Anthropology of Tourism

Tourism is one of the largest industries in the world.  Yet leisure travel is not just economically important.  This pastime plays a vital role in defining who we are by helping to place us in space and time.  In so doing, it has aesthetic, medical, political, cultural, and social implications.  It was not always so.  Tourism as we know it is a surprisingly modern thing, both a product of modernity and a force helping to shape it.  A History of Modern Tourism is the first book to track the origins and evolution of this pursuit from earliest times to the present.  From a new understanding of aesthetics to scientific change, from the invention of steam power to the creation of aircraft, from an elite form of education to family car trips to see national “shrines,” this book offers a sweeping and engaging overview of a fascinating story not yet widely known.

". . . a very readable account of how tourism has developed since The Grand Tour of the 18th century. It looks at movers and shakers in the tourism sector - from Thomas Cook and George Pullman to Billy Butlin, Freddie Laker and even Adolf Hitler - and at how the industry has shaped globalisation and the modern world." (Adam Nebbs, South China Morning Post, 1 Nov. 2015)

This book is now available in hardcover, paperback, and electronic formats.  http://www.amazon.com/History-Modern-Tourism-Eric-Zuelow/dp/0230369642/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&qid=1433518027&sr=8-4&keywords=Zuelow.

Readers may also be interested in the supplementary website which contains bibliographies, lists of websites, teaching materials, and more: http://ericzuelow.com/ModernTourism/About.html

Publisher website: http://www.palgrave.com/page/detail/a-history-of-modern-tourism-eric-zuelow/?isb=9780230369641

Cities have become creative spaces of total consumption, which constantly refuel the theoretical and practical bases of our consumer society. It is a further stage of the “fantasy city” (Hannigan): McDonaldization (Ritzer) and Disneyization (Bryman) have been largely metabolized and so-called “non-lieux” (Augé) have often become the most significant spaces and have helped to build new glocal identities. In such a context, theming – and particularly historical theming – has become a powerful and effective tool, since it gives a robust structure to the multiple and dynamic processes of mingling that characterize our liquid society (Bauman, 2000). Theming merges past and present, culture and leisure, originals and copies, as well as tourism and shopping, and gives an effective framework to this mingling, which is, at the same time, material and immaterial, visual and emotional, sensorial and experiential.
The relationship with the past is particularly interesting. The central archaeological area of Rome has become a sort of theme park, owing to the huge flows of tourists that it receives and the process of Disneyization that it has undergone, though – unlike many other Italian heritage towns, such as Venice and Florence – Rome still preserves a significant local identity and an urban life that goes far beyond tourism. The theming is present in its urban context owing partly to tourism and partly to the usual culturalization of consumption (hotels with Roman names, restaurants with Roman menus, resin souvenirs of the Colosseum, T-shirts with gladiators and legionaries etc.). We can single out the theming even in some of its most iconic places. The area of the Colosseum and forums, together with Via dei Fori Imperiali, which crosses and unites them, appears as an invisible and diffused theme park: a specialized district for leisure and cultural consumption where archaeological heritage acts as an attraction. It is not a leisure space themed to archaeology, but an archaeological space used as a theme park. Legionaries and gladiators for pictures and re-enactors act as living attractions.
Other spaces contribute to this process. Cinecittà, the dream machine of a boundless park, has helped to build the image of Rome and to theme the city. Its studios host film sets, which are at the same time a themed environment, an unusual archaeological site and a place where the myth of Rome is continually reshaped. Though distant from the main archaeological area, these studios are tied to it by an invisible thread, since they play an important role in the definition of its image. Outside the city, but inside its territory, there is also a small themed district formed by a Roman-themed outlet, “Castel Romano,” and an amusement park, “Cinecittà World”, themed to the studios that nurtured the golden age of Italian cinema.
Similarly, north of Rome, near Civitavecchia, where giant cruise ships bring huge tourist flows, a group of businessmen is trying to create “Roma Vetus”, a pharaonic theme park with reconstructions of many Roman monuments. In line with the current trends of experiential and sensory tourism, visitors would be allowed to relax in Roman baths, mint coins and grind grain. Groups of re-enactors would give life to the park, but visitors themselves would be enabled to rent costumes of gladiators, centurions and senators. We are clearly in the world of entertainment, far away from the open-air archaeological museums with their reconstructions and living-history activities. Its creators maintain that “Roma Vetus” will be used at the same time as theme park and a set for films and TV series. This park is probably destined to remain the dream of a minor group of daring speculators, but it clearly represents the dynamics at work in our liquid world.

... a typical naive set of assumptions about "group oriented" cultures it that the participants within them are basically altruistic, self-effacing, self-sacrificing and sociable. A society of such individuals should exhibit the very best of human civilization working in equitable, democratic communities. By contrast, those from individualistic cultures should be cold, grasping, selfish, egotistical and almost incapable of the cooperation demanded by a civil society. Indeed, a society of individualists, by this stereotype would be a dog eat dog affair, dedicated to conflict, riven with disloyalty and betrayal, forever failing to build a stable and humanistic community.

Tourism is one of the major industries worldwide and it is considered a major factor for the economic development of many countries of the south, among them South Africa. Backpacker tourism has been a growing source of income lately in rural, coastal towns of the Transkei. But most of the Backpacker hostels are white owned and often the local people can only profit from the few jobs created as cleaners or tour guides. In the specific place of Coffee Bay, a strong feeling of disempowerment is widespread among young local men.
How is culture represented in these tours and how do the tourist and the local gaze influence it? How are the revenues distributed? How do the tourists try to grasp the unknown and often idealised surroundings?
In my presentation, I would like to talk about the results of this research, but also about methodological problems imposed by the fact that it turned out to be a two-sited research – inside and outside the hostel: Two different social contexts with strong, even spatially expressed boundaries.

Castañeda, Quetzil E. 2015.  Imagining Modern Maya Art.  Lecture presented at “Intersections of Art & Archaeology in the Americas” conference held at
 Center for Collaborative and International Arts (CENCIA), Georgia State University, October 22.

Desvanecido el principio de territorialidad y debilitadas las estructuras sociales que producían significado y ofrecían el marco de interpretación en los lugares de origen, ¿de qué forma los distintos colectivos que residen en entornos multiculturales se hacen inteligible el mundo y, especialmente en la costa alicantina, los expatriados de la Unión Europea? La respuesta se analiza desde una perspectiva que considera lo cultural como una dimensión que refiere más a los procesos de diferenciación que a la cultura de un colectivo determinado, y se obtiene mediante una etnografía estadística que incorpora las posibilidades metafóricas de la topología al trabajo de campo etnográfico. No obstante, aunque es un trabajo en desarrollo aquí se avanzan algunas ideas y, sobre todo, preguntas que abren diversas líneas de investigación. Estudio algunos aspectos de las relaciones interculturales en Alicante a partir del apartamiento de los expatriados europeos que dibujan las estadísticas. Para ello analizo tres aspectos: la transformación de las urbanizaciones en lugares, el deseo de escapar al control gubernamental y el ruralismo, como elementos de una realidad que guarda anclajes coloniales.

Basé sur une recherche ethnographique détaillée, cet ouvrage explore les représentations qui se produisent autour de l'identité des Zafimaniry, une communauté des Hautes Terres malgaches, à partir de trois domaines différents : l'art ethnique, le classement au patrimoine immatériel de l'UNESCO et le tourisme. L'auteur analyse les discours et les pratiques des protagonistes locaux et des acteurs institutionnels (médiateurs touristiques, organismes ministériels promoteurs de la candidature UNESCO et marchands d'art ethnique), dévoilant comment les Zafimaniry sont « inventés » comme tribu, investis du rôle de culture « traditionnelle » et « originelle » de Madagascar. La notion de « régimes de valeur » sert à éclairer ces processus, qui concernent autant des questions de patrimoine, que de politique et de marchandisation.

Il laboratorio intende offrire ai partecipanti un’esperienza legata ai contenuti e alla metodologia del progetto “Migrantour. Intercultural Urban Routes”. La rete Migrantour, nata a Torino nel 2009 e oggi attiva in una ventina di città italiane ed europee, propone la realizzazione di itinerari urbani di turismo responsabile ideati e accompagnati da migranti di prima e seconda generazione: passeggiate interculturali finalizzate a diffondere il contributo che le migrazioni hanno dato alla trasformazione urbana dei quartieri e a favorire l’incontro con i cittadini che oggi li abitano.

This article is about the role of tourist moral agency in governing. The affiliation between vacationing and governing is illustrated through the examination of a case study: the village of Canhane in Mozambique. The main touristic attribute of the village lies in residents’ performance of a society in need, seeking outside solutions and guidance. Virtuous tourism in Canhane is the effect of a capitalist expansion in which ethics, community development, and governance are conflated with tourists’ consumption. Specifically, the commodifying logic that emerges from the presence of virtuous tourists in the village derives primarily from three subjects: tourists’ self-aspirations, residents’ ambition to integrate into the broader socioeconomic order, and the politicization of virtue stimulated by the development industry. Ultimately, this article shows how the cultivation of ethics through tourism consumption has become an ally for the exercise of nongovernmental governance over public spheres.

As one of the most popular tourism destinations of China, the World Heritage Site Old Town of Lijiang has attracted millions of tourists from around the world. The commoditization of local culture and its manifestation in the indigenous religion have emerged to satisfy the demand of its booming mass tourism. Taking three cultural performances as case studies—namely, Naxi Ancient Music, Lijiang Impression, and Naxi Marriage Courtyard—this article aims to explore the influence of globalization and localization on the development of tourism in Lijiang. It examines how these performances are interpreted and transformed into cultural productions by the local tourism market. During this endless flow between the global and the local, cultural performances show the dynamic forms of encounter, combining the homogenization of global capital and the heterogenization of local ethnicity

"Earlier provisional title was "Archaeology, Tourism, Museum...."

"This chapter is divided into two distinct sections that are positioned in a point-counterpoint structure of dialogue. These two position statements invoke the etymological meanings of the word essay, to attempt, put to the test, trial, to act out, to explore, travel, and travail. The first is an historical analysis written in the third person by an anthropologist whose expertise includes the ethnography of archaeology and the anthropology of tourism. The second is a counterpoint commentary written in the first person by an anthropologist whose specializations include Pre-Columbian and historical archaeology. Both of us have significant research experience in same area of the Maya world in Yucatán, México. From these two differing vantage points, we chart our perspectives on the relationship between archaeology and tourism in terms of the problems of exploration, protection, and exploitation.
In the first section, Castañeda takes an historical approach to the emergence of archaeology in the institutional context of the modern museum. He essays an analytical and theoretical manifesto about the deep, intimate interconnections between tourism and archaeology as revealed through an understanding of the museum. In his historical analysis of the role of archaeological representation in the museum, he identifies the sociological creation of universal heritage. He theorizes a notion of the universal citizen-heir as the implied benefactor of this universal heritage. In the second section, Mathews elaborates a commentary on this historical analysis of archaeology, tourism, heritage and the museum. Specifically, she counter-argues and assesses Castañeda theoretical and analytical claims through the use of archaeology and tourism at sites that are not postcard worthy. Together these two “attempts” grapple with the historical and contemporary interconnections between archaeology and tourism. Together we put to the test our typical assumptions about the ethics of archaeologists, tourists, and tourism promoters in the contemporary contexts in which we are now beginning to ask how and why archaeology and tourism are interwoven phenomena in today’s world.""

"Anthropology has expanded and changed radically by including within its purview the study of tourism. In spite of the ubiquitous nature of traveling in anthropology, tourism and travel became subjects worthy of discussion in anthropology relatively recently, in Europe in the 1930s and in the United States in the 1960s (see Introductory Works). Two main reasons explain this paucity of attention. First, anthropologists argued that their experience and motivations for being in a distant location could not be compared to that of tourists, and they believed that, in many instances, they were being unfairly associated with the tourists they encountered in these faraway places."
"Second, anthropologists considered tourism a subject not serious enough to discuss intellectually and ethnographically. Although in practically every ethnographic field site anthropologists encountered at least occasional tourists, they were perceived to be an undesired nuisance and given scant or no attention. In spite of this inauspicious beginning, the anthropological scholarship on tourism has contributed greatly to tourism studies. Anthropologists have made important contributions to the understanding of tourism’s impact on host communities; the impact of travel on an individual; the power relationships in tourism developments; heritage and culture commodification; types of tourism and tourists; and the relationships between tourism and ethnicity, identity, material culture, nationalism, and the"
"environment, among others."

Lo que se nos ofrece en esta colección de textos, informes etnográficos
y materiales expositivos es una mirada que se fracciona y
recrea diversos objetos de estudio que se dispersan desde el centro,
no ceñidos por tanto a un solo lenguaje, ni concebidos en el mismo
momento. Tampoco sujetos a una metodología específica. Desde
distintas posiciones teóricas, Estévez se fue acercando al turismo,
al paisaje, a las tradiciones; desde diversos proyectos y encuentros.
Siempre lúcido, y podríamos añadir que siempre fiel a sus presupuestos
teóricos, lo expuesto en este libro abre frentes reflexivos
aventurados y originales desde el arte, la expografía y la museología,
la teoría social y el activismo. Esta colección puede entenderse tanto
como una extensión de su identidad de antropólogo de la identidad
canaria, como de la de museólogo o la de activista. En lo que sigue
se intentará ofrecer una guía práctica, pero al tiempo rizomática,
con la que localizar todos estos materiales en su contexto, también
se apuntará sus posibilidades para el futuro y, por último, se aludirá
brevemente a los dos temas que más despertaron su interés en los
últimos años: las islas y el Antropoceno.

The aim of this thesis is to assess how the tourism-based sustainable development strategies as promoted by UNESCO (in)form, affect, and impede development efforts in the management of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Balancing conservation and tourism development creates a variety of opportunities and challenges for heritage sites and local communities that can either improve or reduce the quality of local livelihoods.
By assessing the strategies, efforts and impacts of the two World Heritage Sites in Cape Town - Robben Island and Table Mountain National Park - from a cultural-economic perspective, utilizing the concept of the 'Sustainable Livelihoods Framework for Tourism', I am going to show how and why the (potential) impacts on local livelihoods greatly differ for Robben Island and Table Mountain, although both sites operate within the same legislative, geographic, and infrastructural frameworks.
I will also assess how and why the managers of both World Heritage Sites are presented with different opportunities, as well as with an enormous variety and multiplicity of site-specific challenges for achieving sustainability and improving local livelihoods.
My assessment shows that both WHS are highly aware of their responsibilities and accountability regarding local sustainable development, and that their respective strategies aim at improving sustainability on all spheres. Yet, while Robben Island Museum struggles to fulfill their mandate and legislation, and fail to improve local economies, environments and livelihoods in a sustainable manner, Table Mountain National Park and its affiliates manage to provide a holistic tourism experience while also successfully promoting environmental awareness, socioeconomic development, and inclusive local participation to ensure the long-term improvement of local livelihoods.
The conclusion clearly shows that, although the UNESCO strategy provides a viable framework for developing site-specific strategies that consider the individual aspects of heritage assets, successful implementation depends on a multiplicity of (often intangible and unchangeable) aspects, that require highly individual management approaches and available resources.
This results in the fact, that some sites like Table Mountain National Park have the potential to impact more people with less resources, as compared to sites like Robben Island, who have to invest a lot of resources just to keep operations running.

This chapter is an ethnographic exploration of paradoxes that have emerged in tourism discourse and identity politics in colonial and postcolonial Cyprus. It argues that the power of western hegemony not only defines but also reverses the definition of modernity in Cyprus, and in such a way that its authority is maintained and legitimized. The methodological approach I have adopted is ‘global ethnography’, as put forth by Burawoy et al.(2000). In the context of tourism discourse, I will be exploring global and transnational phenomena, and their interconnection with local cultural configurations, while historically contextualizing my ethnographical material. The first part of this chapter deals with those paradoxes I encountered in the field that intrigued me enough to wonder about them. The second part discusses the emergence of tourism discourse in colonial Cyprus, while the third part considers mass tourism as the …

In un mondo perennemente in festa, dove tutto (o quasi) è maschera, turismo e divertimento, che significato possono avere feste e Carnevali? O, al contrario, perché il linguaggio del Carnevale, con le sue maschere e i suoi eccessi, appare ancora così significativo nella nostra società? Perché in Cina o negli Stati Uniti città e centri commerciali si mascherano da città d’arte italiane? Perché i nostri musei diventano spazi di festa e di consumo, accogliendo persino sfilate di moda e danze masai? Perché la politica indossa maschere o usa il nostro patrimonio culturale come una maschera? In che modo feste e Carnevali, nell’età delle migrazioni e delle nuove paure, possono diventare strumenti d’integrazione o occasione di nuovi conflitti?
Questo libro, frutto di una pluriennale collaborazione con il Centro internazionale di ricerca e studi su Carnevale, Maschera e Satira, cerca di rispondere a queste e ad altre domande, affrontando criticamente una serie di temi chiave per comprendere la cultura postmoderna in cui viviamo e quella post-postmoderna in cui stiamo entrando. Una riflessione insomma sulla società che da "liquida", come sosteneva Bauman, è già diventata "vischiosa".

Marxiano Melotti, Carnevalizzazione e società postmoderna. Maschere, linguaggi, paure, Progedit, Bari 2019

Surf tourism is a largely ignored mode of touristic behavior in the academy.  This investigation adds to a very limited body of work by providing explorations of the significance of surf tourism for surfers and by bringing forward data and observations of the impacts surf tourism has had on Playas Jacó and Hermosa, Costa Rica.  Interviews with twenty-five surf tourists, seven local business owners and a co-director of the local Chamber of Commerce were obtained.  Interview, statistical, and observation data were then used to argue that: a surfer habitus creates dispositions for many surfers to travel to exotic coastal destinations on the periphery; surf trips to Costa Rica in many ways are experientially similar to pilgrimages; and that surf tourism can be seen to be directly and indirectly associated with many economic, environmental, and socio-cultural costs and benefits to the local communities under study. 
In order to approach the theoretical considerations of the study, insights are drawn from theories associated with the ritualistic processes of rites of transition that were first brought forward by Arnold van Gennep and later refined by Victor and Edith Turner.  In this way, the study supports Nelson H.H. Graburn’s contention that tourism in general is a sacred journey through an analysis of the experiential attributes of surf tourism in particular.  Considering the applied dimension of surf tourism in Playas Jacó and Hermosa, it is argued that, as pathfinders into territories that lack an existent tourism infrastructure, surfers may indirectly set in motion a process of development and foreign investment into areas that are ill-prepared for large numbers of visitors.  Richard Butler’s formulation of a Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) is shown to be a useful model with which to examine this process of development and the possible difficulties that may come about without proper planning and regulation.  Observations of the direct impact of surf tourists on the area’s economy, environment, and society are also brought forward to argue that this mode of tourism is in many ways distinct from most other forms of leisure travel.

Under the wider umbrella of sustainable tourism, community based tourism is proposed as a panacea for poverty alleviation in the Global South. This model is actively promoted by the Peruvian government as a way of incorporating poor rural populations in the tourism industry for purposes of economical empowerment. Community based tourism is a new product developed by the market economy, which is in stark contrast with the unique cyclical ontology of Quechua populations. This study aims to understand the interactions of neoliberal business development and Quechua worldview of solidarity and reciprocity in the sphere of community based tourism. Ethnographic methods were utilised to explore the relationships of multiple stakeholders including community members, NGOs and private tourism agencies. A political economy framework has been employed to analyse multi- layered aspects of power, access and equality dynamics. Findings suggest that community based tourism weakens reciprocity and solidarity of the wider community, while simultaneously opening new arenas of reproduction and reinforcement of the local ontology.

This chapter offers a critical analysis of the burgeoning cottage industry of cyber- and actual Toraja zombie tourism. Various studies have chronicled tourists’ fascination with cadavers, and with touring the purported haunts of the undead (c.f. Light 2009; Linke 2005; Stone 2011a), yet the ways in which new death-oriented leisure zones not only arise but become fetishized remain understudied. This chapter responds to the recent call for new research on the relationship between the media and dark tourism sites (Stone 2011b:327). Data derived from fieldwork in the Toraja highlands of Indonesia and web-based sources demonstrate the role of both the internet and the anthropological imagination in this process. A second theme in this chapter entails examining the often-contradictory emotional dynamics underlying the pursuit of fun and fright by vacationers. Ethnographic studies of the complex emotional terrain entailed in these first-hand encounters remain limited and this chapter contribute to our understanding of the emotional dynamics embodied in touristic pilgrimages to observe the mortuary rituals of another culture. FInally, although this chapter examines the Western voyeuristic fascination with dead (and potentially undead) corpses, my aim is not to fuel sensationalized imagery of another dark place where dark activities are seemingly a part of everyday life. Nancy Scheper-Hughes and Philippe Bourgois’ cautions regarding ‘pornographies of violence’ as captivating yet repelling chronicles of violence that circumvent critical analysis strike me as equally apt for discussions of this particular genre of dark tourism (Scheper-Hughes and Bourgois 2003:1). What I term ‘pornographies of the macabre,’ like pornographies of violence, can reify stigmatized perceptions of subordinated peoples while neglecting to spotlight the “chains of causality…link[ing] structural, political, and symbolic violence…buttress[ing] unequal power relations” (Bourgois 2003:433). Thus, this chapter also examines the cultural “logic” and structural, political and symbolic asymmetries that buttress outsiders’ sensationalized zombie-themed references to Toraja mortuary traditions, references that have lent the Toraja a new kind of global notoriety.

Summary

The purpose of this book is to introduce the reader to problems and processes of the modern tourism market and to tendencies in the development of tourism at the beginning of the 21 st century. The passing of centuries always makes people think about the future. But the fact that with the ending of this century humankind will start the third millennium gives a special perspective. We must also remember that the twentieth century was very unique among others. It was the century of tremendous progress and development in all aspects of life. Tourism in comparison with other processes experienced particular speed of development. During only a few dozen decades it transformed from an elitist to a mass activity in which millions of people participated all over the world. At the same time it turned into a developed and progressive kind of world industry. What is more, the speed of development of world tourism is still increasing. All surveys show that in the next twenty years tourism will be the fastest growing branch of the world economy.

The dynamic growth of tourism is accompanied by deep changes in quality. They are seen as a matter of tourism demand as well as a matter of tourism supply. Fast changes in social, environmental and technological structure widely affect the tourism market. These diverse changes concern both tourists and tourism providers needs, motivations and preferences. We can notice wider and wider usage of the new technologies, especially as far as communication is concerned. The range of the transformation is so big that without any hesitation we can speak about a revolution which occurs in the whole world of travel and tourism in general. The new trends are very much connected and followed by geopolitical changes. The fall of communism and the democratisation of the postcommunist countries, as well as formation of the European Union, are only some of the most spectacular events.

We are speaking of changes which concern not only Europe, but also the rest of the world. Similar changes also took place in other parts of the world. Many new countries and regions entered the international tourist exchange. The result of these changes is the globalisation of tourism. The fading away of borders in international investment and the concentration of capital are some of the most important features of the world economy in the twentieth century. These tendencies are also typical in the tourist market, where big international companies compete successfully on new markets, and also promote new trends and standards which will be valid in the near future. Of more and more significance are the care of the natural and cultural environment, and the struggle to reduce unfavourable events which appear along with tourism. All these indicated problems show that tourism, like the whole civilisation at the end of the twentieth century, went through a period of rapid changes. What will life be like in the twenty-first century?

What will be the role of tourism? In this book the author tries to find the answer to these and many other questions which bother those who are interested in tourism. In the first chapter the author tries to answer the questions: ”What is tourism at the end of the twentieth century?” He shows the evolution of this phenomenon throughout the last century. This chapter shows what tools can be used to examine all of tourism problems and the effects which they have on social and industrial life. The author underlines the ambivalent character of modern tourism and its many functions. This along with a profile of ten basic functions of tourism reveals some realistic and potential disadvantages which are connected to the development of this branch of tourism industry. Thus the reader finds the answer to whether or not tourism is always a positive social phenomenon or if its role is sometimes overestimated.


The second chapter discusses factors which led to the great development of tourism in a relatively short time. This chapter consists of three subsections. The first describes factors which stimulated development of the tourism demand, the second profiles the most important elements of tourism supply, the third subsection concerns the problems and the development of tourism policy. The reason to show some history is to find some steady trends in development which help us to articulate some future tendencies in tourism, which are discussed in the second part of the book.

The third chapter explains some economic functions and growth of the tourism significance, which by many is considered to be the biggest industry in the world. The first part of the chapter defines the tourism industry and the range of its interests. The second part presents tourism as a part of economic connections among countries. It shows surveys of the size, dynamics and main sectors of the tourism industry. It also shows a balance of trade in the international tourism. This section pays special attention to the profiles and advantages of the so-called invisible exports in certain countries and regions.

The fourth chapter presents the most important dilemma connected to the development of tourism. Most problems are concentrated in cities, villages and regions which attract tourists, so this part focuses on social and financial aspects of tourism in regions of reception. It underlines disadvantages caused by uncontrolled development of tourism. Because of great differences between developed and developing countries this chapter consists of two parts, each of which presents suggestions of solutions in order to reduce some of these problems adequately in developed and developing countries. In the fifth chapter information about current trends on the tourism market may be found. The basis for it is the analysis of the most important financial and social tendencies which are called ”megatrends.” There is more particular information directly connected with tourism on this background. The problems connected with supply are described separately from the problems of demand, to show them more clearly. The most important trends are shown in tables built in a similar way to the idea of J. Krippendorf – “Hard & Soft Tourism”. These tables show differences appearing when we compare the most important features of traditional tourism (by the middle of the eighties) and modern, which started in the nineties and will continue into the beginning of the twenty–first century. A prognosis on the development in the first years of the twenty-first century is described in the sixth chapter. This prediction is based on three independent reports of the most important international tourist organisations: World Tourism Organisation, World Travel & Tourism Council and International Touring Alliance. This presentation is preceded by descriptions of predicting in tourism accuracy. To summarise this chapter, a very interesting table made by the futurologist Herman Kahn may be found. He was the first one to predict that at the end of the twentieth-century tourism would be the largest industry in the world. He based this famous table on original indexes and measures of different events connected to tourism. H. Kahn analysed the development of tourism from1929 to 2029. It seems to show the nature and structure of changes in tourism in the twentieth and in the first decades of the twenty-first century very accurately. In Annex it as placed The Hague Declaration on Tourism. The declaration is found as a document in which the most important problems of modern tourism and some postulates concerning its further development are enclosed.


“ ... We receive, what should be strongly underlined, the first in Poland so large compendium of knowledge on tourism, describing different aspects of the subject.”
(part of the foreword of Prof. K. Przecławski)

The purpose of this study is to examine the emerging flashpacker sub-culture in relation to the backpacker culture. Cultural Consensus Analysis is employed to examine the potential cultural divergence between flashpackers and non-flashpackers. A mixed-mode dual-frame sampling procedure was employed for data collection, as surveys were administered through Facebook backpacker-groups and in hostels in Cairns, Australia. The results indicate that flashpacker and non-flashpacker groups have a shared cultural understanding of backpacking. In addition to the conceptual clarity of the emerging flashpacker, this study also provides some interesting insights into contemporary backpacker culture and the continuing convergence of physical travel with information and communication technologies.

This paper contributes to the debate over the validity of community-based tourism (CBT) as a development and poverty reduction strategy in the rural-peasant world. In this debate, researchers tend to compare and contrast specific experiences on which they have conducted fieldwork. This implies limitations in the analysis: conclusions may be biased, leading to circular unresolved discussions. This article introduces a structural analysis, to discover whether CBT has intrinsic characteristics which mean that as an instrument of development cooperation it increases the risks typically involved in social intervention. It applies the concept of the Social Vocation of the Territory (SVT), adapted from Land Suitability concepts used in geography and environmental studies. SVT is a historical process in which land and local society adapt over time to reach equilibrium in specific uses of natural and social resources. Employing this concept on South American case studies, this article concludes that CBT can have limitations as an instrument of development cooperation and poverty reduction, because of increasing peasant differentiation, social unrest, problems with local decision making, lack of local tourism business knowledge and training, pseudo-participation, and work and time restructuring.  Use of the SVT concept can help CBT in certain very specific circumstances.

Este artigo incide na análise de um elemento de cultura material que foi alvo de activação patrimonial (nos finais da década de 90), incrementada pela indústria turística, assumindo desde então
novas funcionalidades e dinâmicas. O estudo circunscreve-se às levadas da Ilha da Madeira, um elemento patrimonial usado simultaneamente pela população local nas práticas de regadio, e pelos turistas, na contemplação e fruição da paisagem e do património. A capacidade de atracção registada
pelos seus múltiplos usos ao longo de várias décadas, leva-me a concluir que a sua ‘imagem de marca’ permanece no imaginário turístico, contribuindo assim, para que este elemento cultural identifique a ilha da Madeira como um destino turístico diferenciado.

This paper discusses the analysis of an element of material culture that suffered an ‘heritage’
activation (in the late 90s), enhanced by the tourist industry, assuming since then, new functions and dynamics. It studies the levadas of Madeira, a heritage element used by both local people in irrigation practices, and by tourists, in gazing landscape and heritage. The attractiveness recorded by its multiple uses over several decades, leads me to conclude that their ‘brand image’ remains in the touristic imagery, thus contributing to the identification of Madeira Island as a distinctive tourist destination.

The terms “overtourism” and “tourismphobia” arise from the flourishing evolution of unsustainable mass tourism practices and the response that these have generated amongst a number of individuals and civil societies concerned with the detrimental use of public spaces for tourism purposes and associated international and local development and management policies. Social movements have emerged across Europe and globally to address what is referred to as overtourism, a term associated with exploitative practices by policymakers and destination managers, leading to unsustainable tourism practices and unbearable conditions for those residing in the affected destinations. The paper will observe how Barcelona is facing a resistance movement that criticize the contemporary urban touristic model.

Tourism involves travel during a qualitatively different time. It is a social practice intrinsically connected with a particular use of time and space. This connection makes Russian literary critic Mikhail Bakhtin’s 1930s concept of chronotope attractive to scholars today.


Encyclopedia of Tourism contains 700 entries authored by 766 contributors from 113 countries.

Largely ignored over the years as a group worthy of serious academic research, grey nomads have recently become a topic of interest, in part due to Australia’s ageing population and resultant increases in the number of retirees with the time available to tour Australia and its regions in this manner.  Tourism bodies now view grey nomads as an important market niche and caravan and motorhome manufacturers foresee ongoing growth in their industry.  This thesis investigates how grey nomads make sense of their peripatetic lifestyle.  It uses an ethnographic approach to uncover how the grey nomad lifestyle is defined by respondents themselves.  Through analysis of field interviews, as well as field observations, the meanings and perspectives made by grey nomads are revealed and contextualised.
Drive tourism has been a feature of Australia’s domestic travel industry for many decades and the drive industry is nowadays driven by grey nomads.  Grey nomads are defined in this thesis as retirees who tour Australia in caravans, motorhomes and sometimes tents.  They have been a part of prevailing Australian culture for at least four decades.  A highly visible group, these retirees tow their caravans behind their large four wheel drives, or drive their motorhomes, along the city roads and regional highways of Australia.  Many form part of a seasonal migration route travelling north at the beginning of winter and returning south with the onset of spring.  Others do not return home, however.  They are the full-timers who tour for years at a time. 
The themes and issues which emerged from this qualitative research process are varied.  Grey nomads are a large, heterogeneous cohort of retirees who are little different from many other retired Australians in that they engage in the routines of quotidian life—domestic tasks and everyday relationships—even while touring.  They also have similar health outcomes to other Australian retirees but are seemingly resilient, adapting to the ongoing frailties of their ageing bodies in order to carry on touring for as long as possible.  Grey nomads have a desire to articulate territory through travel and, consequently, many of them hold a sense of stewardship over the landscape, and are sometimes censorious of those tourists who transgress (what some grey nomads conceive to be) environmentally sound touring practices.
This thesis also addresses changing discourses about grey nomads and how these reflect a change in the discursive context in which ageing—in general—is discussed.  In addition to this the research considers the future of the grey nomad lifestyle which, despite the predicted influx of grey nomads into regional Australia in the near future, and the ongoing economic boost this will give these regions, is under threat due to the declining number of caravan parks and caravan sites within Australia.

In the anthropological studies regarding the tourist practices in Japan it has been insistently argued that the main motivation channeling the tourism industry is based on a feeling of dissolution of the cultural identitiy. This anxiety culminating with the profit incentive manifest itself through tourism campaigns, pamhlets, brochures which in turn give shape to the the tourist experience. However this kind of arguments do not offer an insight into why Japanese show an interest in or emotionally react to certain things. In addition to that, contrary to the studies positioning tourist activities as an opposite of everyday life practices, this study aims to go beyond this dichotomy in order to give a better understanding of the Japanese travel culture.

El objetivo en este trabajo es ofrecer una descripción y análisis del proceso de apropiación territorial en la costa de Quintana Roo, tomando como observatorio el caso de Tulum, a fin de analizar las dinámicas de desarrollo del turismo y su influencia en la valoración de las tierras ejidales, la presión por espacios estratégicos, la expansión de la especulación y la participación de grupos de poder.

What have we learned since anthropologists first realized that tourists alter the societies they study? Intended for non-anthropologists, this paper explores this question and critiques the hegemony of business perspectives in tourism studies. It discusses tourism as a complex and fluid set of phenomena that cannot be reduced to one dimension, highlighting five points: (1) Tourism is one of the names of power. (2) The complex nature of tourism cannot be understood without studying socio-cultural processes. (3) The socio-ecological processes that construct territory determine and are determined by social space. (4) The industries of seduction create a corpus of desires through which socio-cultural groups forge their own identity. (5) Anthropological studies allow researchers to propose alternative forms of tourism development.

Zakynthos, niewielka wyspa na zachodzie Grecji, jest obecnie jednym z najpopularniejszych celów wakacyjnych podróży u wybrzeży Morza Śródziemnego. Wraz z liczbą wypoczywających zwiększa się również zasób narracji mówiących o tym miejscu. Kształtują one oczekiwania turystów i sposób ich percepcji. Obraz Zakynthos w wakacyjnych folderach różni się od rzeczywistości i nie znajduje odzwierciedlenia w realiach życia zamieszkującej wyspę ludności. Narracje, służąc interesom touroperatorów chcącym stworzyć alternatywny obraz świata, roztaczają przed wczasowiczami wizję raju. Sposób prowadzenia narracji przekłada się na doświadczenia turystów i formy organizacji ich wypoczynku, a także wpływa na zachowania mieszkańców wyspy, którzy, stając się przedmiotem opisu, dążą do przebudowy własnej tożsamości. Niniejsze studium przypadku oparte jest na kilkunastu miesiącach badań prowadzonych na Zakynthos.

El estudio del fenómeno del turismo es algo complejo, principalmente para una disciplina tan ambiciosa como la Antropología. De sus múltiples variables y facetas los antropólogos siempre encuentran alguna que satisfaga sus ansias de conocimiento. Sin embargo, y paradójicamente en Andalucía, el turismo, con ser la principal actividad económica de la región, no ha encontrado aún su sitio como legítimo campo de estudio socio-antropológico.
Como intentaré demostrar en las páginas que siguen, el interés socio-antropológico por este fenómeno no debe, ni tiene porque, restringirse a un clásico estudio etnológico sobre las implicaciones del mismo. El turismo, y concretamente el rural en el que me centraré por ser breve y conciso, posee ramificaciones no solo teóricas, en muchas de las líneas de investigación actuales, sino también de orden práctico en sus estudios puntuales. Sin ánimo de exhaustividad, enumeraré algunas de las principales relevancias que la antropología del turismo ofrece para la comprensión de la cultura andaluza.

This article examines five common misunderstandings about case-study research: (a) theoretical knowledge is more valuable than practical knowledge; (b) one cannot generalize from a single case, therefore, the single-case study cannot contribute to scientific development; (c) the case study is most useful for generating hypotheses, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building; (d) the case study contains a bias toward verification; and (e) it is often difficult to summarize specific case studies. This article explains and corrects these misunderstandings one by one and concludes with the Kuhnian insight that a scientific discipline without a large number of thoroughly executed case studies is a discipline without systematic production of exemplars, and a discipline without exemplars is an ineffective one. Social science may be strengthened by the execution of a greater number of good case studies.

Between September 12 and October 9 of 2000, the Western Archeological and Conservation Center (WACC) conducted archeological investigations of a historic trash dump at the Taft Toe Site (CA-MRP-70/H), a multicomponent site in Yosemite National Park (YOSE). This work was part of an assessment of the environmental risk posed by trash dumps in the park.  At the Taft Toe Site almost nine acres were surveyed and a total of four 1 m by 1 m excavation units were placed in two trash pit features. Glass, metal, ceramic, and faunal materials were the most prevalent artifacts recovered during testing. These items represented domestic activities which took place at restaurants and hotels in the Yosemite Valley, most likely the Sentinel Hotel and Camp Curry, between 1910 and 1925. The materials recovered through the excavation of the Taft Toe Site provide information relevant to the themes of tourism, and waste and wildlife management in the Yosemite Valley in the early decades of the twentieth century. Therefore, based on its information potential, the historic component of the Taft Toe Site appears eligible for the National Register of Historic Places.