This paper centres on the Beltane Fire Festival in Edinburgh, Scotland. The objectives are to: fi... more This paper centres on the Beltane Fire Festival in Edinburgh, Scotland. The objectives are to: first, identify the stages of the festival’s evolution and their respective characteristics; second, distinguish features corresponding to the carnivalesque; and, finally, examine the changes in event evolution, particularly regulatory interventions, and their effect. A qualitative approach comprising interviews with internal and external festival stakeholders was utilised. It is argued that there are three stages in the festival’s evolution: revival and early development; development and regulation; and, maturation. The characteristics of these evolutionary stages are identified. As the festival has developed and been subject to increasing regulation, features of the carnivalesque have been reduced.
Outside the peak season for tourism to Edinburgh, Scotland, during the evening of April 30th, vis... more Outside the peak season for tourism to Edinburgh, Scotland, during the evening of April 30th, visitors attend a festival with ancient Celtic overtones. Frequently, the evening is cold and windy. Our objectives are to: identify motivations for attending the festival; trial questionnaire items on spiritual attitude; and assess whether spirituality might be relevant in assessing visitor intentions. The method of investigation involved exploration and confirmation phases to test structures in distinct subsamples. Further, a strict approach was applied to identify factors that had theoretical value. Spirituality attitude is found to be a factor, as well as the motivations of cultural adventure and escape. Given the nature of the event, the time of year and composition of the audience, encouraging repeat visitation and using this to develop and manage Edinburgh's tourism strategy has potential. Recommendations are made to management.
This paper considers small tourism business relations within a rural tourism destination. They ar... more This paper considers small tourism business relations within a rural tourism destination. They are examined within the context of small business (predominantly hospitality-based) networks and their contribution to destination development. A cultural understanding of relations is presented through a qualita- tive research framework. Findings highlight the concept of differentiation at individual, business community and destinations levels. This ideal is discussed as a means for maintaining harmony within the business and wider social community through social network norms, which are reinforced at all levels of society.
This paper compares two localities of marked social, cultural and economic difference in relation... more This paper compares two localities of marked social, cultural and economic difference in relation to small tourism business networking and formalization of tourism destination development. The methodological process involves in-depth interviews, supplemented by participant observation. Template development and network-depth analysis are used to interpret the findings. Through ‘thick’ description and analysis of social, communication and exchange networking behaviours, an original cultural understanding of the community embeddedness of informal small business networking behaviours is provided in the context of a developed and a developing country. The study finds that the destination with a more formalized tourism development is less reliant on horizontal networking. This results in a less directly significant contribution to destination development. However, destination size, social network density and cultural differences are also key issues in relation to networking contributions.
This paper uses the ‘communication network’ perspective (Szarka 1990) to identify how small hospi... more This paper uses the ‘communication network’ perspective (Szarka 1990) to identify how small hospitality and tourism businesses in Pushkar, India, cope with a lack of support agency assistance in skills learning and knowledge transfer. The methodological process involves participant observation and in-depth interviews. The findings reveal the role of the employee and the visitor as primary influencers in the communication networks of the businesses. However, the visitor role has decreased since the early days of tourism, with employees being the main learning network for businesses, transferring knowledge throughout the destination by employment rotation and poaching. The paper calls for holistic small tourism business studies, which seek to understand the interconnectedness of network contributions within a locality.
International Journal of Hospitality Management, 2001
This paper is based on ongoing research into networking between small tourism businesses and its ... more This paper is based on ongoing research into networking between small tourism businesses and its contribution to destination development. The fieldwork is being carried out in a peripheral rural location. A detailed conceptual framework comprising of a literature review, background to an ongoing study and the methodology being implemented is discussed. The review finds an increased awareness of the importance of networks in mainstream business research, however, research within small tourism businesses is still underdeveloped. Furthermore, there is little or no direct research in terms of collective tourism business networks within a destination. Destination development research is also reviewed and particular consideration given to the rural context. Destination models are discussed with the recent chaos-based theories providing new understandings. Networks are established within the destination concept. Finally, the location for the data collection is discussed with a justification of the qualitative, in-depth interview approach.
The Beltane Fire Festival (BFF) marks the passage of the seasons and is a modern interpretation o... more The Beltane Fire Festival (BFF) marks the passage of the seasons and is a modern interpretation of an ancient ritual, rooted in the Celtic calendar. Approximately three hundred performers take part in an outdoor procession and performance. There is a strong carnivalesque and celebratory spirit (Bakhtin, 1967) and aspects of the event are uninhibited. This sets the Beltane Fire Festival apart from many activities organised in Edinburgh.
However, this does not mean there are no festivals with comparable features. A well-known example is the Burning Man Festival in the US (Kozinets, 2002). Like Beltane, such festivals arose from the interests of a small group of citizens, in contrast to organisations interested in fostering events tourism and developing events that conform to social norms. Further, along with these unconventional festivals, Beltane continues a form of ritual, shares an appeal to inevitable change (in the case of Beltane, the change of season) and closer linkage to often-suppressed, non-commercial features of life and spirituality.
The aim of this project is to evaluate the motivations of the audience attending the BFF. The intentions are: to understand why audiences turn out on April 30th, frequently a cold night which can occur mid-week; and to inform the future development of the festival. A comparison in 2007 and 2011 reveal that audience composition is relatively constant, but varies considerably from that at conventional festivals and events run in Edinburgh, the site of the BFF.
In recent years, greater focus has been accorded to festival motivations as a result of the changing nature of the festival marketplace. As Crompton and McKay (1997) argue, understanding festival motivations can contribute to the event design process, monitor satisfaction and provide an avenue to comprehend festival attendees’ decision-making. With changing markets, increased competition and pressure on sustainability, there are increased pressures to understand audience characteristics and motivations. Unusually, in the context of Edinburgh, a UK city hosting many major festivals, the core management, support team and implementation of BFF is provided by volunteers, with less than 5 paid officials. They debate whether the BFF is a ‘ritual’ or a ‘performance’. Moreover, it would appear that among BFF volunteers, including those appearing in the event itself, the primary concern is not the people paying to attend (Matheson and Tinsley, 2010).
Common factors in festival motivation include family togetherness, novelty, escape, socialisation (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004; Nicholson & Pearce, 2001), cultural exploration, event attractions (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004), excitement (Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001) and entertainment (Nicholson & Pearce, 2001). While Li and Petrick (2006) suggest that this provides a research framework for surveying motivations there is not, to date, a universal motivation scale, although there are common elements across studies. Even so, it is apparent that motivation statements may not group similarly for different festivals (Nicholson & Pearce, 2001; Lee, 2000).
Using four collections of statements drawn from the events literature (cited above) and one drawn from the spirituality literature (see for example Bryant & Astin, 2008; Astin & Keen, 2006; Bryant & Astin, 2008), we report exploratory and confirmatory approaches to understanding audience motivations. The four collections from the events literature are ‘usual’ in the literature, as they have proved to be relevant for many audiences; on the other hand, the collection drawn from the spirituality literature was included because the theme appeared from earlier research (Matheson and Tinsley, 2010) that, while there are spiritual aspects of the ancient rituals underpinning Beltane, attitudes in this area might or might not be important in individuals’ decisions to attend.
In 2011, 375 members of the audience were selected according to a stratified, random sampling strategy as they entered the BFF venue. Each completed a short questionnaire that included twenty-one motivational statements that are the subject of the current research. The collected surveys were randomly assigned to one of two groups. One group of 176 was used in an exploratory principal components analysis to resolve statements into a smaller number of dimensions, as undertaken in the literature quoted above. The second group of 199 surveys was used to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis.
Our exploratory findings are that for the Beltane audience: (i) pairs of distinct factors identified in event studies might be collapsed into one; (ii) spirituality statements coalesce into a single motivational scale, with no cross-loadings on other factors; and (iii) either three, four or five factors, with spirituality being a distinct factor, are possible. In the confirmatory analysis, it was found that: (a) the fit diagnostics for the factors derived from statements in the events literature are poor; (b) adding a spirituality dimension, improves fit, but not to the point of satisfying accepted benchmarks; (c) improvements in fit arise by dropping individual statements, including dropping one of the four spirituality items; (d) there is evidence that the factors based on the events literature are not orthogonal; (e) permitting cross-factor loadings and dropping one of the factors based on the events literature improves fit to the point of exceeding accepted benchmarks; and (f) correlations exist between individual items and/or error terms for the Beltane audience, suggesting that modelling might be improved (regardless of fit benchmarks) by searching for as yet un-assessed aspects of the audiences’ decision making.
The findings on Beltane add to existing work on festival audiences, suggesting that one motivator established in the literature as relevant to audience motivation is irrelevant for this unconventional event and that spirituality is a feature of audience motivation at Beltane, while other motivations for attendance at other festivals are not as strongly motivational. These results suggest that there may be features of the Beltane audience that differ from the factors permeating findings at other more conventional festivals. As such, the current research on the Beltane audience adds to our understanding of those who attend festivals and events that do not conform to the prevailing social norms of the societies within which they are held. Further, the current findings have relied on a methodology involving confirmation of an exploratory approach in different samples. This confirmation does not appear to have been practiced in a number of studies of audience motivation. Our findings suggest, at least in the case of unconventional events such as Beltane, this is an informative approach."
The aim of this project is to evaluate the motivations of the audience attending the Beltane Fire... more The aim of this project is to evaluate the motivations of the audience attending the Beltane Fire Festival (BFF). The intentions are: to understand why audiences turn out on April 30th, frequently a cold night which occurs mid-week; and to inform the future development of the festival. A comparison in 2007 and 2011 reveal that audience composition is relatively constant, but varies considerably from that at conventional festivals and events run in Edinburgh, the site of the BFF.
In recent years, greater focus has been accorded to festival motivations as a result of the changing nature of the festival marketplace. As Crompton and McKay (1997) argue, understanding festival motivations can contribute to the event design process, monitor satisfaction and provide an avenue to comprehend festival attendees’ decision-making. With changing markets, increased competition and pressure on sustainability, there are increased pressures to understand audience characteristics and motivations. Unusually, in the context of Edinburgh, a UK city hosting many major festivals, the core management, support team and implementation of BFF is provided by volunteers, with only n paid official(s). They debate whether the BFF is a ‘ritual’ or a ‘performance’. Moreover, it would appear that among BFF volunteers, including those appearing in the event itself, the primary concern is not the people paying to attend (Matheson and Tinsley 2010).
Common factors in festival motivation include family togetherness, novelty, escape, socialisation (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004; Nicholson & Pearce, 2001), cultural exploration, event attractions (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004), excitement (Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001) and entertainment (Nicholson & Pearce, 2001). While Li and Petrick (2006) suggest that this provides a research framework for surveying motivations there is not, to date, a universal motivation scale, although there are common elements across studies. Even so, it is apparent that motivation statements may not group similarly for different festivals (Nicholson & Pearce 2001; Lee 2000).
Using four collections of statements drawn from the events literature (cited above) and one drawn from the spirituality literature (see for example Bryant & Astin 2008; Astin & Keen 2006; Bryant & Astin 2008), we report exploratory and confirmatory approaches to understanding audience motivations. The four collections from the events literature are ‘usual’ in that literature, as they have proved to be relevant for many audiences; on the other hand, the collection drawn from the spirituality literature was included because it appeared from earlier work (Matheson and Tinsley, 2010) that, while there are spiritual aspects of the ancient rituals underpinning Beltane, attitudes in this area might or might not be important in individuals’ decisions to attend.
In 2011, 375 members of the audience were selected according to a stratified, random sampling strategy as they entered the BFF venue. Each completed a short questionnaire that included 21 motivational statements that are the subject of the current research. The collected surveys were randomly assigned to one of two groups. One group of 176 was used in an exploratory principal components analysis to resolve statements into a smaller number of dimensions, as undertaken in the literature quoted above. The second group of 199 surveys was used to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis.
Our exploratory findings are that for the Beltane audience: (i) motivational statements from the event literature have substantial impacts on more than one factor; (ii) pairs of distinct factors identified in event studies might be collapsed into one; (iii) spirituality statements coalesce into a single motivational scale, with no cross-loadings on other factors; and (iv) either three, four or five factors, with spirituality being a distinct factor, are possible. In the confirmatory analysis, it was found that: (a) the fit diagnostics for the factors derived from statements in the events literature are poor; (b) adding a spirituality dimension, improves fit, but not to the point of satisfying accepted benchmarks; (c) improvements in fit arise by dropping individual statements, including dropping one of the five spirituality items; (d) there is evidence that the factors based on the events literature are not orthogonal; (e) permitting cross-factor loadings and dropping one of the factors based on the events literature improves fit to the point of exceeding accepted benchmarks; and (f) correlations exist between individual items and/or error terms for the Beltane audience, suggesting that modelling might be improved (regardless of fit benchmarks) by searching for as yet un-assessed aspects of the audiences’ decision making.
The findings of this research add to existing work on festival audiences and provide an insight into the relevance of spirituality to audience groupings for festivals and events that do not conform to the prevailing social norms of the societies within which they are held.
Some background on Beltane
BFF marks the passage of the seasons and is a modern interpretation of an ancient ritual, rooted in the Celtic calendar. Approximately three hundred performers take part in an outdoor procession and performance. There is a strong carnivalesque and celebratory spirit (Bakhtin, 1967) and aspects of the event are uninhibited. This sets the Beltane Fire Festival apart from many activities organised in Edinburgh.
This does not mean there are no festivals with comparable features. A well-known example is the Burning Man Festival in the US (Kozinets, 2002). Like Beltane, such festivals arose from the interests of a small group of citizens, in contrast to organisations interested in fostering events tourism and developing events that conform to social norms. Further, along with these unconventional festivals, Beltane continues a form of ritual, shares an appeal to inevitable change (in the case of Beltane, the change of season) and closer linkage to often-suppressed, non-commercial features of life and spirituality.
"
Research Design
The key aim of this project is to evaluate the 2011 audience consumption of the ... more Research Design
The key aim of this project is to evaluate the 2011 audience consumption of the Beltane Fire Festival (BFF) in order to inform the future development of the festival. The objectives are to: first, investigate the demographics, attitudes and profile of the 2011 audience; second, investigate customer needs which they may be seeking to satisfy at the 2011 festival; and, finally, to develop a typology of audience groupings. Such work has precedents in various studies (Chang, 2006; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004). Investigation of the typology will be based on demographics; attendees’ motives and needs; their perceptions of BFF as a ritual and/or performance; and attitudes to change and spirituality. A substantially quantitative research methodology will be adopted, comprising two distinct phases. First, prior to the audience survey, a pilot study will be undertaken involving the current performers/volunteers. Second, informed by this pilot, a survey of the 2011 audience will be conducted on a face-to-face basis. Data analysis will be facilitated by SPSS. Analysis will be undertaken with the application of quantitative methods often used in marketing and higher education and triangulated with findings of a qualitative study pertaining to the BFF development. This study has been informed by an earlier qualitative study by the authors. Indicative findings will centre upon the following key areas: a typology of audience groupings based on demographics, profile, motives and spiritual attitudes. In conclusion, this paper will contribute to existing work on festival audiences and will provide an insight into the contribution of relevance of spiritual beliefs to audience groupings.
Background information
In recent years, greater focus has been accorded to festival motivations as a result of the changing nature of the festival marketplace. Festivals have often been utilised as a means to generate economic revenues, develop tourist audiences, place market cities in terms of repositioning and rebranding destination image, and provide cultural benefits to the local community (García, 2004; Quinn, 2005). Further, there has been a substantial increase in the number of UK festivals (British Arts Festival Association, 2008), which has, in part, been fuelled by changing economic and social agendas. In light of the changing nature of the marketplace and increased competition, there are increasing pressures upon festivals to understand audience characteristics and consumer motivations in a bid to ensure their sustainability. As Crompton and McKay (1997) argue, an understanding of festival motivations can contribute to the event design process, monitor satisfaction and provide an avenue to comprehend festival attendees’ decision-making processes.
Common factors in festival motivation include family togetherness, novelty, escape, socialisation (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004; Nicholson & Pearce, 2001) cultural exploration, event attractions (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004), excitement (Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001) and entertainment (Nicholson & Pearce, 2001). While Li and Petrick (2006) suggest that this provides a research framework for surveying festival and event motivations there is not, to date, a universal motivation scale. Certainly, the diversity of festival types necessitates that these motivation scales are adapted somewhat according to the given festival. This paper is focused on audience consumption within the context of a relatively unconventional festival, the Beltane Fire Festival.
The BFF takes place on an annual basis on the 30 April and is primarily run by a volunteer group. It marks the passage of the seasons and is a modern interpretation of an ancient ritual, which is rooted in the Celtic calendar. Approximately three hundred performers take part in an outdoor procession and performance. As such, there is a strong carnivalesque spirit (Bakhtin, 1967) to the performance given the uninhibited nature of aspects of the performance. There are features of the Beltane Fire Festival that set it apart from many other activities organised in Scotland and in Edinburgh in particular. This does not mean there are no festivals with comparable features. For example, there is the Burning Man Festival (Kozinets, 2002). Like Beltane, these arose from the interests of a small group of citizens other than organisations interested in fostering events tourism and developing conventional events that conformed to social norms. Further, with these other festivals, Beltane continues a form of ritual, shares an appeal to inevitable change (in the case of Beltane, the change of season) and closer linkage to often-suppressed, non-commercial features of life and spirituality. These aspects are enveloped in an ethos that is celebratory or carnivalesque (Bakhtin, 1967). Furthermore, there is a spiritual element to BFF, which is a key component to it. Spirituality underpins aspects of the festival structure and performance. Consequently, due to the nature of the festival, this paper will draw upon festival motivations and spirituality. There is a plethora of work around spirituality (Gallarza et al., 2009; Piedmont, 1999; Piedmont et al., 2009) but specific attention will be accorded to spirituality measures (Astin et al, 2005; Bryan & Astin, 2008) in order to acquire an insight into audience attitudes.
In recent years, greater focus has been accorded to festival motivations as a result of the chang... more In recent years, greater focus has been accorded to festival motivations as a result of the changing nature of the festival marketplace. Festivals have often been utilised as a means to generate economic revenues, develop tourist audiences, place market cities in terms of repositioning and rebranding destination image, and provide cultural benefits to the local community (García 2004; Quinn 2005). Further, there has been a substantial increase in the number of UK festivals (British Arts Festival Association 2008) which has, in part, been fuelled by changing economic and social agendas. In light of the changing nature of the marketplace and increased competition, there are increasing pressures upon festivals to understand audience characteristics and consumer motivations in a bid to ensure their sustainability. As Crompton and McKay (1997) argue, an understanding of festival motivations can contribute to the event design process, monitor satisfaction and provide an avenue to comprehend festival attendees’ decision making processes.
Common factors in festival motivation include family togetherness, novelty, escape, socialisation (Crompton & Mckay 1997; Dewar, Meyer & Wen 2001; Lee, Lee & Wicks 2004; Nicholson & Pearce 2001) cultural exploration, event attractions (Crompton & Mckay 1997; Lee, Lee & Wicks 2004), excitement (Dewar, Meyer & Wen 2001) and entertainment (Nicholson & Pearce 2001). While Li and Petrick (2006) suggest that this provides a research framework for surveying festival and event motivations there is not, to date, a universal motivation scale. Certainly, the diversity of festival types necessitates that these motivation scales are adapted somewhat according to the given festival. This paper is focused on audience consumption within the context of a relatively unconventional festival, the Beltane Fire Festival (BFF).
The BFF takes place on an annual basis on the 30 April and is primarily run by a volunteer group. It marks the passage of the seasons and is a modern interpretation of an ancient ritual which is rooted in the Celtic calendar. Approximately three hundred performers take part in an outdoor procession and performance. As such, there is a strong carnivalesque spirit (Bakhtin, 1967) to the performance given the uninhibited nature of aspects of the performance. There are features of the Beltane Fire Festival that set it apart from many other activities organised in Scotland and in Edinburgh in particular. This does not mean there are no festivals with comparable features. For example, there is the Burning Man Festival (Kozinets 2002). Like Beltane, these arose from the interests of a small group of citizens other than organisations interested in fostering events tourism and developing conventional events that conformed to social norms. Further, with these other festivals, Beltane continues a form of ritual, shares an appeal to inevitable change (in the case of Beltane, the change of season) and closer linkage to often-suppressed, non-commercial features of life and spirituality. These aspects are enveloped in an ethos that is celebratory or carnivalesque. Furthermore, there is a spiritual element to BFF which is a key component to it. Spirituality underpins aspects of the festival structure and performance. Consequently, due to the nature of the festival, this paper will draw upon festival motivations and spirituality. There is a plethora of work around spirituality (Gallarza et al. 2009; Piedmont 1999; Piedmont et al. 2009) but specific attention will be accorded to spirituality measures (Astin et al 2005; Bryan & Astin 2008) in order to acquire an insight into audience attitudes.
The key aim of this project is to evaluate the 2011 audience consumption of the BFF in order to inform the future development of the festival. The objectives are to: first, investigate the demographics, attitudes and profile of the 2011 audience; second, investigate customer needs which they may be seeking to satisfy at the 2011 festival; and, finally, to develop a typology of audience groupings. Such work has precedents in various studies (Chang 2006; Lee, Lee & Wicks 2004). Investigation of the typology would be based on demographics; attendees’ motives and needs; their perceptions of BFF as a ritual and/or performance; and attitudes to change and spirituality. A substantially quantitative research methodology will be adopted, comprising two distinct phases. First, prior to the audience survey, a pilot study will be undertaken involving the current performers/volunteers. Second, informed by this pilot, a survey of the 2011 audience will be conducted on a face-to-face basis. Data analysis will be facilitated by SPSS. Indicative findings will centre upon the following key areas: a typology of audience groupings based on demographics, profile, motives and spiritual attitudes. In conclusion, this paper will contribute to existing work on festival audiences and will provide an insight into the contribution of relevance of spiritual beliefs to audience groupings.
There has been an increasing focus upon the evolution of festivals. A central theme is the relati... more There has been an increasing focus upon the evolution of festivals. A central theme is the relationship between festival growth and sustainable development, particularly within the tourism context. Changing priorities, particularly relating to tourism, can impinge upon sustainable festival practices. Commentators have sought to elaborate upon the relationship between festivals, tourism and sustainability. This research focuses upon a case study that characterises debates pertaining to growth strategies, culture and economic development, and tourism and sustainability: the Beltane Fire Festival, Edinburgh. This event has grown exponentially in recent years and has passed through several critical points in its lifecycle. The research draws upon Richards and Ryan’s (2004) dimensions of festival evolution and maturation. It examines the evolution of the festival and evaluates stakeholders roles and contributions. It also assesses internal and external pressures and their impact upon the festival identity, purpose and direction. The paper draws upon qualitative research, comprising in-depth interviews with key stakeholders. The findings pivot on devices and challenges regarding festival sustainability which include: growth control and management; audience development; continuity of the performance; and, the volunteering base. It is suggested that in democratising the underlying festival identity and values a natural equilibrium in the maturation stage can be achieved.
Niche tourism has become a commonplace expression, yet a critical reading of Robinson and Novelli... more Niche tourism has become a commonplace expression, yet a critical reading of Robinson and Novelli (2005) suggests it acquires conceptual legitimacy only as a counterpoint to mass tourism. Nevertheless, an under-researched area within the mass tourism vs. niche tourism debate is identifying the point at which phenomena enter the niche tourism category thus becoming a tourism product. One such example of this is the role of community arts festivals, which have been adopted into wider niche tourism agendas (Costa 2002; Andersson and Getz 2009). Commentators have highlighted that as community events are subject to tourism pressures, it raises issues regarding identity, purpose and direction (Waterman 1998; Quinn 2005a&b). This paper draws upon Bakhtin's (1968) thesis of the carnivalesque and his elaboration upon transgression, liberation, and a suspension of regulatory forces. He argues that the overall spirit of the carnivalesque is indestructible with traces evident in modern life. Applying Bakhtin's work, this research focuses on a niche tourism event characterised by overtones of licence and transgression. The principal aim of this research is to evaluate the evolution and sustainability of the Beltane Fire Festival in Edinburgh, Scotland. The event has experienced considerable growth and there are significant pressures occurring, as it is integrated into the broader city tourism calendar as a niche tourism product and, hence, wider public sector involvement (Richards and Ryan 2004). This ethnographic research involves in-depth interviews with key stakeholders, both internal and external to the event, supplemented by participant observation of the festival itself. Indicative findings relate to the impact of developing tourism agendas on the festival and its evolution. Critical moments within the festival's development are evaluated. External pressures in the shape of regulatory influences impinging on the carnivalesque space and internal reactions to these are also assessed. The key implications of this paper are issues regarding the sustainability of carnivalesque values and, moreover, the growth strategies of niche tourism events. This, in itself, raises issues regarding the overall sustainability of events (Getz 2008).
This paper centres on the Beltane Fire Festival in Edinburgh, Scotland. The objectives are to: fi... more This paper centres on the Beltane Fire Festival in Edinburgh, Scotland. The objectives are to: first, identify the stages of the festival’s evolution and their respective characteristics; second, distinguish features corresponding to the carnivalesque; and, finally, examine the changes in event evolution, particularly regulatory interventions, and their effect. A qualitative approach comprising interviews with internal and external festival stakeholders was utilised. It is argued that there are three stages in the festival’s evolution: revival and early development; development and regulation; and, maturation. The characteristics of these evolutionary stages are identified. As the festival has developed and been subject to increasing regulation, features of the carnivalesque have been reduced.
Outside the peak season for tourism to Edinburgh, Scotland, during the evening of April 30th, vis... more Outside the peak season for tourism to Edinburgh, Scotland, during the evening of April 30th, visitors attend a festival with ancient Celtic overtones. Frequently, the evening is cold and windy. Our objectives are to: identify motivations for attending the festival; trial questionnaire items on spiritual attitude; and assess whether spirituality might be relevant in assessing visitor intentions. The method of investigation involved exploration and confirmation phases to test structures in distinct subsamples. Further, a strict approach was applied to identify factors that had theoretical value. Spirituality attitude is found to be a factor, as well as the motivations of cultural adventure and escape. Given the nature of the event, the time of year and composition of the audience, encouraging repeat visitation and using this to develop and manage Edinburgh's tourism strategy has potential. Recommendations are made to management.
This paper considers small tourism business relations within a rural tourism destination. They ar... more This paper considers small tourism business relations within a rural tourism destination. They are examined within the context of small business (predominantly hospitality-based) networks and their contribution to destination development. A cultural understanding of relations is presented through a qualita- tive research framework. Findings highlight the concept of differentiation at individual, business community and destinations levels. This ideal is discussed as a means for maintaining harmony within the business and wider social community through social network norms, which are reinforced at all levels of society.
This paper compares two localities of marked social, cultural and economic difference in relation... more This paper compares two localities of marked social, cultural and economic difference in relation to small tourism business networking and formalization of tourism destination development. The methodological process involves in-depth interviews, supplemented by participant observation. Template development and network-depth analysis are used to interpret the findings. Through ‘thick’ description and analysis of social, communication and exchange networking behaviours, an original cultural understanding of the community embeddedness of informal small business networking behaviours is provided in the context of a developed and a developing country. The study finds that the destination with a more formalized tourism development is less reliant on horizontal networking. This results in a less directly significant contribution to destination development. However, destination size, social network density and cultural differences are also key issues in relation to networking contributions.
This paper uses the ‘communication network’ perspective (Szarka 1990) to identify how small hospi... more This paper uses the ‘communication network’ perspective (Szarka 1990) to identify how small hospitality and tourism businesses in Pushkar, India, cope with a lack of support agency assistance in skills learning and knowledge transfer. The methodological process involves participant observation and in-depth interviews. The findings reveal the role of the employee and the visitor as primary influencers in the communication networks of the businesses. However, the visitor role has decreased since the early days of tourism, with employees being the main learning network for businesses, transferring knowledge throughout the destination by employment rotation and poaching. The paper calls for holistic small tourism business studies, which seek to understand the interconnectedness of network contributions within a locality.
International Journal of Hospitality Management, 2001
This paper is based on ongoing research into networking between small tourism businesses and its ... more This paper is based on ongoing research into networking between small tourism businesses and its contribution to destination development. The fieldwork is being carried out in a peripheral rural location. A detailed conceptual framework comprising of a literature review, background to an ongoing study and the methodology being implemented is discussed. The review finds an increased awareness of the importance of networks in mainstream business research, however, research within small tourism businesses is still underdeveloped. Furthermore, there is little or no direct research in terms of collective tourism business networks within a destination. Destination development research is also reviewed and particular consideration given to the rural context. Destination models are discussed with the recent chaos-based theories providing new understandings. Networks are established within the destination concept. Finally, the location for the data collection is discussed with a justification of the qualitative, in-depth interview approach.
The Beltane Fire Festival (BFF) marks the passage of the seasons and is a modern interpretation o... more The Beltane Fire Festival (BFF) marks the passage of the seasons and is a modern interpretation of an ancient ritual, rooted in the Celtic calendar. Approximately three hundred performers take part in an outdoor procession and performance. There is a strong carnivalesque and celebratory spirit (Bakhtin, 1967) and aspects of the event are uninhibited. This sets the Beltane Fire Festival apart from many activities organised in Edinburgh.
However, this does not mean there are no festivals with comparable features. A well-known example is the Burning Man Festival in the US (Kozinets, 2002). Like Beltane, such festivals arose from the interests of a small group of citizens, in contrast to organisations interested in fostering events tourism and developing events that conform to social norms. Further, along with these unconventional festivals, Beltane continues a form of ritual, shares an appeal to inevitable change (in the case of Beltane, the change of season) and closer linkage to often-suppressed, non-commercial features of life and spirituality.
The aim of this project is to evaluate the motivations of the audience attending the BFF. The intentions are: to understand why audiences turn out on April 30th, frequently a cold night which can occur mid-week; and to inform the future development of the festival. A comparison in 2007 and 2011 reveal that audience composition is relatively constant, but varies considerably from that at conventional festivals and events run in Edinburgh, the site of the BFF.
In recent years, greater focus has been accorded to festival motivations as a result of the changing nature of the festival marketplace. As Crompton and McKay (1997) argue, understanding festival motivations can contribute to the event design process, monitor satisfaction and provide an avenue to comprehend festival attendees’ decision-making. With changing markets, increased competition and pressure on sustainability, there are increased pressures to understand audience characteristics and motivations. Unusually, in the context of Edinburgh, a UK city hosting many major festivals, the core management, support team and implementation of BFF is provided by volunteers, with less than 5 paid officials. They debate whether the BFF is a ‘ritual’ or a ‘performance’. Moreover, it would appear that among BFF volunteers, including those appearing in the event itself, the primary concern is not the people paying to attend (Matheson and Tinsley, 2010).
Common factors in festival motivation include family togetherness, novelty, escape, socialisation (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004; Nicholson & Pearce, 2001), cultural exploration, event attractions (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004), excitement (Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001) and entertainment (Nicholson & Pearce, 2001). While Li and Petrick (2006) suggest that this provides a research framework for surveying motivations there is not, to date, a universal motivation scale, although there are common elements across studies. Even so, it is apparent that motivation statements may not group similarly for different festivals (Nicholson & Pearce, 2001; Lee, 2000).
Using four collections of statements drawn from the events literature (cited above) and one drawn from the spirituality literature (see for example Bryant & Astin, 2008; Astin & Keen, 2006; Bryant & Astin, 2008), we report exploratory and confirmatory approaches to understanding audience motivations. The four collections from the events literature are ‘usual’ in the literature, as they have proved to be relevant for many audiences; on the other hand, the collection drawn from the spirituality literature was included because the theme appeared from earlier research (Matheson and Tinsley, 2010) that, while there are spiritual aspects of the ancient rituals underpinning Beltane, attitudes in this area might or might not be important in individuals’ decisions to attend.
In 2011, 375 members of the audience were selected according to a stratified, random sampling strategy as they entered the BFF venue. Each completed a short questionnaire that included twenty-one motivational statements that are the subject of the current research. The collected surveys were randomly assigned to one of two groups. One group of 176 was used in an exploratory principal components analysis to resolve statements into a smaller number of dimensions, as undertaken in the literature quoted above. The second group of 199 surveys was used to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis.
Our exploratory findings are that for the Beltane audience: (i) pairs of distinct factors identified in event studies might be collapsed into one; (ii) spirituality statements coalesce into a single motivational scale, with no cross-loadings on other factors; and (iii) either three, four or five factors, with spirituality being a distinct factor, are possible. In the confirmatory analysis, it was found that: (a) the fit diagnostics for the factors derived from statements in the events literature are poor; (b) adding a spirituality dimension, improves fit, but not to the point of satisfying accepted benchmarks; (c) improvements in fit arise by dropping individual statements, including dropping one of the four spirituality items; (d) there is evidence that the factors based on the events literature are not orthogonal; (e) permitting cross-factor loadings and dropping one of the factors based on the events literature improves fit to the point of exceeding accepted benchmarks; and (f) correlations exist between individual items and/or error terms for the Beltane audience, suggesting that modelling might be improved (regardless of fit benchmarks) by searching for as yet un-assessed aspects of the audiences’ decision making.
The findings on Beltane add to existing work on festival audiences, suggesting that one motivator established in the literature as relevant to audience motivation is irrelevant for this unconventional event and that spirituality is a feature of audience motivation at Beltane, while other motivations for attendance at other festivals are not as strongly motivational. These results suggest that there may be features of the Beltane audience that differ from the factors permeating findings at other more conventional festivals. As such, the current research on the Beltane audience adds to our understanding of those who attend festivals and events that do not conform to the prevailing social norms of the societies within which they are held. Further, the current findings have relied on a methodology involving confirmation of an exploratory approach in different samples. This confirmation does not appear to have been practiced in a number of studies of audience motivation. Our findings suggest, at least in the case of unconventional events such as Beltane, this is an informative approach."
The aim of this project is to evaluate the motivations of the audience attending the Beltane Fire... more The aim of this project is to evaluate the motivations of the audience attending the Beltane Fire Festival (BFF). The intentions are: to understand why audiences turn out on April 30th, frequently a cold night which occurs mid-week; and to inform the future development of the festival. A comparison in 2007 and 2011 reveal that audience composition is relatively constant, but varies considerably from that at conventional festivals and events run in Edinburgh, the site of the BFF.
In recent years, greater focus has been accorded to festival motivations as a result of the changing nature of the festival marketplace. As Crompton and McKay (1997) argue, understanding festival motivations can contribute to the event design process, monitor satisfaction and provide an avenue to comprehend festival attendees’ decision-making. With changing markets, increased competition and pressure on sustainability, there are increased pressures to understand audience characteristics and motivations. Unusually, in the context of Edinburgh, a UK city hosting many major festivals, the core management, support team and implementation of BFF is provided by volunteers, with only n paid official(s). They debate whether the BFF is a ‘ritual’ or a ‘performance’. Moreover, it would appear that among BFF volunteers, including those appearing in the event itself, the primary concern is not the people paying to attend (Matheson and Tinsley 2010).
Common factors in festival motivation include family togetherness, novelty, escape, socialisation (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004; Nicholson & Pearce, 2001), cultural exploration, event attractions (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004), excitement (Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001) and entertainment (Nicholson & Pearce, 2001). While Li and Petrick (2006) suggest that this provides a research framework for surveying motivations there is not, to date, a universal motivation scale, although there are common elements across studies. Even so, it is apparent that motivation statements may not group similarly for different festivals (Nicholson & Pearce 2001; Lee 2000).
Using four collections of statements drawn from the events literature (cited above) and one drawn from the spirituality literature (see for example Bryant & Astin 2008; Astin & Keen 2006; Bryant & Astin 2008), we report exploratory and confirmatory approaches to understanding audience motivations. The four collections from the events literature are ‘usual’ in that literature, as they have proved to be relevant for many audiences; on the other hand, the collection drawn from the spirituality literature was included because it appeared from earlier work (Matheson and Tinsley, 2010) that, while there are spiritual aspects of the ancient rituals underpinning Beltane, attitudes in this area might or might not be important in individuals’ decisions to attend.
In 2011, 375 members of the audience were selected according to a stratified, random sampling strategy as they entered the BFF venue. Each completed a short questionnaire that included 21 motivational statements that are the subject of the current research. The collected surveys were randomly assigned to one of two groups. One group of 176 was used in an exploratory principal components analysis to resolve statements into a smaller number of dimensions, as undertaken in the literature quoted above. The second group of 199 surveys was used to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis.
Our exploratory findings are that for the Beltane audience: (i) motivational statements from the event literature have substantial impacts on more than one factor; (ii) pairs of distinct factors identified in event studies might be collapsed into one; (iii) spirituality statements coalesce into a single motivational scale, with no cross-loadings on other factors; and (iv) either three, four or five factors, with spirituality being a distinct factor, are possible. In the confirmatory analysis, it was found that: (a) the fit diagnostics for the factors derived from statements in the events literature are poor; (b) adding a spirituality dimension, improves fit, but not to the point of satisfying accepted benchmarks; (c) improvements in fit arise by dropping individual statements, including dropping one of the five spirituality items; (d) there is evidence that the factors based on the events literature are not orthogonal; (e) permitting cross-factor loadings and dropping one of the factors based on the events literature improves fit to the point of exceeding accepted benchmarks; and (f) correlations exist between individual items and/or error terms for the Beltane audience, suggesting that modelling might be improved (regardless of fit benchmarks) by searching for as yet un-assessed aspects of the audiences’ decision making.
The findings of this research add to existing work on festival audiences and provide an insight into the relevance of spirituality to audience groupings for festivals and events that do not conform to the prevailing social norms of the societies within which they are held.
Some background on Beltane
BFF marks the passage of the seasons and is a modern interpretation of an ancient ritual, rooted in the Celtic calendar. Approximately three hundred performers take part in an outdoor procession and performance. There is a strong carnivalesque and celebratory spirit (Bakhtin, 1967) and aspects of the event are uninhibited. This sets the Beltane Fire Festival apart from many activities organised in Edinburgh.
This does not mean there are no festivals with comparable features. A well-known example is the Burning Man Festival in the US (Kozinets, 2002). Like Beltane, such festivals arose from the interests of a small group of citizens, in contrast to organisations interested in fostering events tourism and developing events that conform to social norms. Further, along with these unconventional festivals, Beltane continues a form of ritual, shares an appeal to inevitable change (in the case of Beltane, the change of season) and closer linkage to often-suppressed, non-commercial features of life and spirituality.
"
Research Design
The key aim of this project is to evaluate the 2011 audience consumption of the ... more Research Design
The key aim of this project is to evaluate the 2011 audience consumption of the Beltane Fire Festival (BFF) in order to inform the future development of the festival. The objectives are to: first, investigate the demographics, attitudes and profile of the 2011 audience; second, investigate customer needs which they may be seeking to satisfy at the 2011 festival; and, finally, to develop a typology of audience groupings. Such work has precedents in various studies (Chang, 2006; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004). Investigation of the typology will be based on demographics; attendees’ motives and needs; their perceptions of BFF as a ritual and/or performance; and attitudes to change and spirituality. A substantially quantitative research methodology will be adopted, comprising two distinct phases. First, prior to the audience survey, a pilot study will be undertaken involving the current performers/volunteers. Second, informed by this pilot, a survey of the 2011 audience will be conducted on a face-to-face basis. Data analysis will be facilitated by SPSS. Analysis will be undertaken with the application of quantitative methods often used in marketing and higher education and triangulated with findings of a qualitative study pertaining to the BFF development. This study has been informed by an earlier qualitative study by the authors. Indicative findings will centre upon the following key areas: a typology of audience groupings based on demographics, profile, motives and spiritual attitudes. In conclusion, this paper will contribute to existing work on festival audiences and will provide an insight into the contribution of relevance of spiritual beliefs to audience groupings.
Background information
In recent years, greater focus has been accorded to festival motivations as a result of the changing nature of the festival marketplace. Festivals have often been utilised as a means to generate economic revenues, develop tourist audiences, place market cities in terms of repositioning and rebranding destination image, and provide cultural benefits to the local community (García, 2004; Quinn, 2005). Further, there has been a substantial increase in the number of UK festivals (British Arts Festival Association, 2008), which has, in part, been fuelled by changing economic and social agendas. In light of the changing nature of the marketplace and increased competition, there are increasing pressures upon festivals to understand audience characteristics and consumer motivations in a bid to ensure their sustainability. As Crompton and McKay (1997) argue, an understanding of festival motivations can contribute to the event design process, monitor satisfaction and provide an avenue to comprehend festival attendees’ decision-making processes.
Common factors in festival motivation include family togetherness, novelty, escape, socialisation (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004; Nicholson & Pearce, 2001) cultural exploration, event attractions (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004), excitement (Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001) and entertainment (Nicholson & Pearce, 2001). While Li and Petrick (2006) suggest that this provides a research framework for surveying festival and event motivations there is not, to date, a universal motivation scale. Certainly, the diversity of festival types necessitates that these motivation scales are adapted somewhat according to the given festival. This paper is focused on audience consumption within the context of a relatively unconventional festival, the Beltane Fire Festival.
The BFF takes place on an annual basis on the 30 April and is primarily run by a volunteer group. It marks the passage of the seasons and is a modern interpretation of an ancient ritual, which is rooted in the Celtic calendar. Approximately three hundred performers take part in an outdoor procession and performance. As such, there is a strong carnivalesque spirit (Bakhtin, 1967) to the performance given the uninhibited nature of aspects of the performance. There are features of the Beltane Fire Festival that set it apart from many other activities organised in Scotland and in Edinburgh in particular. This does not mean there are no festivals with comparable features. For example, there is the Burning Man Festival (Kozinets, 2002). Like Beltane, these arose from the interests of a small group of citizens other than organisations interested in fostering events tourism and developing conventional events that conformed to social norms. Further, with these other festivals, Beltane continues a form of ritual, shares an appeal to inevitable change (in the case of Beltane, the change of season) and closer linkage to often-suppressed, non-commercial features of life and spirituality. These aspects are enveloped in an ethos that is celebratory or carnivalesque (Bakhtin, 1967). Furthermore, there is a spiritual element to BFF, which is a key component to it. Spirituality underpins aspects of the festival structure and performance. Consequently, due to the nature of the festival, this paper will draw upon festival motivations and spirituality. There is a plethora of work around spirituality (Gallarza et al., 2009; Piedmont, 1999; Piedmont et al., 2009) but specific attention will be accorded to spirituality measures (Astin et al, 2005; Bryan & Astin, 2008) in order to acquire an insight into audience attitudes.
In recent years, greater focus has been accorded to festival motivations as a result of the chang... more In recent years, greater focus has been accorded to festival motivations as a result of the changing nature of the festival marketplace. Festivals have often been utilised as a means to generate economic revenues, develop tourist audiences, place market cities in terms of repositioning and rebranding destination image, and provide cultural benefits to the local community (García 2004; Quinn 2005). Further, there has been a substantial increase in the number of UK festivals (British Arts Festival Association 2008) which has, in part, been fuelled by changing economic and social agendas. In light of the changing nature of the marketplace and increased competition, there are increasing pressures upon festivals to understand audience characteristics and consumer motivations in a bid to ensure their sustainability. As Crompton and McKay (1997) argue, an understanding of festival motivations can contribute to the event design process, monitor satisfaction and provide an avenue to comprehend festival attendees’ decision making processes.
Common factors in festival motivation include family togetherness, novelty, escape, socialisation (Crompton & Mckay 1997; Dewar, Meyer & Wen 2001; Lee, Lee & Wicks 2004; Nicholson & Pearce 2001) cultural exploration, event attractions (Crompton & Mckay 1997; Lee, Lee & Wicks 2004), excitement (Dewar, Meyer & Wen 2001) and entertainment (Nicholson & Pearce 2001). While Li and Petrick (2006) suggest that this provides a research framework for surveying festival and event motivations there is not, to date, a universal motivation scale. Certainly, the diversity of festival types necessitates that these motivation scales are adapted somewhat according to the given festival. This paper is focused on audience consumption within the context of a relatively unconventional festival, the Beltane Fire Festival (BFF).
The BFF takes place on an annual basis on the 30 April and is primarily run by a volunteer group. It marks the passage of the seasons and is a modern interpretation of an ancient ritual which is rooted in the Celtic calendar. Approximately three hundred performers take part in an outdoor procession and performance. As such, there is a strong carnivalesque spirit (Bakhtin, 1967) to the performance given the uninhibited nature of aspects of the performance. There are features of the Beltane Fire Festival that set it apart from many other activities organised in Scotland and in Edinburgh in particular. This does not mean there are no festivals with comparable features. For example, there is the Burning Man Festival (Kozinets 2002). Like Beltane, these arose from the interests of a small group of citizens other than organisations interested in fostering events tourism and developing conventional events that conformed to social norms. Further, with these other festivals, Beltane continues a form of ritual, shares an appeal to inevitable change (in the case of Beltane, the change of season) and closer linkage to often-suppressed, non-commercial features of life and spirituality. These aspects are enveloped in an ethos that is celebratory or carnivalesque. Furthermore, there is a spiritual element to BFF which is a key component to it. Spirituality underpins aspects of the festival structure and performance. Consequently, due to the nature of the festival, this paper will draw upon festival motivations and spirituality. There is a plethora of work around spirituality (Gallarza et al. 2009; Piedmont 1999; Piedmont et al. 2009) but specific attention will be accorded to spirituality measures (Astin et al 2005; Bryan & Astin 2008) in order to acquire an insight into audience attitudes.
The key aim of this project is to evaluate the 2011 audience consumption of the BFF in order to inform the future development of the festival. The objectives are to: first, investigate the demographics, attitudes and profile of the 2011 audience; second, investigate customer needs which they may be seeking to satisfy at the 2011 festival; and, finally, to develop a typology of audience groupings. Such work has precedents in various studies (Chang 2006; Lee, Lee & Wicks 2004). Investigation of the typology would be based on demographics; attendees’ motives and needs; their perceptions of BFF as a ritual and/or performance; and attitudes to change and spirituality. A substantially quantitative research methodology will be adopted, comprising two distinct phases. First, prior to the audience survey, a pilot study will be undertaken involving the current performers/volunteers. Second, informed by this pilot, a survey of the 2011 audience will be conducted on a face-to-face basis. Data analysis will be facilitated by SPSS. Indicative findings will centre upon the following key areas: a typology of audience groupings based on demographics, profile, motives and spiritual attitudes. In conclusion, this paper will contribute to existing work on festival audiences and will provide an insight into the contribution of relevance of spiritual beliefs to audience groupings.
There has been an increasing focus upon the evolution of festivals. A central theme is the relati... more There has been an increasing focus upon the evolution of festivals. A central theme is the relationship between festival growth and sustainable development, particularly within the tourism context. Changing priorities, particularly relating to tourism, can impinge upon sustainable festival practices. Commentators have sought to elaborate upon the relationship between festivals, tourism and sustainability. This research focuses upon a case study that characterises debates pertaining to growth strategies, culture and economic development, and tourism and sustainability: the Beltane Fire Festival, Edinburgh. This event has grown exponentially in recent years and has passed through several critical points in its lifecycle. The research draws upon Richards and Ryan’s (2004) dimensions of festival evolution and maturation. It examines the evolution of the festival and evaluates stakeholders roles and contributions. It also assesses internal and external pressures and their impact upon the festival identity, purpose and direction. The paper draws upon qualitative research, comprising in-depth interviews with key stakeholders. The findings pivot on devices and challenges regarding festival sustainability which include: growth control and management; audience development; continuity of the performance; and, the volunteering base. It is suggested that in democratising the underlying festival identity and values a natural equilibrium in the maturation stage can be achieved.
Niche tourism has become a commonplace expression, yet a critical reading of Robinson and Novelli... more Niche tourism has become a commonplace expression, yet a critical reading of Robinson and Novelli (2005) suggests it acquires conceptual legitimacy only as a counterpoint to mass tourism. Nevertheless, an under-researched area within the mass tourism vs. niche tourism debate is identifying the point at which phenomena enter the niche tourism category thus becoming a tourism product. One such example of this is the role of community arts festivals, which have been adopted into wider niche tourism agendas (Costa 2002; Andersson and Getz 2009). Commentators have highlighted that as community events are subject to tourism pressures, it raises issues regarding identity, purpose and direction (Waterman 1998; Quinn 2005a&b). This paper draws upon Bakhtin's (1968) thesis of the carnivalesque and his elaboration upon transgression, liberation, and a suspension of regulatory forces. He argues that the overall spirit of the carnivalesque is indestructible with traces evident in modern life. Applying Bakhtin's work, this research focuses on a niche tourism event characterised by overtones of licence and transgression. The principal aim of this research is to evaluate the evolution and sustainability of the Beltane Fire Festival in Edinburgh, Scotland. The event has experienced considerable growth and there are significant pressures occurring, as it is integrated into the broader city tourism calendar as a niche tourism product and, hence, wider public sector involvement (Richards and Ryan 2004). This ethnographic research involves in-depth interviews with key stakeholders, both internal and external to the event, supplemented by participant observation of the festival itself. Indicative findings relate to the impact of developing tourism agendas on the festival and its evolution. Critical moments within the festival's development are evaluated. External pressures in the shape of regulatory influences impinging on the carnivalesque space and internal reactions to these are also assessed. The key implications of this paper are issues regarding the sustainability of carnivalesque values and, moreover, the growth strategies of niche tourism events. This, in itself, raises issues regarding the overall sustainability of events (Getz 2008).
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However, this does not mean there are no festivals with comparable features. A well-known example is the Burning Man Festival in the US (Kozinets, 2002). Like Beltane, such festivals arose from the interests of a small group of citizens, in contrast to organisations interested in fostering events tourism and developing events that conform to social norms. Further, along with these unconventional festivals, Beltane continues a form of ritual, shares an appeal to inevitable change (in the case of Beltane, the change of season) and closer linkage to often-suppressed, non-commercial features of life and spirituality.
The aim of this project is to evaluate the motivations of the audience attending the BFF. The intentions are: to understand why audiences turn out on April 30th, frequently a cold night which can occur mid-week; and to inform the future development of the festival. A comparison in 2007 and 2011 reveal that audience composition is relatively constant, but varies considerably from that at conventional festivals and events run in Edinburgh, the site of the BFF.
In recent years, greater focus has been accorded to festival motivations as a result of the changing nature of the festival marketplace. As Crompton and McKay (1997) argue, understanding festival motivations can contribute to the event design process, monitor satisfaction and provide an avenue to comprehend festival attendees’ decision-making. With changing markets, increased competition and pressure on sustainability, there are increased pressures to understand audience characteristics and motivations. Unusually, in the context of Edinburgh, a UK city hosting many major festivals, the core management, support team and implementation of BFF is provided by volunteers, with less than 5 paid officials. They debate whether the BFF is a ‘ritual’ or a ‘performance’. Moreover, it would appear that among BFF volunteers, including those appearing in the event itself, the primary concern is not the people paying to attend (Matheson and Tinsley, 2010).
Common factors in festival motivation include family togetherness, novelty, escape, socialisation (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004; Nicholson & Pearce, 2001), cultural exploration, event attractions (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004), excitement (Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001) and entertainment (Nicholson & Pearce, 2001). While Li and Petrick (2006) suggest that this provides a research framework for surveying motivations there is not, to date, a universal motivation scale, although there are common elements across studies. Even so, it is apparent that motivation statements may not group similarly for different festivals (Nicholson & Pearce, 2001; Lee, 2000).
Using four collections of statements drawn from the events literature (cited above) and one drawn from the spirituality literature (see for example Bryant & Astin, 2008; Astin & Keen, 2006; Bryant & Astin, 2008), we report exploratory and confirmatory approaches to understanding audience motivations. The four collections from the events literature are ‘usual’ in the literature, as they have proved to be relevant for many audiences; on the other hand, the collection drawn from the spirituality literature was included because the theme appeared from earlier research (Matheson and Tinsley, 2010) that, while there are spiritual aspects of the ancient rituals underpinning Beltane, attitudes in this area might or might not be important in individuals’ decisions to attend.
In 2011, 375 members of the audience were selected according to a stratified, random sampling strategy as they entered the BFF venue. Each completed a short questionnaire that included twenty-one motivational statements that are the subject of the current research. The collected surveys were randomly assigned to one of two groups. One group of 176 was used in an exploratory principal components analysis to resolve statements into a smaller number of dimensions, as undertaken in the literature quoted above. The second group of 199 surveys was used to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis.
Our exploratory findings are that for the Beltane audience: (i) pairs of distinct factors identified in event studies might be collapsed into one; (ii) spirituality statements coalesce into a single motivational scale, with no cross-loadings on other factors; and (iii) either three, four or five factors, with spirituality being a distinct factor, are possible. In the confirmatory analysis, it was found that: (a) the fit diagnostics for the factors derived from statements in the events literature are poor; (b) adding a spirituality dimension, improves fit, but not to the point of satisfying accepted benchmarks; (c) improvements in fit arise by dropping individual statements, including dropping one of the four spirituality items; (d) there is evidence that the factors based on the events literature are not orthogonal; (e) permitting cross-factor loadings and dropping one of the factors based on the events literature improves fit to the point of exceeding accepted benchmarks; and (f) correlations exist between individual items and/or error terms for the Beltane audience, suggesting that modelling might be improved (regardless of fit benchmarks) by searching for as yet un-assessed aspects of the audiences’ decision making.
The findings on Beltane add to existing work on festival audiences, suggesting that one motivator established in the literature as relevant to audience motivation is irrelevant for this unconventional event and that spirituality is a feature of audience motivation at Beltane, while other motivations for attendance at other festivals are not as strongly motivational. These results suggest that there may be features of the Beltane audience that differ from the factors permeating findings at other more conventional festivals. As such, the current research on the Beltane audience adds to our understanding of those who attend festivals and events that do not conform to the prevailing social norms of the societies within which they are held. Further, the current findings have relied on a methodology involving confirmation of an exploratory approach in different samples. This confirmation does not appear to have been practiced in a number of studies of audience motivation. Our findings suggest, at least in the case of unconventional events such as Beltane, this is an informative approach."
In recent years, greater focus has been accorded to festival motivations as a result of the changing nature of the festival marketplace. As Crompton and McKay (1997) argue, understanding festival motivations can contribute to the event design process, monitor satisfaction and provide an avenue to comprehend festival attendees’ decision-making. With changing markets, increased competition and pressure on sustainability, there are increased pressures to understand audience characteristics and motivations. Unusually, in the context of Edinburgh, a UK city hosting many major festivals, the core management, support team and implementation of BFF is provided by volunteers, with only n paid official(s). They debate whether the BFF is a ‘ritual’ or a ‘performance’. Moreover, it would appear that among BFF volunteers, including those appearing in the event itself, the primary concern is not the people paying to attend (Matheson and Tinsley 2010).
Common factors in festival motivation include family togetherness, novelty, escape, socialisation (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004; Nicholson & Pearce, 2001), cultural exploration, event attractions (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004), excitement (Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001) and entertainment (Nicholson & Pearce, 2001). While Li and Petrick (2006) suggest that this provides a research framework for surveying motivations there is not, to date, a universal motivation scale, although there are common elements across studies. Even so, it is apparent that motivation statements may not group similarly for different festivals (Nicholson & Pearce 2001; Lee 2000).
Using four collections of statements drawn from the events literature (cited above) and one drawn from the spirituality literature (see for example Bryant & Astin 2008; Astin & Keen 2006; Bryant & Astin 2008), we report exploratory and confirmatory approaches to understanding audience motivations. The four collections from the events literature are ‘usual’ in that literature, as they have proved to be relevant for many audiences; on the other hand, the collection drawn from the spirituality literature was included because it appeared from earlier work (Matheson and Tinsley, 2010) that, while there are spiritual aspects of the ancient rituals underpinning Beltane, attitudes in this area might or might not be important in individuals’ decisions to attend.
In 2011, 375 members of the audience were selected according to a stratified, random sampling strategy as they entered the BFF venue. Each completed a short questionnaire that included 21 motivational statements that are the subject of the current research. The collected surveys were randomly assigned to one of two groups. One group of 176 was used in an exploratory principal components analysis to resolve statements into a smaller number of dimensions, as undertaken in the literature quoted above. The second group of 199 surveys was used to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis.
Our exploratory findings are that for the Beltane audience: (i) motivational statements from the event literature have substantial impacts on more than one factor; (ii) pairs of distinct factors identified in event studies might be collapsed into one; (iii) spirituality statements coalesce into a single motivational scale, with no cross-loadings on other factors; and (iv) either three, four or five factors, with spirituality being a distinct factor, are possible. In the confirmatory analysis, it was found that: (a) the fit diagnostics for the factors derived from statements in the events literature are poor; (b) adding a spirituality dimension, improves fit, but not to the point of satisfying accepted benchmarks; (c) improvements in fit arise by dropping individual statements, including dropping one of the five spirituality items; (d) there is evidence that the factors based on the events literature are not orthogonal; (e) permitting cross-factor loadings and dropping one of the factors based on the events literature improves fit to the point of exceeding accepted benchmarks; and (f) correlations exist between individual items and/or error terms for the Beltane audience, suggesting that modelling might be improved (regardless of fit benchmarks) by searching for as yet un-assessed aspects of the audiences’ decision making.
The findings of this research add to existing work on festival audiences and provide an insight into the relevance of spirituality to audience groupings for festivals and events that do not conform to the prevailing social norms of the societies within which they are held.
Some background on Beltane
BFF marks the passage of the seasons and is a modern interpretation of an ancient ritual, rooted in the Celtic calendar. Approximately three hundred performers take part in an outdoor procession and performance. There is a strong carnivalesque and celebratory spirit (Bakhtin, 1967) and aspects of the event are uninhibited. This sets the Beltane Fire Festival apart from many activities organised in Edinburgh.
This does not mean there are no festivals with comparable features. A well-known example is the Burning Man Festival in the US (Kozinets, 2002). Like Beltane, such festivals arose from the interests of a small group of citizens, in contrast to organisations interested in fostering events tourism and developing events that conform to social norms. Further, along with these unconventional festivals, Beltane continues a form of ritual, shares an appeal to inevitable change (in the case of Beltane, the change of season) and closer linkage to often-suppressed, non-commercial features of life and spirituality.
"
The key aim of this project is to evaluate the 2011 audience consumption of the Beltane Fire Festival (BFF) in order to inform the future development of the festival. The objectives are to: first, investigate the demographics, attitudes and profile of the 2011 audience; second, investigate customer needs which they may be seeking to satisfy at the 2011 festival; and, finally, to develop a typology of audience groupings. Such work has precedents in various studies (Chang, 2006; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004). Investigation of the typology will be based on demographics; attendees’ motives and needs; their perceptions of BFF as a ritual and/or performance; and attitudes to change and spirituality. A substantially quantitative research methodology will be adopted, comprising two distinct phases. First, prior to the audience survey, a pilot study will be undertaken involving the current performers/volunteers. Second, informed by this pilot, a survey of the 2011 audience will be conducted on a face-to-face basis. Data analysis will be facilitated by SPSS. Analysis will be undertaken with the application of quantitative methods often used in marketing and higher education and triangulated with findings of a qualitative study pertaining to the BFF development. This study has been informed by an earlier qualitative study by the authors. Indicative findings will centre upon the following key areas: a typology of audience groupings based on demographics, profile, motives and spiritual attitudes. In conclusion, this paper will contribute to existing work on festival audiences and will provide an insight into the contribution of relevance of spiritual beliefs to audience groupings.
Background information
In recent years, greater focus has been accorded to festival motivations as a result of the changing nature of the festival marketplace. Festivals have often been utilised as a means to generate economic revenues, develop tourist audiences, place market cities in terms of repositioning and rebranding destination image, and provide cultural benefits to the local community (García, 2004; Quinn, 2005). Further, there has been a substantial increase in the number of UK festivals (British Arts Festival Association, 2008), which has, in part, been fuelled by changing economic and social agendas. In light of the changing nature of the marketplace and increased competition, there are increasing pressures upon festivals to understand audience characteristics and consumer motivations in a bid to ensure their sustainability. As Crompton and McKay (1997) argue, an understanding of festival motivations can contribute to the event design process, monitor satisfaction and provide an avenue to comprehend festival attendees’ decision-making processes.
Common factors in festival motivation include family togetherness, novelty, escape, socialisation (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004; Nicholson & Pearce, 2001) cultural exploration, event attractions (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004), excitement (Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001) and entertainment (Nicholson & Pearce, 2001). While Li and Petrick (2006) suggest that this provides a research framework for surveying festival and event motivations there is not, to date, a universal motivation scale. Certainly, the diversity of festival types necessitates that these motivation scales are adapted somewhat according to the given festival. This paper is focused on audience consumption within the context of a relatively unconventional festival, the Beltane Fire Festival.
The BFF takes place on an annual basis on the 30 April and is primarily run by a volunteer group. It marks the passage of the seasons and is a modern interpretation of an ancient ritual, which is rooted in the Celtic calendar. Approximately three hundred performers take part in an outdoor procession and performance. As such, there is a strong carnivalesque spirit (Bakhtin, 1967) to the performance given the uninhibited nature of aspects of the performance. There are features of the Beltane Fire Festival that set it apart from many other activities organised in Scotland and in Edinburgh in particular. This does not mean there are no festivals with comparable features. For example, there is the Burning Man Festival (Kozinets, 2002). Like Beltane, these arose from the interests of a small group of citizens other than organisations interested in fostering events tourism and developing conventional events that conformed to social norms. Further, with these other festivals, Beltane continues a form of ritual, shares an appeal to inevitable change (in the case of Beltane, the change of season) and closer linkage to often-suppressed, non-commercial features of life and spirituality. These aspects are enveloped in an ethos that is celebratory or carnivalesque (Bakhtin, 1967). Furthermore, there is a spiritual element to BFF, which is a key component to it. Spirituality underpins aspects of the festival structure and performance. Consequently, due to the nature of the festival, this paper will draw upon festival motivations and spirituality. There is a plethora of work around spirituality (Gallarza et al., 2009; Piedmont, 1999; Piedmont et al., 2009) but specific attention will be accorded to spirituality measures (Astin et al, 2005; Bryan & Astin, 2008) in order to acquire an insight into audience attitudes.
Common factors in festival motivation include family togetherness, novelty, escape, socialisation (Crompton & Mckay 1997; Dewar, Meyer & Wen 2001; Lee, Lee & Wicks 2004; Nicholson & Pearce 2001) cultural exploration, event attractions (Crompton & Mckay 1997; Lee, Lee & Wicks 2004), excitement (Dewar, Meyer & Wen 2001) and entertainment (Nicholson & Pearce 2001). While Li and Petrick (2006) suggest that this provides a research framework for surveying festival and event motivations there is not, to date, a universal motivation scale. Certainly, the diversity of festival types necessitates that these motivation scales are adapted somewhat according to the given festival. This paper is focused on audience consumption within the context of a relatively unconventional festival, the Beltane Fire Festival (BFF).
The BFF takes place on an annual basis on the 30 April and is primarily run by a volunteer group. It marks the passage of the seasons and is a modern interpretation of an ancient ritual which is rooted in the Celtic calendar. Approximately three hundred performers take part in an outdoor procession and performance. As such, there is a strong carnivalesque spirit (Bakhtin, 1967) to the performance given the uninhibited nature of aspects of the performance. There are features of the Beltane Fire Festival that set it apart from many other activities organised in Scotland and in Edinburgh in particular. This does not mean there are no festivals with comparable features. For example, there is the Burning Man Festival (Kozinets 2002). Like Beltane, these arose from the interests of a small group of citizens other than organisations interested in fostering events tourism and developing conventional events that conformed to social norms. Further, with these other festivals, Beltane continues a form of ritual, shares an appeal to inevitable change (in the case of Beltane, the change of season) and closer linkage to often-suppressed, non-commercial features of life and spirituality. These aspects are enveloped in an ethos that is celebratory or carnivalesque. Furthermore, there is a spiritual element to BFF which is a key component to it. Spirituality underpins aspects of the festival structure and performance. Consequently, due to the nature of the festival, this paper will draw upon festival motivations and spirituality. There is a plethora of work around spirituality (Gallarza et al. 2009; Piedmont 1999; Piedmont et al. 2009) but specific attention will be accorded to spirituality measures (Astin et al 2005; Bryan & Astin 2008) in order to acquire an insight into audience attitudes.
The key aim of this project is to evaluate the 2011 audience consumption of the BFF in order to inform the future development of the festival. The objectives are to: first, investigate the demographics, attitudes and profile of the 2011 audience; second, investigate customer needs which they may be seeking to satisfy at the 2011 festival; and, finally, to develop a typology of audience groupings. Such work has precedents in various studies (Chang 2006; Lee, Lee & Wicks 2004). Investigation of the typology would be based on demographics; attendees’ motives and needs; their perceptions of BFF as a ritual and/or performance; and attitudes to change and spirituality. A substantially quantitative research methodology will be adopted, comprising two distinct phases. First, prior to the audience survey, a pilot study will be undertaken involving the current performers/volunteers. Second, informed by this pilot, a survey of the 2011 audience will be conducted on a face-to-face basis. Data analysis will be facilitated by SPSS. Indicative findings will centre upon the following key areas: a typology of audience groupings based on demographics, profile, motives and spiritual attitudes. In conclusion, this paper will contribute to existing work on festival audiences and will provide an insight into the contribution of relevance of spiritual beliefs to audience groupings.
However, this does not mean there are no festivals with comparable features. A well-known example is the Burning Man Festival in the US (Kozinets, 2002). Like Beltane, such festivals arose from the interests of a small group of citizens, in contrast to organisations interested in fostering events tourism and developing events that conform to social norms. Further, along with these unconventional festivals, Beltane continues a form of ritual, shares an appeal to inevitable change (in the case of Beltane, the change of season) and closer linkage to often-suppressed, non-commercial features of life and spirituality.
The aim of this project is to evaluate the motivations of the audience attending the BFF. The intentions are: to understand why audiences turn out on April 30th, frequently a cold night which can occur mid-week; and to inform the future development of the festival. A comparison in 2007 and 2011 reveal that audience composition is relatively constant, but varies considerably from that at conventional festivals and events run in Edinburgh, the site of the BFF.
In recent years, greater focus has been accorded to festival motivations as a result of the changing nature of the festival marketplace. As Crompton and McKay (1997) argue, understanding festival motivations can contribute to the event design process, monitor satisfaction and provide an avenue to comprehend festival attendees’ decision-making. With changing markets, increased competition and pressure on sustainability, there are increased pressures to understand audience characteristics and motivations. Unusually, in the context of Edinburgh, a UK city hosting many major festivals, the core management, support team and implementation of BFF is provided by volunteers, with less than 5 paid officials. They debate whether the BFF is a ‘ritual’ or a ‘performance’. Moreover, it would appear that among BFF volunteers, including those appearing in the event itself, the primary concern is not the people paying to attend (Matheson and Tinsley, 2010).
Common factors in festival motivation include family togetherness, novelty, escape, socialisation (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004; Nicholson & Pearce, 2001), cultural exploration, event attractions (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004), excitement (Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001) and entertainment (Nicholson & Pearce, 2001). While Li and Petrick (2006) suggest that this provides a research framework for surveying motivations there is not, to date, a universal motivation scale, although there are common elements across studies. Even so, it is apparent that motivation statements may not group similarly for different festivals (Nicholson & Pearce, 2001; Lee, 2000).
Using four collections of statements drawn from the events literature (cited above) and one drawn from the spirituality literature (see for example Bryant & Astin, 2008; Astin & Keen, 2006; Bryant & Astin, 2008), we report exploratory and confirmatory approaches to understanding audience motivations. The four collections from the events literature are ‘usual’ in the literature, as they have proved to be relevant for many audiences; on the other hand, the collection drawn from the spirituality literature was included because the theme appeared from earlier research (Matheson and Tinsley, 2010) that, while there are spiritual aspects of the ancient rituals underpinning Beltane, attitudes in this area might or might not be important in individuals’ decisions to attend.
In 2011, 375 members of the audience were selected according to a stratified, random sampling strategy as they entered the BFF venue. Each completed a short questionnaire that included twenty-one motivational statements that are the subject of the current research. The collected surveys were randomly assigned to one of two groups. One group of 176 was used in an exploratory principal components analysis to resolve statements into a smaller number of dimensions, as undertaken in the literature quoted above. The second group of 199 surveys was used to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis.
Our exploratory findings are that for the Beltane audience: (i) pairs of distinct factors identified in event studies might be collapsed into one; (ii) spirituality statements coalesce into a single motivational scale, with no cross-loadings on other factors; and (iii) either three, four or five factors, with spirituality being a distinct factor, are possible. In the confirmatory analysis, it was found that: (a) the fit diagnostics for the factors derived from statements in the events literature are poor; (b) adding a spirituality dimension, improves fit, but not to the point of satisfying accepted benchmarks; (c) improvements in fit arise by dropping individual statements, including dropping one of the four spirituality items; (d) there is evidence that the factors based on the events literature are not orthogonal; (e) permitting cross-factor loadings and dropping one of the factors based on the events literature improves fit to the point of exceeding accepted benchmarks; and (f) correlations exist between individual items and/or error terms for the Beltane audience, suggesting that modelling might be improved (regardless of fit benchmarks) by searching for as yet un-assessed aspects of the audiences’ decision making.
The findings on Beltane add to existing work on festival audiences, suggesting that one motivator established in the literature as relevant to audience motivation is irrelevant for this unconventional event and that spirituality is a feature of audience motivation at Beltane, while other motivations for attendance at other festivals are not as strongly motivational. These results suggest that there may be features of the Beltane audience that differ from the factors permeating findings at other more conventional festivals. As such, the current research on the Beltane audience adds to our understanding of those who attend festivals and events that do not conform to the prevailing social norms of the societies within which they are held. Further, the current findings have relied on a methodology involving confirmation of an exploratory approach in different samples. This confirmation does not appear to have been practiced in a number of studies of audience motivation. Our findings suggest, at least in the case of unconventional events such as Beltane, this is an informative approach."
In recent years, greater focus has been accorded to festival motivations as a result of the changing nature of the festival marketplace. As Crompton and McKay (1997) argue, understanding festival motivations can contribute to the event design process, monitor satisfaction and provide an avenue to comprehend festival attendees’ decision-making. With changing markets, increased competition and pressure on sustainability, there are increased pressures to understand audience characteristics and motivations. Unusually, in the context of Edinburgh, a UK city hosting many major festivals, the core management, support team and implementation of BFF is provided by volunteers, with only n paid official(s). They debate whether the BFF is a ‘ritual’ or a ‘performance’. Moreover, it would appear that among BFF volunteers, including those appearing in the event itself, the primary concern is not the people paying to attend (Matheson and Tinsley 2010).
Common factors in festival motivation include family togetherness, novelty, escape, socialisation (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004; Nicholson & Pearce, 2001), cultural exploration, event attractions (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004), excitement (Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001) and entertainment (Nicholson & Pearce, 2001). While Li and Petrick (2006) suggest that this provides a research framework for surveying motivations there is not, to date, a universal motivation scale, although there are common elements across studies. Even so, it is apparent that motivation statements may not group similarly for different festivals (Nicholson & Pearce 2001; Lee 2000).
Using four collections of statements drawn from the events literature (cited above) and one drawn from the spirituality literature (see for example Bryant & Astin 2008; Astin & Keen 2006; Bryant & Astin 2008), we report exploratory and confirmatory approaches to understanding audience motivations. The four collections from the events literature are ‘usual’ in that literature, as they have proved to be relevant for many audiences; on the other hand, the collection drawn from the spirituality literature was included because it appeared from earlier work (Matheson and Tinsley, 2010) that, while there are spiritual aspects of the ancient rituals underpinning Beltane, attitudes in this area might or might not be important in individuals’ decisions to attend.
In 2011, 375 members of the audience were selected according to a stratified, random sampling strategy as they entered the BFF venue. Each completed a short questionnaire that included 21 motivational statements that are the subject of the current research. The collected surveys were randomly assigned to one of two groups. One group of 176 was used in an exploratory principal components analysis to resolve statements into a smaller number of dimensions, as undertaken in the literature quoted above. The second group of 199 surveys was used to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis.
Our exploratory findings are that for the Beltane audience: (i) motivational statements from the event literature have substantial impacts on more than one factor; (ii) pairs of distinct factors identified in event studies might be collapsed into one; (iii) spirituality statements coalesce into a single motivational scale, with no cross-loadings on other factors; and (iv) either three, four or five factors, with spirituality being a distinct factor, are possible. In the confirmatory analysis, it was found that: (a) the fit diagnostics for the factors derived from statements in the events literature are poor; (b) adding a spirituality dimension, improves fit, but not to the point of satisfying accepted benchmarks; (c) improvements in fit arise by dropping individual statements, including dropping one of the five spirituality items; (d) there is evidence that the factors based on the events literature are not orthogonal; (e) permitting cross-factor loadings and dropping one of the factors based on the events literature improves fit to the point of exceeding accepted benchmarks; and (f) correlations exist between individual items and/or error terms for the Beltane audience, suggesting that modelling might be improved (regardless of fit benchmarks) by searching for as yet un-assessed aspects of the audiences’ decision making.
The findings of this research add to existing work on festival audiences and provide an insight into the relevance of spirituality to audience groupings for festivals and events that do not conform to the prevailing social norms of the societies within which they are held.
Some background on Beltane
BFF marks the passage of the seasons and is a modern interpretation of an ancient ritual, rooted in the Celtic calendar. Approximately three hundred performers take part in an outdoor procession and performance. There is a strong carnivalesque and celebratory spirit (Bakhtin, 1967) and aspects of the event are uninhibited. This sets the Beltane Fire Festival apart from many activities organised in Edinburgh.
This does not mean there are no festivals with comparable features. A well-known example is the Burning Man Festival in the US (Kozinets, 2002). Like Beltane, such festivals arose from the interests of a small group of citizens, in contrast to organisations interested in fostering events tourism and developing events that conform to social norms. Further, along with these unconventional festivals, Beltane continues a form of ritual, shares an appeal to inevitable change (in the case of Beltane, the change of season) and closer linkage to often-suppressed, non-commercial features of life and spirituality.
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The key aim of this project is to evaluate the 2011 audience consumption of the Beltane Fire Festival (BFF) in order to inform the future development of the festival. The objectives are to: first, investigate the demographics, attitudes and profile of the 2011 audience; second, investigate customer needs which they may be seeking to satisfy at the 2011 festival; and, finally, to develop a typology of audience groupings. Such work has precedents in various studies (Chang, 2006; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004). Investigation of the typology will be based on demographics; attendees’ motives and needs; their perceptions of BFF as a ritual and/or performance; and attitudes to change and spirituality. A substantially quantitative research methodology will be adopted, comprising two distinct phases. First, prior to the audience survey, a pilot study will be undertaken involving the current performers/volunteers. Second, informed by this pilot, a survey of the 2011 audience will be conducted on a face-to-face basis. Data analysis will be facilitated by SPSS. Analysis will be undertaken with the application of quantitative methods often used in marketing and higher education and triangulated with findings of a qualitative study pertaining to the BFF development. This study has been informed by an earlier qualitative study by the authors. Indicative findings will centre upon the following key areas: a typology of audience groupings based on demographics, profile, motives and spiritual attitudes. In conclusion, this paper will contribute to existing work on festival audiences and will provide an insight into the contribution of relevance of spiritual beliefs to audience groupings.
Background information
In recent years, greater focus has been accorded to festival motivations as a result of the changing nature of the festival marketplace. Festivals have often been utilised as a means to generate economic revenues, develop tourist audiences, place market cities in terms of repositioning and rebranding destination image, and provide cultural benefits to the local community (García, 2004; Quinn, 2005). Further, there has been a substantial increase in the number of UK festivals (British Arts Festival Association, 2008), which has, in part, been fuelled by changing economic and social agendas. In light of the changing nature of the marketplace and increased competition, there are increasing pressures upon festivals to understand audience characteristics and consumer motivations in a bid to ensure their sustainability. As Crompton and McKay (1997) argue, an understanding of festival motivations can contribute to the event design process, monitor satisfaction and provide an avenue to comprehend festival attendees’ decision-making processes.
Common factors in festival motivation include family togetherness, novelty, escape, socialisation (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004; Nicholson & Pearce, 2001) cultural exploration, event attractions (Crompton & Mckay, 1997; Lee, Lee & Wicks, 2004), excitement (Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001) and entertainment (Nicholson & Pearce, 2001). While Li and Petrick (2006) suggest that this provides a research framework for surveying festival and event motivations there is not, to date, a universal motivation scale. Certainly, the diversity of festival types necessitates that these motivation scales are adapted somewhat according to the given festival. This paper is focused on audience consumption within the context of a relatively unconventional festival, the Beltane Fire Festival.
The BFF takes place on an annual basis on the 30 April and is primarily run by a volunteer group. It marks the passage of the seasons and is a modern interpretation of an ancient ritual, which is rooted in the Celtic calendar. Approximately three hundred performers take part in an outdoor procession and performance. As such, there is a strong carnivalesque spirit (Bakhtin, 1967) to the performance given the uninhibited nature of aspects of the performance. There are features of the Beltane Fire Festival that set it apart from many other activities organised in Scotland and in Edinburgh in particular. This does not mean there are no festivals with comparable features. For example, there is the Burning Man Festival (Kozinets, 2002). Like Beltane, these arose from the interests of a small group of citizens other than organisations interested in fostering events tourism and developing conventional events that conformed to social norms. Further, with these other festivals, Beltane continues a form of ritual, shares an appeal to inevitable change (in the case of Beltane, the change of season) and closer linkage to often-suppressed, non-commercial features of life and spirituality. These aspects are enveloped in an ethos that is celebratory or carnivalesque (Bakhtin, 1967). Furthermore, there is a spiritual element to BFF, which is a key component to it. Spirituality underpins aspects of the festival structure and performance. Consequently, due to the nature of the festival, this paper will draw upon festival motivations and spirituality. There is a plethora of work around spirituality (Gallarza et al., 2009; Piedmont, 1999; Piedmont et al., 2009) but specific attention will be accorded to spirituality measures (Astin et al, 2005; Bryan & Astin, 2008) in order to acquire an insight into audience attitudes.
Common factors in festival motivation include family togetherness, novelty, escape, socialisation (Crompton & Mckay 1997; Dewar, Meyer & Wen 2001; Lee, Lee & Wicks 2004; Nicholson & Pearce 2001) cultural exploration, event attractions (Crompton & Mckay 1997; Lee, Lee & Wicks 2004), excitement (Dewar, Meyer & Wen 2001) and entertainment (Nicholson & Pearce 2001). While Li and Petrick (2006) suggest that this provides a research framework for surveying festival and event motivations there is not, to date, a universal motivation scale. Certainly, the diversity of festival types necessitates that these motivation scales are adapted somewhat according to the given festival. This paper is focused on audience consumption within the context of a relatively unconventional festival, the Beltane Fire Festival (BFF).
The BFF takes place on an annual basis on the 30 April and is primarily run by a volunteer group. It marks the passage of the seasons and is a modern interpretation of an ancient ritual which is rooted in the Celtic calendar. Approximately three hundred performers take part in an outdoor procession and performance. As such, there is a strong carnivalesque spirit (Bakhtin, 1967) to the performance given the uninhibited nature of aspects of the performance. There are features of the Beltane Fire Festival that set it apart from many other activities organised in Scotland and in Edinburgh in particular. This does not mean there are no festivals with comparable features. For example, there is the Burning Man Festival (Kozinets 2002). Like Beltane, these arose from the interests of a small group of citizens other than organisations interested in fostering events tourism and developing conventional events that conformed to social norms. Further, with these other festivals, Beltane continues a form of ritual, shares an appeal to inevitable change (in the case of Beltane, the change of season) and closer linkage to often-suppressed, non-commercial features of life and spirituality. These aspects are enveloped in an ethos that is celebratory or carnivalesque. Furthermore, there is a spiritual element to BFF which is a key component to it. Spirituality underpins aspects of the festival structure and performance. Consequently, due to the nature of the festival, this paper will draw upon festival motivations and spirituality. There is a plethora of work around spirituality (Gallarza et al. 2009; Piedmont 1999; Piedmont et al. 2009) but specific attention will be accorded to spirituality measures (Astin et al 2005; Bryan & Astin 2008) in order to acquire an insight into audience attitudes.
The key aim of this project is to evaluate the 2011 audience consumption of the BFF in order to inform the future development of the festival. The objectives are to: first, investigate the demographics, attitudes and profile of the 2011 audience; second, investigate customer needs which they may be seeking to satisfy at the 2011 festival; and, finally, to develop a typology of audience groupings. Such work has precedents in various studies (Chang 2006; Lee, Lee & Wicks 2004). Investigation of the typology would be based on demographics; attendees’ motives and needs; their perceptions of BFF as a ritual and/or performance; and attitudes to change and spirituality. A substantially quantitative research methodology will be adopted, comprising two distinct phases. First, prior to the audience survey, a pilot study will be undertaken involving the current performers/volunteers. Second, informed by this pilot, a survey of the 2011 audience will be conducted on a face-to-face basis. Data analysis will be facilitated by SPSS. Indicative findings will centre upon the following key areas: a typology of audience groupings based on demographics, profile, motives and spiritual attitudes. In conclusion, this paper will contribute to existing work on festival audiences and will provide an insight into the contribution of relevance of spiritual beliefs to audience groupings.