Prof. V.P Sati

Livestock farming forms an integral part in the economy of the Uttarakhand Himalaya and plays an important role in the mixed crop farming system. In addition, high diversity in livestock composition is the characteristic features of the mainland of Uttarakhand. The state obtains high potential of milk production because of availability of fodder as a form of extensive grasslands, which are locally known as bugyals or kharaks and fodder trees. Livestock, other than milk production, are widely used for manure, plowing fields and transportation of goods. The availability of extensive grasslands and feasible climatic conditions manifest a way for sustainable livestock farming in Uttarakhand, particularly in the temperate zone between 1400 m and 2200 m, where production of milk is high. Valley regions are generally known for rearing of drought animals with low milk producing capacity. This paper aims to discuss on the prospects of sustainable livestock farming and to trace the temporal changes that took place over the past years in terms of livestock population, composition, and the governmental policies and planning for developing livestock sector. It draws implications on these experiences for livestock planners and policy-makers and raises several research issues related to livestock sector development.

This paper examines the socio-economic and environmental impacts of stone mining in Shivpuri
district. A large number of people are dependent on stone mining activities for carrying their
livelihoods as stone mining is one of the most economic activities after agricultural practices in
Shivpuri district. A high quality stone belt is spread around 100 km area from west to east.
Meanwhile, about 60% stone mines are located in the Madhav National Park and other forest areas
of the district. Due to large-scale extraction of stones from the forest area, depletion of biodiversity
resources was enormous. And as a result, the mining practices were banned and this led to worst
socio-economic conditions of the poor rural people. This study also attempts to penetrate the
exclusive solutions that support both mining activities for carrying livelihoods and environmental
restoration through large-scale plantation campaign. It reveals that if appropriate measures are
taken place, mining practices and environmental restoration can go parallel. This study was
conducted through collection of data from the primary sources. A case study of the five villages
through household level survey was conducted during the years 2009-2011.

Agrarian system is well adapted in Himalayan eco-system. Hence, the people have adopted the traditional subsistence cereal farming and it becomes the main stay of Himalayan people. About 80 percent of the workable force is attached with agriculture and its allied practices, according to the census of 1991. Although, horticultural farming runs parallel with agriculture, its proportion in terms of land is quite less, resulted in a negligible place in the economy of the region. Human resources, mainly men are attached with national security after recruitment in Army. While, women play a vital and integrated role in maintaining the workable potential in the field of agriculture and are known as backbone of economy. An animal resource implies foremost and wider part in agricultural system and economy as well. Water resources are unutilized yet, while almost all the major rivers of our country are originated from and flowing through this region. Increasing population causes forest resources depletion. The economy of the region is rested either on ‘traditional cereal farming’ or ‘money order based’ development, which could not take place due to its remoteness from the main streams of the country. The impact of modern technology with innovation in agricultural system remains impracticable due to unwillingness of people in one hand and on the other hand, adverse geographical conditions like topography, climate etc. which could not permit the uses of modern innovation
in the field of agriculture. As for infra-structurally,this
Received: 15 October 2003
Accepted: 30 March 2004
region is lacked behind, due to its inaccessibility. While, this region is bestowed with numerous rivers, many places for tourists and pilgrims, and huge forest resources. They might be used evenly in the development processes. The practice of tourism will help for the further development, particularly, in the wake of the newly born state, Uttaranchal.
The present paper aims to evaluate the present potentiality of resources and their balanced utilization in the Pindar Basin. A precise study has been done on resource utilization, ecology and environment with keeping view in mind that more or less exploitation of resources could not influence the environment and the economy of the region.

Uttaranchal is bestowed with numerous rivers, huge forest resources ranging from tropical to temperate, tourists’ places, pilgrimages and feasible climatic conditions for growing fruits, vegetables, food grains, livestock rearing, tea garden practices, etc. The economic development, on the other hand, could not take place partly due to lack of modern technology with innovation in agricultural system and also unwillingness of the people towards using it. Furthermore, due to its harsh climatic conditions, rigorous terrain and distinct identity, as a part of Uttar Pradesh state, the development could not take place and today the state is believed to be one of the poorer states. Infrastructurally, this region is lagged behind due to its inaccessibility. The ideal geographical and agrarian conditions might be used evenly for the developmental processes. Ecologically, the whole region is fragile. The diverse socio-economic activities, harsh traditional beliefs and hard working potentials further change the entire scenario of the state. Only the need of the hours is to frame and implementation of the rational policies and planning for sustainable development of the state. What had appeared during the past, pertaining to the economic development, needs radical changes in policies, planning and beliefs. This paper aims to evaluate the present conditions of resources as a form
Received: 13 October 2005
Accepted: 28 November 2005
of natural vegetation, agricultural crops, horticultural farming, herbs, tea garden practices, livestock rearing, hydropower projects and economic development of the Uttaranchal Himalaya.

This paper looks at the key resource interactions driving the current trend in intramontane mobility
as a traditional subsistence practice in the Garhwal Himalaya region of Uttaranchal, India. For
hundreds of years, the natural resource based mid-altitude villages in the Pindar River basin hinged
on the annual summer migration to highland pastures. Where self-sufficiency has been obtained
through an environmentally embedded tradition of crop and livestock farming, highland forests
and alpine pastures continue to provide the human and animal requirements of fuelwood and
fodder, as well as the forest products defining traditional diets and cottage industry. The paper
reports the data from a rapid appraisal survey of resources obtained by households in selected
mid-altitude villages from the seven highland locations that have sustained the centuries-old
subsistence culture of the Pindar basin. While livestock have been the crucial link in a forest/
fodder–manure–cultivation chain that has necessitated households’ dependence on highland pastures
and forests, over the last four decades there has been a decline in the numbers engaged in
livestock raising and, concomitantly, the annual migration to summer pastures. Instead, there is a
trend towards increased cultivation of cash crops and forest resource collection in the traditional
highland encampment areas.

This paper aims to discuss the impact of multipurpose river valley projects on
economy and the environment of the areas affected by it. A case study of Madikheda Dam
Project is carried out, which is constructed in the core region of Madhav National Park in
Madhya Pradesh (INDIA). Impact analysis is done on the flora and fauna and as well as on
economic and social development. It is concluded that though a large scale of depletion of
forest and extinction of wild animals will be the consequences in due course of time after
completion of its all phase’s construction , its economic impact is tremendous. It will not
only solve the energy crises but also generate the substantial amount of employment and
will supply ample water for irrigation. The study is mainly based upon the collection of
primarily and secondary data. The primary data were gathered through framing
questionnaire, scheduled, and interview of the affected people of all thirteen villages,
government officials, and old and experienced people. Secondary data were collected from
different sources such as forest department, water resource department and statistical
department.

The Himalaya is known for its rich biodiversity, and it supports the Indian
subcontinent with wide varieties of natural resources including the life-sustaining water. Its
huge potential to develop micro-hydropower projects is untapped. Large-scale multi-purpose
river valley projects are not feasible as the landscape of Garhwal region is highly
vulnerable—ecologically fragile, geologically unstable and tectonically and seismically
active. Here, the issues of landscape vulnerability and rehabilitation, due to the construction
of hydropower projects, are renowned. In Garhwal region, the hydropower projects,
which have been constructed and are under construction and proposed, are located in
the densely populated river valleys, where terraced arable land is also available. These
areas are highly prone to atmospherically triggered hazards—debris flows, flash floods,
landslides, mass movements and rockfalls. Rehabilitation of the affected population has
been remaining as a major challenge in all the river valley projects from the very onset of
the commencement of hydropower projects in Garhwal region. This paper examines the
landscape vulnerability and rehabilitation issues related to the hydropower projects in
Garhwal region, Himalaya. The author collected the data from the primary and secondary
sources and from the rapid field visits of the hydropower project sites. This study reveals
that only micro-level hydropower projects are feasible in the fragile landscape of the
Garhwal Himalaya, keeping vulnerability and rehabilitation issues in mind.

Horticultural practice in the Himalayas has great importance not only for economic development but also for environmental restoration. In the entire Himalayan mountain system, from Jammu and Kashmir Himalaya to Assam Himalaya, the practice of horticulture is centuries old, which includes varieties of fruits along with availability of high quality and quantity. In terms of the Alaknanda Basin, which is centrally located in the Himalayan system, the practice of horticulture does not get commercial level; only it is cultivated domestically.
The climatic conditions ranging from sub-tropical (low-lying river valleys) to alpine and frigid (highly elevated regions) are suited for varieties of fruit cultivation, yet the benefit of this could not be utilized by the residents who are working in the agricultural fields.
Besides, less proportion of land is devoted for fruit cultivation along with domestic production of fruits. The varieties of fruit cultivated in the basin range from mango-guava-papaya, stone-net, citrus to apple at the different elevations. Along with the cultivated fruits, varieties of wild fruits are also found in the jungle. There are four climatic zones suitable for the production of various fruits as below:
Received: 13 October 2005
Accepted: 2 December 2005
• Sub-tropical zone including the lower part of the Alaknanda, Pindar, Nandakini, and Mandakini rivers is suitable for mango, guava, and papaya;
• Sub-temperate zone in the middle basin of the Alaknanda, Pindar, Nandakini and Mandakini rivers is a good place for citrus fruits, particularly orange and lemon;
• Temperate zone occupying the Dauli, Vishnu Ganga, Upper Pinder, Nandakini and Mandakini rivers is highly productive for apple, nut and stone fruits;
• Alpine meadows in the highly elevated region are known as Bugyal famous for herb culture.
Each of these zones has distinct physical features, environmental conditions and socio-economic identity for fruit cultivation. The present paper aims to discuss about the vertical zonation of the horticultural farming and its nature, in terms of development, in the Alaknada Basin.

Gwalior metropolitan city (India) comprises of three sub parts i.e. Murar, Lashkar
and Gwalior itself. Owing to its central location and one of the biggest railway junctions of
India, the spatial expansion and population growth of this agglomeration needs systematic
and relevant study for environmentally sound and economically viable society. The paper
deals with a trend of urbanization in Gwalior metropolitan city and its environs after
independence based on the growth of urban population. Major characterization of the
urbanization process in this city came after industrial restructuring and the undergoing
transformation of the industrial society towards a full service and information society in
terms of employment structure. Also, the construction of many new towns surrounding
the Gwalior metropolitan city as the industrial towns, immigration and the rapid growth rate
in the urban population contributed to post independent urbanization. The rapid economic
development through an industrial oriented economy and the city’s high urban growth
rate has had a significant impact on the quality of the environment. This paper also reviews
waste management, air, water and greenbelt environmental issues, transport network and
discusses the major issues and actions that have been taken to address these problems.

This paper examines the forest diversity and degradation of forest in the Pindar Basin of
Uttaranchal Himalaya and suggests the management of forest resources in this fragile mountain
terrain, as sustainable management schemes for forests have become increasingly important
and timely, because these areas have come under serious exploitation and constant threat of
disintegration, following the depletion of forest. The natural hazards and man-induced activities,
both are equally responsible for depletion of forest in mountain areas, while, the mountains are
having the highest biodiversity of fauna and flora. In the Pindar Basin, four zones of forests exist
according to altitudes. These zones are characterized by eucalyptus and Dendrocalamus spp.
trees in the low-lying region, pine trees in the mid altitude, coniferous forests along with oak in the
temperate zone and extensive alpine meadows. This basin is rich in forest resources particularly
in temperate coniferous forest while, the proper management of forest could not take place due
to high inaccessibility of forest cover areas on the one hand and over utilization of forest
resources, on the other. This study is mainly based upon the primary collection of data, which
were gathered through case studies of the villages.

Forests are the major source of timber, fuelwood, fodder, and food for the native people of the
Himalayan region. Here, dependency of human population on the forest biomass for running their
livelihood is tremendously high and it is a century old practice. Raising animals in the vast grasslands –
temperate and alpine as well as collecting fodder through lopping fodder trees from the temperate forest,
occupies the foremost place in the occupation and economy of the region. Forest biomass consumption
varies from 13 kg/day/households (fuelwood) and 12 kg/day/household (fodder) in the lower elevation
(1150 m) to 28 kg/day/household (Fuelwood) and 34 kg/day/household (fodder) in the higher elevation
(1900 m). This paper examines the forest biomass-flow estimation in the montane mainland of the
Uttarakhand Himalaya. Case study of eight villages of Kewer Gadhera Sub Watershed was carried out.
Data were gathered through household level survey and participatory observation method and forest
biomass estimation and withdrawal were calculated by conventional method. The study reveals that
fodder and fuelwood withdrawal is a very common phenomenon in the study area and is a main
livelihood option. Its consumption varies in different locations and seasons. It is also influenced by the
aspect of slope. North-south facing slopes consumes more fuelwood than North-east facing slopes
because due to variations in temperature.

This paper examines various farming systems including cereal farming, fruit cultivation and
the practice of out-of-season vegetables in the different altitudinal zones of the state of Eritrea
and suggests strategies for sustainable livelihood of the populace. The two vertical zones,
lowland and highland characterize the farming systems. Mid-slopes also have an important
role in determining the practices of agriculture, where farming is done only on the narrow
patches of the terraced fields. The highlands and mid-slopes agricultural system is
characterized by the dominance of cereal faming particularly barley, wheat and maize while
in the lowlands, groundnut and sorghum are the main crops. Irrigation facilities in the state
are negligible due to lack of perennial sources of water. Rivers are dried up during the winter
and summer. Therefore, cereals cover about 80% of the rain-fed area. Cultivating fruits
particularly banana, apple, guava and papaya and out-of-season vegetables are also practiced
in the highlands and mid-slopes but their proportion in the cultivated land is smaller, on the
one hand, and they are traditionally cultivated and domestically used on the other. The
variability in the highlands and lowlands farming system is extremely high because of
extreme variation in the climatic conditions, while the scope of expansion and modernization
of the cropped land is limited. The marginal farms have less than one ha area in the highlands
and about 2 ha area in the lowlands. Soils, except along the valley sides or some areas of midslopes,
are very poor in contents and hindrance for high yield of crops. Furthermore, lack of
infra-structural facilities in the field of agriculture does not provide a base for sustainable
livelihood. Under such circumstances, the cultivation of fruits and out-of-season vegetables is
essential because of their tremendous scope and availability of favourable environmental
conditions. Data were gathered mainly from the secondary sources. A case study of the two
farmlands (highland) to discuss the potential and input-output analysis of out-of-vegetables
and wheat crops was carried out. Observation and participatory method was used for further
interpretation of data. The study reveals that potential of cultivating out-of-season vegetables,
fruits, and cash generating products is considerably higher than traditionally cultivating
subsistence cereal crops.

Debris flowis very common in mountain regions. Generally, it occurs due to slope failure,
flash flooding and high rainfall. Anthropogenic factors further accentuate its intensity. It has negative
impacts on the environment and economy of the affected regions as well as on flora and fauna. Similarly,
debris flow impacts the economy with loss of agricultural land, existing crops, settlements, public and
private property and human lives. A case study of two debris-flow zones of the Pindar Basin of the
Garhwal Himalaya has been carried out. The intensity and magnitude of debris flow in two zones vary
from each other. In both, debris flows resulted from high precipitation (cloudbursts) in the highlands
(danda), and their impacts were concentrated in the valley regions (gangar). The highlands are
characterized by dense forest and steep slopes, while valley regions are characterized by gentle slopes
with vast agricultural fields and human settlements. Heavy losses of life and in the economy and
environment recur. This paper aims to examine the impact of debris flows on the environment and
economy of the affected areas of the Garhwal Himalaya in general and two case-study zones in
particular. Data were gathered in the field and from primary sources including interviews with affected
people.

The changes in the cropping pattern from subsistence to paddy
and wheat crops gained momentum in the 1970s when the green
revolution first took place in India. A vast area of agricultural land
was devoted to wheat, paddy, pulses and oilseeds crops with
excessive use of chemical fertilisers and experimental seeds. This
national trend of intensive cultivation was also adopted in the
Garhwal Himalaya, though not to the same degree. The farming
community largely transformed their cropping land mainly in the
valley regions and mid-slopes. The cropping pattern, which was
characterised by the dominance of millets with high crop
diversity, changed into the cultivation of paddy and wheat which
dominated the valley regions and mid-slopes. Subsistence crops
still grow in the highland areas. Fruits are abundantly cultivated
in the temperate belt between 1,200 m and 2,200 m. The main
fruits grown are apples, citrus, stone and nut fruits. Cultivation
of off-season vegetables is a recent trend. While potato is largely
grown in the highlands, onions, tomatoes, beans and other
vegetables are grown in the valley regions and mid-slopes. These
practices of cultivating various crops have been based on trial
and error for centuries, as there is no stable farming system
prevalent in the region. The present study discusses the changing
cropping pattern in the Garhwal Himalaya.

India’s Garhwal Himalaya is an agrobiodiversity hotspot. The
traditional system of cultivating ‘Barahnaja’ (literally, '12
seeds') together in cropped land is a centuries-old practice: a
cropping pattern involving 12 or more food crops grown in
‘synergetic’ combinations (Singh and Tulachan, 2002). This is
practiced under a ‘Sar system’ of crop rotation that
characterises the cropping pattern together with a vertical
distribution of crops – in valley regions, mid-altitudes and
highlands – and supports the maintenance of agrobiodiversity.
Three quarters of the people in the region depend on this
system for their livelihoods. The traditional agricultural
systems are the reservoirs of many crops and cultivars, most of
which are still little known to mainstream societies and are
better adapted than modern agricultural systems to
environmental and social conditions (Altieri, 1995;
Ramakrishnan and Saxena, 1996). Recently changes in the
cropping pattern have taken place as ‘Barahnaja’ has
decreased, particularly in the mid-slopes and low-lying areas.

Agricultural practices are the main stay of the people of Uttranchal. Out of the total population, more than 75% people are engaged either with the main occupation of agriculture or its allied practices, dominated by traditional subsistence cereal farming. Among them, the main crops are rice, wheat, millet, barley, all types of pulses, all types of oilseeds and almost all types of fruits. The crops, vegetables and fruits of all varieties are grown in the different climatic zones such as tropical, temperate, and cold because, the region is characterized by the different altitudinal zones elevated from 200 m to more than 8000m. As a result, different climates are found from hot tropical to sub temperate and chilly cold. Pulses varieties are grown extensively. Among vegetables, potato, onion, carrot, all types of green leaf vegetables, brinzal, pumpkin, ladyfinger, pea, gram, radish, ginger, garlic, etc, are grown widely. All fruit varieties are grown in the different altitudinal zones. The main fruits are orange, malta (a big size of orange), elephant citrus, lemon and all other types of citrus, apple, stone fruits including peach and pears, many kinds of nuts, and the fruits which are grown in the low lying areas. In spite of feasible climatic conditions, agricultural dominant society, and availability of all types of crops, the production and productivity of these crops are very low, even they are unable to meet the grain-need of the people in Uttaranchal.
Agricultural crops are grown almost in all the
Received: 16 August 2004
Accepted: 1 December 2004
altitudinal zones — from the low-lying areas, which are called ‘Gangarh’, to the highly elevated region, where the legendary term is given as ‘Danda’. The growing seasons vary according to the heights. The present paper aims to discuss the agricultural practices including cropping season, cropping pattern, land use, production of crops and ecological aspect of agricultural system in this Himalayan state and suggest some measures for developing farming system, which could lead the sustainability, in terms of meeting the food grain needs of the people on the one hand and restoring the ecological balance on the other.

The Garhwal Himalaya represents a traditional agricultural society where more than 74% population largely
depends on the cultivation of subsistence cereal crops to run their livelihood. Over the time, with the increase in
human population and decrease in per capita land, the traditional subsistence agriculture could not fulfill food
requirement. This was resulted in food insecurity and thus agricultural diversification began with the cultivation
of cash crops - fruits, off-season vegetables and also of medicinal plants. Although, agro-ecological condition
favours diversification of crops and agro-biodiversity is very high in the Garhwal region, the pace of diversifying
cash crops for commercialization is tremendously low. Diversity in crops varies spatially - horizontal and
vertical and temporally - rabi and kharif seasons. The highlands characterize high agro-biodiversity in
comparison to the mid-slopes and the valley regions. Crop diversification index (CDI) of cereals and cash crops
was calculated separately from the secondary dada. A case study of six villages was done to calculate
cost-benefit analysis of cereals and cash crops. The purpose of this study is to investigate the potential of
diversification – cereals as well as cash crops for livelihood sustainability in the Garhwal Himalaya.

This paper examines forests diversity, their use pattern and management in the Eastern Himalaya with a case study of Mizoram state. The Eastern Himalaya is one of the bio-diversity hotspots of the world where the forest diversity varies from the tropical rainforest to temperate and alpine types because of the altitudes. In the case study area i.e. Mizoram, forest types vary from tropical evergreen forests to montane and temperate with rich biodiversity. Forests are lifeline for livelihoods sustainability in Mizoram as it is the second largest source of income after agriculture. Total forestland is 90.68%. They are conserved by the community people and the state forest department. Even, the whole country received decrease in forestland; Mizoram has registered about 1.4% increase. A study on forest cover and changes in the eight sister states of the Eastern Himalaya during the last decades was carried out to penetrate the current status of forest. Data from the secondary sources were gathered largely from the Forest Survey of India (FSI) 1991, 2001 and 2011. Similarly, data from the Department of Environment and Forest, Government of Mizoram on forest diversity and their distribution were also collected. Further, wide range of discussion was made with the officials working in the forest department and with the local people to elaborate the other aspects of forest resources such as use pattern of forest products. Personal observations on forest diversity use pattern and management of forest resources in Aizawl district was also carried out.