the Nile Valley constitutes one of the possible routes for these dispersals, archeological evidence for contacts between the Nile Valley and its neighboring regions remain scarce and debated.
Abstract The site of Rosh Ein Mor is constantly used as a cultural marker for the presence of “Ta... more Abstract The site of Rosh Ein Mor is constantly used as a cultural marker for the presence of “Tabun D” type industries in the Negev. A re-analysis of the lithic assemblage shows that the techno-typological characteristics fit better within the late Middle Paleolithic variability than within the early Middle Paleolithic. Using the powerful tool of U-series for dating calcite crusts on the artifacts a cluster of dates between ~70–35 ka has been obtained. Taking into consideration the central Negev highlands paleoclimate record and the geomorphological setting, this study presents valid data to suggest that Rosh Ein Mor was occupied during MIS 4 and possibly into MIS 3.
The timing of archeological industries in the Levant is central for understanding the spread of m... more The timing of archeological industries in the Levant is central for understanding the spread of modern humans with Upper Paleolithic traditions. We report a high-resolution radiocarbon chronology for Early Upper Paleolithic industries (Early Ahmarian and Levantine Aurignacian) from the newly excavated site of Manot Cave, Israel. The dates confirm that the Early Ahmarian industry was present by 46,000 calibrated years before the present (cal BP), and the Levantine Aurignacian occurred at least between 38,000 and 34,000 cal BP. This timing is consistent with proposed migrations or technological diffusions between the Near East and Europe. Specifically, the Ahmarian could have led to the development of the Protoaurignacian in Europe, and the Aurignacian in Europe could have spread back to the Near East as the Levantine Aurignacian.
Une serie d’occupations courtes ont ete decouvertes dans le nouveau site de la grotte d’Emanuel. ... more Une serie d’occupations courtes ont ete decouvertes dans le nouveau site de la grotte d’Emanuel. La datation U/ Th suggere une date de 191± 1Ka comme terminus post quem pour les depots archeologiques. Malgre la nature ephemere du site, l’assemblage lithique presente deux phases distinctes : les niveaux inferieurs se caracterisent par une predominance de la production laminaire, tandis que les niveaux superieurs refletent une utilisation plus frequente de la methode Levallois. La comparaison techno-typologique de ces niveaux inferieurs avec d’autres assemblages levantins les situe dans la tradition technologique du Paleolithique moyen ancien telle que rencontree a Hayonim E base et F et a Hummal 6. Ceci implique une plus large variabilite technique que celle qui est representee par la classification «culturelle » de Tabun generalement utilisee pour definir le Paleolithique Moyen du Levant.
The northwestern Negev is an under-researched ecotonal region. We excavated two late Middle Palae... more The northwestern Negev is an under-researched ecotonal region. We excavated two late Middle Palaeolithic open-air sites and recovered rich lithic industries that could be refitted, as well as remains of fauna, and charcoal. Palaeoenvironmental information and dates indicate interesting inter-site differences.
Following renewed excavations at Boker Tachtit (2013-2015), a revised study of the lithic assembl... more Following renewed excavations at Boker Tachtit (2013-2015), a revised study of the lithic assemblage techno-typological characteristics was conducted placing it within a regional context. The growing number of archaeological sites in the Levantine desert regions assigned to the Initial Upper Paleolithic calls for an updated perspective regarding technological affinities and social interaction. Combining the techno-typological data from the new and old excavations at Boker Tachtit with previously published material suggest a transitional continuum within the sequence. The techno-typological shift seen within the Boker Tachtit sequence and its comparison to other assemblages from penecontemporaneous sites in the region indicates that the Initial Upper Paleolithic technological practices evolved through incremental processes resulting in novel technological traits and innovative technological systems.
Classification of the Paleolithic into Lower, Middle, and Upper has both chronological and cultur... more Classification of the Paleolithic into Lower, Middle, and Upper has both chronological and cultural meanings serving as a framework for reconstructing cultural evolution and interpreting behavioral processes. Traditionally, the Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic transition in Eurasia is regarded as a bio-cultural turning point, in which local Neanderthals were replaced by incoming Homo sapiens populations, carrying with them a novel technological repertoire. As such, the basic classification of archeological data into broad spatially and temporally coherent blocks is not neutral and disconnected from the paradigmatic view of a “transition” as a developmental event. Initially, the Initial Upper Paleolithic (IUP) was introduced to describe the first cultural stage within the Upper Paleolithic and was later modified to define the cultural transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic. In the last 20 years, the IUP has increasingly been used as a chronological-biological taxonomic unit to describe modern human dispersals into Eurasia, overriding its use within a cultural taxonomic system. In this paper, we evaluate the applicability of the term as a taxonomic unit. The construction of a chronicle and histories, based on well-documented and published data from the late Middle Paleolithic through to the earliest Upper Paleolithic sites across southwest Asia, are used to evaluate the applicability of the term Initial Upper Paleolithic as a taxonomic unit. Within this perspective, the Middle to-Upper Paleolithic transition is viewed as a social and demographic process that is manifested differently in each of the sub-regions of southwest Asia: the Levant, Southern Caucasus, Armenian Highlands, and the Zagros.
Classification of the Paleolithic into Lower, Middle, and Upper has both chronological and cultur... more Classification of the Paleolithic into Lower, Middle, and Upper has both chronological and cultural meanings serving as a framework for reconstructing cultural evolution and interpreting behavioral processes. Traditionally, the Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic transition in Eurasia is regarded as a bio-cultural turning point, in which local Neanderthals were replaced by incoming Homo sapiens populations, carrying with them a novel technological repertoire. As such, the basic classification of archeological data into broad spatially and temporally coherent blocks is not neutral and disconnected from the paradigmatic view of a “transition” as a developmental event. Initially, the Initial Upper Paleolithic (IUP) was introduced to describe the first cultural stage within the Upper Paleolithic and was later modified to define the cultural transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic. In the last 20 years, the IUP has increasingly been used as a chronological-biological taxonomic unit to describe modern human dispersals into Eurasia, overriding its use within a cultural taxonomic system. In this paper, we evaluate the applicability of the term as a taxonomic unit. The construction of a chronicle and histories, based on well-documented and published data from the late Middle Paleolithic through to the earliest Upper Paleolithic sites across southwest Asia, are used to evaluate the applicability of the term Initial Upper Paleolithic as a taxonomic unit. Within this perspective, the Middle to-Upper Paleolithic transition is viewed as a social and demographic process that is manifested differently in each of the sub-regions of southwest Asia: the Levant, Southern Caucasus, Armenian Highlands, and the Zagros.
This is a report of results from a cursory survey of several Middle Paleolithic find spots from t... more This is a report of results from a cursory survey of several Middle Paleolithic find spots from the Arava, Israel, conducted as part of a broader collaboration between the Dead Sea and Arava Science Center and the Israel Antiquities Authority. A series of find spots were recorded on the eastern flanks of the Zehiha hills and on the northern terraces of Wadi Paran. These finds consist of mostly Middle Paleolithic artifacts including Levallois centripetal, bidirectional and Nubian cores. The presence of Nubian cores within this technological constellation is of interest in light of recent discussions regarding archaeological markers of modern human dispersals out of Africa and feasible routes into Eurasia and Arabia. The Nubian core technology, a specific variant of the Levallois technology is found within a defined and continuous geographic region and is perceived as penecontemporaneous. Sites with a similar technological package are found to the east at Al-Jawf, within the Arabian ...
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2021
The Initial Upper Paleolithic (IUP) is a crucial lithic assemblage type in the archaeology of sou... more The Initial Upper Paleolithic (IUP) is a crucial lithic assemblage type in the archaeology of southwest Asia because it marks a dramatic shift in hominin populations accompanied by technological changes in material culture. This phase is conventionally divided into two chronocultural phases based on the Boker Tachtit site, central Negev, Israel. While lithic technologies at Boker Tachtit are well defined, showing continuity from one phase to another, the absolute chronology is poorly resolved because the radiocarbon method used had a large uncertainty. Nevertheless, Boker Tachtit is considered to be the origin of the succeeding Early Upper Paleolithic Ahmarian tradition that dates in the Negev to ∼42,000 y ago (42 ka). Here, we provide 14C and optically stimulated luminescence dates obtained from a recent excavation of Boker Tachtit. The new dates show that the early phase at Boker Tachtit, the Emirian, dates to 50 through 49 ka, while the late phase dates to 47.3 ka and ends by 44....
Abstract Far’ah II is an open-air site in the north western Negev desert (Israel). Previous excav... more Abstract Far’ah II is an open-air site in the north western Negev desert (Israel). Previous excavations in the 1970’s revealed a rich, in situ Middle Paleolithic (MP) assemblage composed of flint and limestone artifacts, animal bones and charcoal. Renewed excavation at the site were undertaken in 2017, to re-date it and provide a more accurate constrain to the sites’ age, as well as collect samples for paleoclimatic proxies. Our new Optically Stimulated Luminescence and 14C ages together with the stable oxygen isotope signature of the loess sediments, constrain the age of the upper archaeological horizon to
The end of the Pleistocene (~75-15 ka) is a key period for the prehistory of the Nile Valley. The... more The end of the Pleistocene (~75-15 ka) is a key period for the prehistory of the Nile Valley. The climatic fluctuations documented during this period have led human populations from the Middle and Late Palaeolithic to adapt to a changing Nile. In particular, the global shift to more arid conditions regionally translated into the expansion of the Sahara, the lowering of sea levels and the desiccation of some major eastern African lakes. These climatically-induced environmental changes influenced the behaviour of the Nile – although how exactly is still debated – and its role as an ecological refugium for human populations living in its vicinity. Genetic and fossil evidence highlight a strong population substructure in Africa during this period, suggesting the alternation of phases of major dispersals of modern humans within the continent, as well as out-of and back-into Africa, with phases of relative isolation of populations, which might be linked to the creation of environmental re...
Situated at the crossroads of Africa and Eurasia, the Levant is a crucial region for understandin... more Situated at the crossroads of Africa and Eurasia, the Levant is a crucial region for understanding the origins and spread of Upper Paleolithic (UP) traditions associated with the spread of modern humans. Of the two local Early Upper Paleolithic technocomplexes, the Ahmarian and the Levantine Aurignacian, the latter appears to be unique in the endemic UP sequence, exhibiting greater similarity to the West European 'classic' Aurignacian than to the local preceding and proceeding UP entities. Previous publications have mostly focused on the similarities between the two lithic industries and less on studies conducted on Levantine Aurignacian bone tools and ornaments. Here, we present an archaeozoological, technological and use-wear study of ornaments on animal teeth from the Levantine Aurignacian layers at Manot and Hayonim caves (the Galilee, Israel). The selection of taxa, the choice of teeth, the mode of modification, and the use-wear analysis exhibit clear similarities with the European Aurignacian. This, with the technology of the osseous raw material exploitation, the presence of antler simple-base points, and some lithic typotechnological features, suggest a link between the symbolic spheres of the Levantine and the European Aurignacian cultural entities. Such similarity also supports some contribution of European Aurignacians groups to the local cultural entities, intermingling with the local material culture features.
Manot Cave contains important human fossils and archaeological assemblages related to the origin ... more Manot Cave contains important human fossils and archaeological assemblages related to the origin and dispersal of anatomically modern humans and the Upper Paleolithic period. This record is divided between an elevated in situ occupation area and a connecting talus. We, thus, investigated the interplay between the accumulation of the sediments and their associated artifacts in the occupation areas and the translocation of part of these sediments and artifacts down the talus. We examined the lithostratigraphy of two excavation locations in the occupation area (areas E and I), and two in the talus (areas C and D). We also assessed the diagenetic processes that have affected all these areas. A linear array of stalagmites and stalactites separates the occupation area from the talus, demarcating a major topographic barrier between the two. We infer that during human occupation, sediment accumulation of soil, wood ash, and bone was rapid and that some sediments with their associated artifacts overflowed the barrier and translocated down the talus. During periods of nonoccupation, the ash in the occupation area partially dissolved owing to the release of acid from the degrading bat and bird guano, and the layer thicknesses decreased. The south side of the talus (area C) has a normally stratified archaeological record, with the older archaeological materials underlying the younger materials. This suggests that the barrier between the occupation area and area C was relatively shallow and allowed a fairly continuous sediment accumulation in the talus. In the central part of the talus (area D), the stratigraphy is complex and shows mixing, presumably owing to the steep underlying bedrock topography and the mixing that occurs when sediments move down a steep slope. Finally, the distribution of secondary phosphates is consistent with the location of a main cave entrance to the south of the Paleolithic occupation area.
A well-preserved sequence of Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) occupations has been revealed in the p... more A well-preserved sequence of Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) occupations has been revealed in the past decade in Manot Cave, the studies of which shed light on the cultural dynamics and subsistence patterns and paleoenvironment. Most intriguing is the series of overlying Levantine Aurignacian occupation layers, exposed near the entrance to the cave. Area E is considered the inner part of the main activity area in Manot Cave. Remains of intact combustion features, as well as numerous flint artifacts and faunal remains, were found, indicating a high level of preservation. Within a 2.5 m sequence, nine distinct occupation layers were defined. The presence of characteristic flint and osseous industries alongside a rich mollusk assemblage led to the initial association of the sequence as a whole to the Levantine Aurignacian. However, as research advanced and variability in the material culture became apparent, it became clear that a division of the sequence into two phases, early and late, is required. A preliminary study of the assemblage variability implies distinct changes in human behavior between the two phases. Most prominently, these are indicated by a change in bladelet production method and morphology alongside an increase in the significance of the bladelet component within the flint assemblage, the disappearance of composite osseous industries, and a steep decrease in mollusk shell representation in the late occupation phase. Radiocarbon dating indicates a short time span between the two phases. The earlier phase defined as, Levantine Aurignacian, was ascribed an age range of 38-34 ka cal BP with a more constrained age range of 37-35 ka cal BP suggested based on Bayesian models. In the late phase, which is temporarily referred to as "post-Levantine Aurignacian," an age range of 36-33 ka cal BP is suggested.
The transition from the Middle Paleolithic to the Upper Paleolithic in the Levant represents a ma... more The transition from the Middle Paleolithic to the Upper Paleolithic in the Levant represents a major event in human prehistory with regards to the dispersal of modern human populations. Unfortunately, the scarcity of human remains from this period has hampered our ability to study the anatomy of Upper Paleolithic populations. This study describes and examines pedal bones recovered from the Early Upper Paleolithic period at Manot Cave, Israel, from 2014 to 2017. The Manot Cave foot bones include a partial, left foot skeleton comprising a talus, a calcaneus, a cuboid, a first metatarsal, a second metatarsal, a fifth metatarsal, and a hallucal sesamoid. All these remains were found in the same archaeological unit of the cave and belong to a young adult. Shape and size comparisons with Neanderthals, Anatomically Modern Human and modern human foot bones indicate a modern human morphology. In some characteristics, however, the Manot Cave foot bones display a Neanderthal-like pattern. Notably, the Manot Cave foot is remarkable in its overall gracility. A healed traumatic injury in the second metatarsal (Lisfranc's fracture) is most likely due to a remote impact to the dorsum of the foot. This injury, its subsequent debility, and the individual's apparent recovery suggest that the members of the Manot Cave community had a supportive environment, one with mutual responsibilities among the members.
Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews, 2018
The end of the Pleistocene (~75–15 ka) is an intriguing period for the Nile Valley prehistory. Th... more The end of the Pleistocene (~75–15 ka) is an intriguing period for the Nile Valley prehistory. The global shift to more arid conditions regionally translated into the lowering of the Mediterranean Sea level, the desiccation of some major eastern African lakes and the expansion of the Sahara. These climatically induced environmental changes influenced the behavior of the Nile river and the valley's role as an ecological refugium for human populations living in its vicinity. Genetic studies suggest that this period saw several dispersals of modern humans “out-of” and “backinto” Africa. Although the Nile Valley constitutes one of the possible routes for these dispersals, archeological evidence for contacts between the Nile Valley and its neighboring regions remain scarce and debated.
Abstract The site of Rosh Ein Mor is constantly used as a cultural marker for the presence of “Ta... more Abstract The site of Rosh Ein Mor is constantly used as a cultural marker for the presence of “Tabun D” type industries in the Negev. A re-analysis of the lithic assemblage shows that the techno-typological characteristics fit better within the late Middle Paleolithic variability than within the early Middle Paleolithic. Using the powerful tool of U-series for dating calcite crusts on the artifacts a cluster of dates between ~70–35 ka has been obtained. Taking into consideration the central Negev highlands paleoclimate record and the geomorphological setting, this study presents valid data to suggest that Rosh Ein Mor was occupied during MIS 4 and possibly into MIS 3.
The timing of archeological industries in the Levant is central for understanding the spread of m... more The timing of archeological industries in the Levant is central for understanding the spread of modern humans with Upper Paleolithic traditions. We report a high-resolution radiocarbon chronology for Early Upper Paleolithic industries (Early Ahmarian and Levantine Aurignacian) from the newly excavated site of Manot Cave, Israel. The dates confirm that the Early Ahmarian industry was present by 46,000 calibrated years before the present (cal BP), and the Levantine Aurignacian occurred at least between 38,000 and 34,000 cal BP. This timing is consistent with proposed migrations or technological diffusions between the Near East and Europe. Specifically, the Ahmarian could have led to the development of the Protoaurignacian in Europe, and the Aurignacian in Europe could have spread back to the Near East as the Levantine Aurignacian.
Une serie d’occupations courtes ont ete decouvertes dans le nouveau site de la grotte d’Emanuel. ... more Une serie d’occupations courtes ont ete decouvertes dans le nouveau site de la grotte d’Emanuel. La datation U/ Th suggere une date de 191± 1Ka comme terminus post quem pour les depots archeologiques. Malgre la nature ephemere du site, l’assemblage lithique presente deux phases distinctes : les niveaux inferieurs se caracterisent par une predominance de la production laminaire, tandis que les niveaux superieurs refletent une utilisation plus frequente de la methode Levallois. La comparaison techno-typologique de ces niveaux inferieurs avec d’autres assemblages levantins les situe dans la tradition technologique du Paleolithique moyen ancien telle que rencontree a Hayonim E base et F et a Hummal 6. Ceci implique une plus large variabilite technique que celle qui est representee par la classification «culturelle » de Tabun generalement utilisee pour definir le Paleolithique Moyen du Levant.
The headwaters of the Burhain Dora drainage, Hadar, Ethiopia, yielded surface and in situ archaeo... more The headwaters of the Burhain Dora drainage, Hadar, Ethiopia, yielded surface and in situ archaeological occurrences. Restricted excavations in A.L. 1101 revealed a thin, well-defined horizon bearing a core-and-flake industry. Technological characteristics of this assemblage differ from those seen in the >2.35 Ma sites (A.L. 894 and A.L. 666) located ~3km to the northeast, in the Makaamitalu Basin. Such characteristics include, among others, the exclusive presence of exhausted bifacial cores and a relatively large number of flakes with bipolar dorsal face scar patterns. In situ and surface isolated finds, located in close proximity to A.L. 1101, are characterized by the presence of roughly-shaped “proto-bifaces.” The archaeological occurrences in the Burahin Dora overlie a thick tephra that has recently been identified as the Burahin Dora Tuff (BDT; Campisano 2007) and placed stratigraphically above the 1.5–1.3 Ma-old AST-3 that is found in the Gona research area (Campisano and Feibel 2008). The combination of chronology and typo-technological characteristics suggests that our work in the Burahin potentially sampled a late Oldowan/early Acheulian landscape. The discovery of young archaeological occurrences in this area of the Hadar project enables a diachronic comparison of the technological make-up of lithic assemblages of the early and late Hadar sites, viewed against the background of differences in local raw material affordances and site formation processes. In combination with evidence from other similar-age archaeological occurrences (e.g., Konso, Kokiselei 5; Olduvai, Upper Bed II), insights from Hadar archaeology pertain to the understanding of variation and evolution throughout the Oldowan time span.
Drawing on the "Out of Africa" models and a single source origin in east Africa, a multi dispersa... more Drawing on the "Out of Africa" models and a single source origin in east Africa, a multi dispersal model is suggested for the dispersal of modern humans out of Africa probably through a mechanism of range expansions. These expansions were governed by climatic and geographical constraints. During the late Pleistocene, most notably between 130-100 ka and again between 80-75 ka, the Sahara, Negev and Arabian deserts were subjected to periods of climatic amelioration, blurring geographical boundaries between sub-tropical Africa and the Levant.
Inter assemblage variability within the late Middle Paleolithic sites of the Southern Levant, i.e. the Avdat /Aqev sites and the central Negev highland sites suggest the presence of more than one technological tradition. Inter-regional comparisons of these technological packages suggest the existence of social networks that facilitated the diffusion of technological and stylistic traits across the southern Levant, Arabia and the Nile valley
The Nubian cores have been used as a marker for Homo sapiens dispersals out of Africa as they hav... more The Nubian cores have been used as a marker for Homo sapiens dispersals out of Africa as they have been found in East Africa, the Nile Valley and Arabia. Their purported absence from Levantine assemblages was used to exclude this region from the proposed dispersal routes, although geographically it is the major land route connecting Africa to both Arabia and Europe. The lithic assemblage from site H2 in the central Negev highlands of Israel includes both Levallois centripetal and Nubian type cores. This assemblage highlights the need for a rigorous definition of the Nubian flaking technology and of the "technological package" that it is associated with. The wetter conditions over the Sahara and Negev deserts during MIS 6a-5e provided a generally continuous semi-arid corridor into the Levant that enabled the dispersal of hominin groups bearing the Nubian variant of prepared core technologies. The H2 assemblage as well as additional similar collections from the central Negev draws renewed attention to the place of the Levant as one of the dispersal routes out of Africa during the Late Pleistocene.
A GIS approach to Neandertal spatial behavior: A case study from Amud Cave
Mae Goder 1, Erella... more A GIS approach to Neandertal spatial behavior: A case study from Amud Cave
Mae Goder 1, Erella Hovers1, Rivka Rabinovich
Background:
GIS has been used mostly for landscape archaeology and inter-site spatial mapping and analysis, and to a lesser extent for intra-site spatial analysis. Despite the analytical constraints typically originating from the limited size and distorted shapes of excavation areas, the majority of onsite GIS work has been confined to using the software’s visualization tools at the expense of more analytical studies (for some exceptions see: Birkenfeld and Goring-Morris 2011; Mills 2009; Moyes 2002). Amud Cave is a late Middle Paleolithic site in Israel (68-55 thousand years ago), presenting a stratigraphic sequence of dense human occupations coupled with complex site formation processes, While differential use of space has been documented for some find classes in the cave, the digital treatment of the various data sets presents us with methodological as well as archaeological challenges (Hovers et al., 2011).
Aims
The most recent excavations at the site ended in 1994, prior to the now-common practice of applying digital methods of data collection, documentation and analysis Consequently, our aims in this study are twofold: 1) developing a methodology to translate analogical field documents to GIS files using ArcGIS generic software, and 2) addressing the issue of spatial differences in artifact distributions and assessing their anthropogenic or taphonomic origins.
Once digitization was complete, we used the nArcMap’s native statistical tools to validate emerging spatial patterns of lithic artifacts, taking into account the constrains of the shape and size of the excavated area. When integrated with geochemical, faunal and lithic analysis results, this allows addressing questions about spatial behaviors of the Neandertal occupants of Amud Cave, with special emphasis on trash disposal behavior.
References:
Birkenfeld, Michal., and Nigel. Goring-Moris. 2011. A methodological approach, using GIS applications, to stratigraphy and spatial analysis at PPNB Kfar HaHoresh. In Studies in the State of the Stone Terminologies, Continuities and Contexts, eds. E. Healey, S. Campbell and O. Maeda, 277-291. Near Eastern Lithics Studies in Early Near Eastern Production, Subsistence, and Environment 13, Berlin.
Hovers, Erella., Malinsky-Buller Ariel., Goder-Goldberger, Mae. and Ravid. Ektshtain. 2011. Capturing a Moment: Identifying Short-lived Activity Locations in Amud Cave, Israel. In The Lower and Middle Palaeolithic in the Middle East and Neighbouring Regions, eds. Le Tensorer J.-M., Jagher R. and M. Otte M.. 101-114. Proceedings of the Basel symposium (mai 8-10 2008). ERAUL 126, Liège,
Mills, Tammi., 2009. A GIS Approach to the Spatial Analysis of the Fincastle Bison Kill Site (D10x-5), MA Thesis, University of Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada.
Moyes, Holley. 2002. The use of GIS in the spatial analysis of an archaeological cave site. Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 64(1): 9-16.
There is clear evidence of lithic technological variability in Middle Paleolithic (MP) assemblage... more There is clear evidence of lithic technological variability in Middle Paleolithic (MP) assemblages along the Nile valley and adjacent desert areas. One of the identified variants is the Khormusan, the type site of which, Site 1017, is located north of the Nile’s Second Cataract. The industry has two distinct characteristics that set it apart from other MP industries within its vicinity. One is the use of a wide variety of raw materials; the second is a clear correlation between raw material and technology used, reflecting a true cultural aspect to raw material management. Stratigraphically, site 1017 is situated within the Dibeira- Jer formation which represents an aggradation stage of the Nile and contains sediments originating from the Ethiopian Highlands. While the site is considered to be earlier than 42,500 Ka, the Dibeira- Jer formation can be plausibly correlated with Nile alluvial sediments in northern Sudan, recently dated to 83 ±24 Ka. This stage coincides with the 81 Ka age of sapropel S3, indicating higher Nile flow and stronger monsoon rainfall at these times.
Other sites which reflect similar raw material variability and technological traditions are the BNS and KHS sites in the Omo Kibish Formation (Ethiopia) dated to ~100 Ka and ~190 Ka respectively. Based on a lithic comparative study conducted, site 1017 can be seen as representing behavioral patterns which are diagnostic of East African Middle Stone Age (MSA), adding support to the hypothesis that the Nile Valley was an important dispersal route used by modern humans prior to the long cooling and dry trend beginning with the onset of OIS 4.
Dispersals of anatomically modern humans out of eastern Africa, are reflected in the fossil recor... more Dispersals of anatomically modern humans out of eastern Africa, are reflected in the fossil record of western and northern Africa and the Levant. These dispersals are supported by genetic studies, but difficult to detect in the archaeological material record. The Multiple Dispersal Model (Lahr and Foley 1998), also known as the Biogeographic Model, is one of the prominent multiple dispersal models, related to the Single Origin and 'Out of Africa' Models. It hypothesizes that throughout the Middle Stone Age (MSA) there were several waves of dispersals out of eastern Africa. Periods of climatic amelioration during the late Pleistocene (End of MIS 6 to MIS 4) over the Sahara, Negev and Arabian deserts blurred geographical boundaries between sub-tropical Africa and the Levant. Thus ecological corridors were created allowing modern human range expansions across environmental gradients and dispersals into neighboring geographical regions. Archaeological research in eastern Africa, the Nile valley and the southern Levant resulted in evidence for lithic variability within the assemblages, although mismatching research methodologies hampered inter-site variability studies. The explanations for processes and causes underlying lithic variability focus on two main sets of interpretations, functional and social/cultural. The first set assumes a passive interaction between humans and their environment, meaning that they 'react' and 'adapt' to changing environmental conditions mainly (or only) by shifting and redefining subsistence strategies, toward which lithic artifacts are geared. The second set draws on behavioral and social dynamics as the agents behind variability and adaptability to the changing environment. The contribution of each of these sets of explanations to assemblage variability must be assessed through lithic analysis prior to a study of inter-assemblage variability. In this study, the past behavioral strategies of human interaction with their physical as well as social environments are inferred through the chaîne opératoire concept. Once this was done for each of the assemblage an inter-assemblage comparison was conducted and patterns of inter-group contacts were deduced. In comparative studies a common language needs to be created. In this study a common set of attributes and measurements were observed and recorded for each assemblage. These variables were then used to analyze the lithic assemblages quantitatively and qualitatively, to infer technological processes. On the premise that technology is a social product, the chaîne opératoire concept was used to interpret behavioral processes and choices made by the knappers. These were inferred from the quantified techno-typological traits of the studied assemblages. The first article outlines interactions between the Nile valley and Ethiopia. The Khormusan industry is a discrete Nile Valley lithic tradition. The industry has two distinctive characteristics that set it apart from other MP industries within its vicinity. One is the use of a wide variety of raw materials; the second is an apparent correlation between raw material and technology used, suggesting a cultural aspect to raw material management. Other sites which reflect similar raw material variability and technological traditions are the BNS and KHS sites in the Omo Kibish Formation (Ethiopia) dated to ~100 ka and ~190 ka respectively. Based on a lithic comparative study conducted, it is suggested that Khormusan site 1017 can be seen as representing behavioral patterns which are indicative of East African Middle Stone Age (MSA) technology, adding support to the hypothesis that the Nile Valley was an important dispersal route used by modern humans prior to the long cooling and dry trend beginning with the onset of MIS 4. The second article looks at the Nubian technology as a possible indicator for modern human dispersals during the end of MIS 6 through MIS 5. If archaeological assemblages are used to infer population movements and diffusion of technological knowledge, then “technological packages” need to be identified. These packages consist of distinct technological practices and their particular combinations. The Nubian technology has been recognized in several assemblages from the Negev Highlands, which also have a different “technological package” compared to well-known Middle Paleolithic assemblages from the central Negev (the Avdat/Aqev sites). The Negev Highlands sites seem to have closer ties with the Late Nubian Complex sites from the Nile Valley and to a lesser extent to the Nubian assemblages from Arabia. Identifying the permutations of the technological packages within the Negev Highland assemblages is a step in recognizing past human interactions and networks during MIS 5, between the Nile Valley, the Negev and Arabia. The third article presents an in-depth study of MSA lithic assemblages from Ethiopia. This has enabled the identification of regional lithic technological packages as well as the diffusion of technological traits between prehistoric groups. Incorporating the technological relations of the Khormusan industry with these MSA industries, as well as the broad geographical span of the Nubian technology has enabled the mapping of 'interaction spheres'. These spheres are thought to reflect social networks and possible movement trajectories across the landscape, and are formulated based on recognized lithic variability. Following the current study across eastern Africa, the Nile Valley, the southern Levant and Arabia several different interaction spheres are recognized, during the late Pleistocene (end of MIS6 to initial MIS4). These spheres are thought to portray complex sets of interactions that allowed for the diffusion of technological traits, both by range expansions and dispersals as well as the maintenance of social networks. It seems that the Nile Valley displays a large amplitude of variability when compared to neighboring areas, adding support to the hypothesis that this region was an important dispersal route used by modern humans prior to the long cooling and dry trend beginning with the onset of MIS 4.
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Papers by Mae Goder-Goldberger
Inter assemblage variability within the late Middle Paleolithic sites of the Southern Levant, i.e. the Avdat /Aqev sites and the central Negev highland sites suggest the presence of more than one technological tradition. Inter-regional comparisons of these technological packages suggest the existence of social networks that facilitated the diffusion of technological and stylistic traits across the southern Levant, Arabia and the Nile valley
Mae Goder 1, Erella Hovers1, Rivka Rabinovich
Background:
GIS has been used mostly for landscape archaeology and inter-site spatial mapping and analysis, and to a lesser extent for intra-site spatial analysis. Despite the analytical constraints typically originating from the limited size and distorted shapes of excavation areas, the majority of onsite GIS work has been confined to using the software’s visualization tools at the expense of more analytical studies (for some exceptions see: Birkenfeld and Goring-Morris 2011; Mills 2009; Moyes 2002). Amud Cave is a late Middle Paleolithic site in Israel (68-55 thousand years ago), presenting a stratigraphic sequence of dense human occupations coupled with complex site formation processes, While differential use of space has been documented for some find classes in the cave, the digital treatment of the various data sets presents us with methodological as well as archaeological challenges (Hovers et al., 2011).
Aims
The most recent excavations at the site ended in 1994, prior to the now-common practice of applying digital methods of data collection, documentation and analysis Consequently, our aims in this study are twofold: 1) developing a methodology to translate analogical field documents to GIS files using ArcGIS generic software, and 2) addressing the issue of spatial differences in artifact distributions and assessing their anthropogenic or taphonomic origins.
Once digitization was complete, we used the nArcMap’s native statistical tools to validate emerging spatial patterns of lithic artifacts, taking into account the constrains of the shape and size of the excavated area. When integrated with geochemical, faunal and lithic analysis results, this allows addressing questions about spatial behaviors of the Neandertal occupants of Amud Cave, with special emphasis on trash disposal behavior.
References:
Birkenfeld, Michal., and Nigel. Goring-Moris. 2011. A methodological approach, using GIS applications, to stratigraphy and spatial analysis at PPNB Kfar HaHoresh. In Studies in the State of the Stone Terminologies, Continuities and Contexts, eds. E. Healey, S. Campbell and O. Maeda, 277-291. Near Eastern Lithics Studies in Early Near Eastern Production, Subsistence, and Environment 13, Berlin.
Hovers, Erella., Malinsky-Buller Ariel., Goder-Goldberger, Mae. and Ravid. Ektshtain. 2011. Capturing a Moment: Identifying Short-lived Activity Locations in Amud Cave, Israel. In The Lower and Middle Palaeolithic in the Middle East and Neighbouring Regions, eds. Le Tensorer J.-M., Jagher R. and M. Otte M.. 101-114. Proceedings of the Basel symposium (mai 8-10 2008). ERAUL 126, Liège,
Mills, Tammi., 2009. A GIS Approach to the Spatial Analysis of the Fincastle Bison Kill Site (D10x-5), MA Thesis, University of Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada.
Moyes, Holley. 2002. The use of GIS in the spatial analysis of an archaeological cave site. Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 64(1): 9-16.
Other sites which reflect similar raw material variability and technological traditions are the BNS and KHS sites in the Omo Kibish Formation (Ethiopia) dated to ~100 Ka and ~190 Ka respectively. Based on a lithic comparative study conducted, site 1017 can be seen as representing behavioral patterns which are diagnostic of East African Middle Stone Age (MSA), adding support to the hypothesis that the Nile Valley was an important dispersal route used by modern humans prior to the long cooling and dry trend beginning with the onset of OIS 4.
The explanations for processes and causes underlying lithic variability focus on two main sets of interpretations, functional and social/cultural. The first set assumes a passive interaction between humans and their environment, meaning that they 'react' and 'adapt' to changing environmental conditions mainly (or only) by shifting and redefining subsistence strategies, toward which lithic artifacts are geared. The second set draws on behavioral and social dynamics as the agents behind variability and adaptability to the changing environment. The contribution of each of these sets of explanations to assemblage variability must be assessed through lithic analysis prior to a study of inter-assemblage variability. In this study, the past behavioral strategies of human interaction with their physical as well as social environments are inferred through the chaîne opératoire concept. Once this was done for each of the assemblage an inter-assemblage comparison was conducted and patterns of inter-group contacts were deduced.
In comparative studies a common language needs to be created. In this study a common set of attributes and measurements were observed and recorded for each assemblage. These variables were then used to analyze the lithic assemblages quantitatively and qualitatively, to infer technological processes. On the premise that technology is a social product, the chaîne opératoire concept was used to interpret behavioral processes and choices made by the knappers. These were inferred from the quantified techno-typological traits of the studied assemblages.
The first article outlines interactions between the Nile valley and Ethiopia. The Khormusan industry is a discrete Nile Valley lithic tradition. The industry has two distinctive characteristics that set it apart from other MP industries within its vicinity. One is the use of a wide variety of raw materials; the second is an apparent correlation between raw material and technology used, suggesting a cultural aspect to raw material management. Other sites which reflect similar raw material variability and technological traditions are the BNS and KHS sites in the Omo Kibish Formation (Ethiopia) dated to ~100 ka and ~190 ka respectively. Based on a lithic comparative study conducted, it is suggested that Khormusan site 1017 can be seen as representing behavioral patterns which are indicative of East African Middle Stone Age (MSA) technology, adding support to the hypothesis that the Nile Valley was an important dispersal route used by modern humans prior to the long cooling and dry trend beginning with the onset of MIS 4.
The second article looks at the Nubian technology as a possible indicator for modern human dispersals during the end of MIS 6 through MIS 5. If archaeological assemblages are used to infer population movements and diffusion of technological knowledge, then “technological packages” need to be identified. These packages consist of distinct technological practices and their particular combinations. The Nubian technology has been recognized in several assemblages from the Negev Highlands, which also have a different “technological package” compared to well-known Middle Paleolithic assemblages from the central Negev (the Avdat/Aqev sites). The Negev Highlands sites seem to have closer ties with the Late Nubian Complex sites from the Nile Valley and to a lesser extent to the Nubian assemblages from Arabia. Identifying the permutations of the technological packages within the Negev Highland assemblages is a step in recognizing past human interactions and networks during MIS 5, between the Nile Valley, the Negev and Arabia.
The third article presents an in-depth study of MSA lithic assemblages from Ethiopia. This has enabled the identification of regional lithic technological packages as well as the diffusion of technological traits between prehistoric groups. Incorporating the technological relations of the Khormusan industry with these MSA industries, as well as the broad geographical span of the Nubian technology has enabled the mapping of 'interaction spheres'. These spheres are thought to reflect social networks and possible movement trajectories across the landscape, and are formulated based on recognized lithic variability. Following the current study across eastern Africa, the Nile Valley, the southern Levant and Arabia several different interaction spheres are recognized, during the late Pleistocene (end of MIS6 to initial MIS4). These spheres are thought to portray complex sets of interactions that allowed for the diffusion of technological traits, both by range expansions and dispersals as well as the maintenance of social networks. It seems that the Nile Valley displays a large amplitude of variability when compared to neighboring areas, adding support to the hypothesis that this region was an important dispersal route used by modern humans prior to the long cooling and dry trend beginning with the onset of MIS 4.