The Chiaravalle Cross, a masterpiece of Mediaeval goldsmithery, went under restoration in 2016. T... more The Chiaravalle Cross, a masterpiece of Mediaeval goldsmithery, went under restoration in 2016. This was a unique opportunity to undertake an in-depth multidisciplinary study. Several issues were addressed, as for example the chronology of the Cross, lacking any official document about it. The scientific investigations included in situ and laboratory measurements, and the analyses, part of a multidisciplinary protocol, completely characterized the gemstones adorning the Cross, the cameos, the gold, silver, jasper and glass parts, to derive indications on their provenance, authenticity and dating issues. All the results were shared with the whole collaboration of experts, which included art historians, a restorer, a conservator, a scholar in ancient glyptic, gemologists, archaeometallurgists, physicists and scientists in a very fruitful exchange of knowledge. This work is an example of a real multidisciplinary research, gathering good practices in the study of a complex piece of art.
La Croce di Chiaravalle. Approfondimenti storico-scientifici in occasione del restauro. Atti del Convegno, Milano 2016, 2017
The Chiaravalle Cross, a jewellery masterpiece in the Museo del Duomo of Milan (Italy), dating to... more The Chiaravalle Cross, a jewellery masterpiece in the Museo del Duomo of Milan (Italy), dating to the XIII century, is a processional cross made on silver and gold laminas, combined with filigrees, gems, cameos and red jasper. The scientific investigation during the restoration of the cross has involved many analyses and studies of the production and manufacturing techniques of metals.
The archaeological samples from the site of Valle delle Forme (Bienno, Brescia, Northern Italy) b... more The archaeological samples from the site of Valle delle Forme (Bienno, Brescia, Northern Italy) belonging to 1300 - 1400 AD, are studied using neutron-based techniques .
This paper presents the analytical results of some specimens of the waste from the production of ... more This paper presents the analytical results of some specimens of the waste from the production of copper alloys objects from the Celtic metalworking district of via Moneta. The research was carried on with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an energy dispersion system for micro analyses (EDS). Our specimens were a stud, a cover of a nail head, a concretion found at the bottom of an amphora used in a metal working atelier and a slag from the smelting of copper alloys. Only seldom these alloys were real bronzes, more often they were bronzes with Pb or binary Cu-Pb alloys. Because of this the resulting metal was fragile and some parts of the finished products had the tendency to break off thus leading to the rejection of some of them. The slag analyses have proven that metals were melted in crucibles, one slag is composed by copper salts too which show that in these ateliers bronze objects were polished using water and stone tools. The concretion on the bottom of the amphora proves that in these ateliers iron and copper alloys were worked in order to make composite objects.
This paper deals with the study of the layers with remains of metallurgical activities from via M... more This paper deals with the study of the layers with remains of metallurgical activities from via Moneta (IV-III century BC - I century AD). The district was located in the centre of the oppidum near the area where the Roman forum was to be built at a later stage. The remains of twenty-three metallurgical workshops were partially reconstructed. In these workshops raw iron and copper alloys were worked in order to be transformed into finished objects and accessories for forniture. The iron forges' hearts and the smelting furnaces for the copper alloys are described and reconstructed. The metal production was highly specialized: various iron items and iron sheets were made, fluxes were used for its soldering. Copper alloys were used for the production of nails, rivets, upholstery nails, thin bronze sheet was made in order to cover the heads of iron nails and possibly also La Tène fibulae of Nauheim type or of related types were made. In many workshops both iron and copper alloys were worked in order to make pieces of furniture and object made with different metals.
The 2000 campaign in the early Iron Age copper mine of Campolungo in the mountains of the Brescia... more The 2000 campaign in the early Iron Age copper mine of Campolungo in the mountains of the Brescia province
This paper examines a series of documents recently found in the State Archive of Milan. Two of th... more This paper examines a series of documents recently found in the State Archive of Milan. Two of these provide definitive evidence to solve the lost-standing problem of the localisation of the mint of the Trivulzio family. These documents always provide information concerning the organisation of the mint of Roveredo and de- monstrate that the mint of Mesocco never existed. Other documents relate to the mines and metallurgical ovens owned by Gian Giacomo Trivulzio. These docu- ments contain previously unknown information regarding his entrepreneurial ac- tivity in the siderurgy sector in the areas of Grisons and and high Lake Como. La localisation de l’atelier des Trivulzio dans la Valle ´e Mesolcina a constitue ´ , depuis les premie `res de ´cennies du XIXe `me sie `cle, un conside ´rable proble `me histo- riographique pour la numismatique de la famille Trivulzio. La re ´cente de ´cou- verte de deux documents ine ´dits aux Archives d’E ´tat de Milan a permis a `l’auteur d’y apporter une contribution de ´cisive. En particulier, l’analyse des deux inven- taires a donne ´le moyen a `l’auteur de reconstruire le fonctionnement inte ´rieur de l’atelier de Roveredo et de montrer que, en re ´alite ´, l’atelier de Mesocco n’a jamais existe ´. L’activite ´d’entrepreneur, surtout dans le milieu side ´rurgique, de Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, jusqu’a `pre ´sent me ´connue par l’historiographie, a pu e ˆtre re- construite gra ˆce a `des documents ine ´dits des Archives milanais, concernent ses pos- sessions des mines et fours me ´tallurgiques dans la zone des Grisons et du Haut Lario.
A petrographic study of copper smelting slags from several localities of Val Malenco (Italy) prov... more A petrographic study of copper smelting slags from several localities of Val Malenco (Italy) provides a key for unravelling the technologies used in reduction of copper ores during the Iron Age. Thick “tap type” slags with “rope surface” structures and thin, flat slags, were analysed. All slags are made of olivine (up to 60%), oxides, sulfides, minor interstitial Fe-rich pyroxenes (esseneite and augite) and glass. Olivine is zoned, with Mg-rich cores, Fe-rich inner rims and thin Ca-rich outer rims. Observed mesh textures and the compositions of olivine cores and relic minerals, such as Cr-rich spinel, suggest that the mineralised levels of the Malenco ophiolitic complex were the source of the exploited ore. Ca-rich olivine rims and Ca-rich interstitial phases suggest a Ca-rich material was supposedly added during smelting to lower the melting point of the ore. The material used for this task could have been marbles or calcschists of ophicarbonates outcropping nearby Lanzada. Based on petrological considerations, the smelting conditions were constrained to a furnace in which, for temperatures around 1080-1200 °C, oxygen fugacity was 10 -13-10 -8 atm.
The Chiaravalle Cross, a masterpiece of Mediaeval goldsmithery, went under restoration in 2016. T... more The Chiaravalle Cross, a masterpiece of Mediaeval goldsmithery, went under restoration in 2016. This was a unique opportunity to undertake an in-depth multidisciplinary study. Several issues were addressed, as for example the chronology of the Cross, lacking any official document about it. The scientific investigations included in situ and laboratory measurements, and the analyses, part of a multidisciplinary protocol, completely characterized the gemstones adorning the Cross, the cameos, the gold, silver, jasper and glass parts, to derive indications on their provenance, authenticity and dating issues. All the results were shared with the whole collaboration of experts, which included art historians, a restorer, a conservator, a scholar in ancient glyptic, gemologists, archaeometallurgists, physicists and scientists in a very fruitful exchange of knowledge. This work is an example of a real multidisciplinary research, gathering good practices in the study of a complex piece of art.
La Croce di Chiaravalle. Approfondimenti storico-scientifici in occasione del restauro. Atti del Convegno, Milano 2016, 2017
The Chiaravalle Cross, a jewellery masterpiece in the Museo del Duomo of Milan (Italy), dating to... more The Chiaravalle Cross, a jewellery masterpiece in the Museo del Duomo of Milan (Italy), dating to the XIII century, is a processional cross made on silver and gold laminas, combined with filigrees, gems, cameos and red jasper. The scientific investigation during the restoration of the cross has involved many analyses and studies of the production and manufacturing techniques of metals.
The archaeological samples from the site of Valle delle Forme (Bienno, Brescia, Northern Italy) b... more The archaeological samples from the site of Valle delle Forme (Bienno, Brescia, Northern Italy) belonging to 1300 - 1400 AD, are studied using neutron-based techniques .
This paper presents the analytical results of some specimens of the waste from the production of ... more This paper presents the analytical results of some specimens of the waste from the production of copper alloys objects from the Celtic metalworking district of via Moneta. The research was carried on with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an energy dispersion system for micro analyses (EDS). Our specimens were a stud, a cover of a nail head, a concretion found at the bottom of an amphora used in a metal working atelier and a slag from the smelting of copper alloys. Only seldom these alloys were real bronzes, more often they were bronzes with Pb or binary Cu-Pb alloys. Because of this the resulting metal was fragile and some parts of the finished products had the tendency to break off thus leading to the rejection of some of them. The slag analyses have proven that metals were melted in crucibles, one slag is composed by copper salts too which show that in these ateliers bronze objects were polished using water and stone tools. The concretion on the bottom of the amphora proves that in these ateliers iron and copper alloys were worked in order to make composite objects.
This paper deals with the study of the layers with remains of metallurgical activities from via M... more This paper deals with the study of the layers with remains of metallurgical activities from via Moneta (IV-III century BC - I century AD). The district was located in the centre of the oppidum near the area where the Roman forum was to be built at a later stage. The remains of twenty-three metallurgical workshops were partially reconstructed. In these workshops raw iron and copper alloys were worked in order to be transformed into finished objects and accessories for forniture. The iron forges' hearts and the smelting furnaces for the copper alloys are described and reconstructed. The metal production was highly specialized: various iron items and iron sheets were made, fluxes were used for its soldering. Copper alloys were used for the production of nails, rivets, upholstery nails, thin bronze sheet was made in order to cover the heads of iron nails and possibly also La Tène fibulae of Nauheim type or of related types were made. In many workshops both iron and copper alloys were worked in order to make pieces of furniture and object made with different metals.
The 2000 campaign in the early Iron Age copper mine of Campolungo in the mountains of the Brescia... more The 2000 campaign in the early Iron Age copper mine of Campolungo in the mountains of the Brescia province
This paper examines a series of documents recently found in the State Archive of Milan. Two of th... more This paper examines a series of documents recently found in the State Archive of Milan. Two of these provide definitive evidence to solve the lost-standing problem of the localisation of the mint of the Trivulzio family. These documents always provide information concerning the organisation of the mint of Roveredo and de- monstrate that the mint of Mesocco never existed. Other documents relate to the mines and metallurgical ovens owned by Gian Giacomo Trivulzio. These docu- ments contain previously unknown information regarding his entrepreneurial ac- tivity in the siderurgy sector in the areas of Grisons and and high Lake Como. La localisation de l’atelier des Trivulzio dans la Valle ´e Mesolcina a constitue ´ , depuis les premie `res de ´cennies du XIXe `me sie `cle, un conside ´rable proble `me histo- riographique pour la numismatique de la famille Trivulzio. La re ´cente de ´cou- verte de deux documents ine ´dits aux Archives d’E ´tat de Milan a permis a `l’auteur d’y apporter une contribution de ´cisive. En particulier, l’analyse des deux inven- taires a donne ´le moyen a `l’auteur de reconstruire le fonctionnement inte ´rieur de l’atelier de Roveredo et de montrer que, en re ´alite ´, l’atelier de Mesocco n’a jamais existe ´. L’activite ´d’entrepreneur, surtout dans le milieu side ´rurgique, de Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, jusqu’a `pre ´sent me ´connue par l’historiographie, a pu e ˆtre re- construite gra ˆce a `des documents ine ´dits des Archives milanais, concernent ses pos- sessions des mines et fours me ´tallurgiques dans la zone des Grisons et du Haut Lario.
A petrographic study of copper smelting slags from several localities of Val Malenco (Italy) prov... more A petrographic study of copper smelting slags from several localities of Val Malenco (Italy) provides a key for unravelling the technologies used in reduction of copper ores during the Iron Age. Thick “tap type” slags with “rope surface” structures and thin, flat slags, were analysed. All slags are made of olivine (up to 60%), oxides, sulfides, minor interstitial Fe-rich pyroxenes (esseneite and augite) and glass. Olivine is zoned, with Mg-rich cores, Fe-rich inner rims and thin Ca-rich outer rims. Observed mesh textures and the compositions of olivine cores and relic minerals, such as Cr-rich spinel, suggest that the mineralised levels of the Malenco ophiolitic complex were the source of the exploited ore. Ca-rich olivine rims and Ca-rich interstitial phases suggest a Ca-rich material was supposedly added during smelting to lower the melting point of the ore. The material used for this task could have been marbles or calcschists of ophicarbonates outcropping nearby Lanzada. Based on petrological considerations, the smelting conditions were constrained to a furnace in which, for temperatures around 1080-1200 °C, oxygen fugacity was 10 -13-10 -8 atm.
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The research was carried on with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an energy dispersion system for micro analyses (EDS). Our specimens were a stud, a cover of a nail head, a concretion found at the bottom of an amphora used in a metal working atelier and a slag from the smelting of copper alloys. Only seldom these alloys
were real bronzes, more often they were bronzes with Pb or binary Cu-Pb alloys. Because of this the resulting metal was fragile and some parts of the finished products had the tendency to break off thus leading to the rejection of some of them. The slag analyses have proven that metals were melted in crucibles, one slag is composed by copper salts too which show that in these ateliers bronze objects were polished using water and stone tools.
The concretion on the bottom of the amphora proves that in these ateliers iron and copper alloys were worked in order to make composite objects.
La localisation de l’atelier des Trivulzio dans la Valle ´e Mesolcina a constitue ´ , depuis les premie `res de ´cennies du XIXe `me sie `cle, un conside ´rable proble `me histo- riographique pour la numismatique de la famille Trivulzio. La re ´cente de ´cou- verte de deux documents ine ´dits aux Archives d’E ´tat de Milan a permis a `l’auteur
d’y apporter une contribution de ´cisive. En particulier, l’analyse des deux inven- taires a donne ´le moyen a `l’auteur de reconstruire le fonctionnement inte ´rieur de l’atelier de Roveredo et de montrer que, en re ´alite ´, l’atelier de Mesocco n’a jamais existe ´. L’activite ´d’entrepreneur, surtout dans le milieu side ´rurgique, de Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, jusqu’a `pre ´sent me ´connue par l’historiographie, a pu e ˆtre re- construite gra ˆce a `des documents ine ´dits des Archives milanais, concernent ses pos- sessions des mines et fours me ´tallurgiques dans la zone des Grisons et du Haut Lario.
The research was carried on with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an energy dispersion system for micro analyses (EDS). Our specimens were a stud, a cover of a nail head, a concretion found at the bottom of an amphora used in a metal working atelier and a slag from the smelting of copper alloys. Only seldom these alloys
were real bronzes, more often they were bronzes with Pb or binary Cu-Pb alloys. Because of this the resulting metal was fragile and some parts of the finished products had the tendency to break off thus leading to the rejection of some of them. The slag analyses have proven that metals were melted in crucibles, one slag is composed by copper salts too which show that in these ateliers bronze objects were polished using water and stone tools.
The concretion on the bottom of the amphora proves that in these ateliers iron and copper alloys were worked in order to make composite objects.
La localisation de l’atelier des Trivulzio dans la Valle ´e Mesolcina a constitue ´ , depuis les premie `res de ´cennies du XIXe `me sie `cle, un conside ´rable proble `me histo- riographique pour la numismatique de la famille Trivulzio. La re ´cente de ´cou- verte de deux documents ine ´dits aux Archives d’E ´tat de Milan a permis a `l’auteur
d’y apporter une contribution de ´cisive. En particulier, l’analyse des deux inven- taires a donne ´le moyen a `l’auteur de reconstruire le fonctionnement inte ´rieur de l’atelier de Roveredo et de montrer que, en re ´alite ´, l’atelier de Mesocco n’a jamais existe ´. L’activite ´d’entrepreneur, surtout dans le milieu side ´rurgique, de Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, jusqu’a `pre ´sent me ´connue par l’historiographie, a pu e ˆtre re- construite gra ˆce a `des documents ine ´dits des Archives milanais, concernent ses pos- sessions des mines et fours me ´tallurgiques dans la zone des Grisons et du Haut Lario.