Jeff Burton is the Cultural Resource Program Manager and Park Archeologist at Manzanar National Historic Site in California. Each year he leads volunteer projects uncovering Manzanar’s history, including restoring gardens built by imprisoned Japanese Americans during World War II. Jeff has traveled to Japan 10 times to study, work at, and help construct Japanese gardens. His archeological overview of Japanese American internment sites was cited in the national law that created the $38 million Japanese American Confinement Sites grant program. His work has also been pivotal in the establishment of National Park Service units at three other internment sites: Minidoka, Tule Lake, and Honouliuli. In 2017 he received an award for excellence from the Society for American Archaeology. He has published articles in academic journals and his work is featured in site tours, visitor handouts, and in an NHK-Japan documentary.
This report describes the results of archeological and preservation work at the site of the camou... more This report describes the results of archeological and preservation work at the site of the camouflage net factory at the former Manzanar Relocation Center, now a National Historic Site. The Manzanar Relocation Center was one of ten such facilities in the United States where nearly 120,000 Japanese immigrants and American citizens of Japanese ancestry were imprisoned during World War II. Initiated so those incarcerated at Manzanar could contribute to the war effort, the net factory became a flash point of discontent. Some believed working at the net factory would prove patriotism, and others believed the project took advantage of a captive work force who had already been adversely impacted by wartime hysteria and prejudice. The discontent led to the closure of the net factory after only six months, and its role in exacerbating internal divisions among the imprisoned Japanese Americans is an important part of Manzanar’s history. In fact, Manzanar National Historic Site’s driving tour road was routed next to the net factory location so that it would be accessible to all of Manzanar’s visitors.
Between 2009 and 2018, National Park Service staff and dozens of volunteers, as individuals, students, and service groups, spent over 170 person-days working at the net factory. The volunteers removed brush, uncovered foundations, screened sediments, and helped document and map the site. Features documented at the net factory include four large concrete slabs, where individual net-garnishing stations can still be discerned. Modifications for reuse of the buildings, after the net factory closed, are also evident. Other features recorded were rock alignments at an entrance road gate, two unidentified concrete structures, and an artifact concentration centered around a shallow depression. The overwhelming majority of artifacts recovered during the work were structural, reflecting the relatively substantial construction of the factory buildings. A variety of other artifacts attest to daily life, and may even reflect the patriotism of some of the workers.
The archeological and restoration work has also resulted in recommendations for additional public interpretation, further archeological investigations, and routine maintenance to help the camouflage net factory tell its important story.
This report describes the results of archeological and preservation projects conducted at the Man... more This report describes the results of archeological and preservation projects conducted at the Manzanar Chicken Ranch between 2009 and 2018. The Manzanar Relocation Center is one of ten such facilities where nearly 120,000 Japanese immigrants and American citizens of Japanese ancestry were imprisoned without trials or formal charges during World War II. An integral, but often overlooked, part of the Manzanar Relocation Center, the Chicken Ranch and other support facilities were added to the Manzanar National Historic Site in 1996 to better preserve, interpret, and memorialize the story of the Japanese American Relocation. The Chicken Ranch site attests to the effort and expense entailed in the mass incarceration, but it also conveys many other stories, such as how the incarcerees sustained themselves, both physically and mentally.
Led by National Park Service staff, over a hundred volunteers, as individuals, students, and service groups, spent 210 person-days doing archeological and restoration work at the Chicken Ranch. The volunteers removed brush, uncovered and documented foundations and other features, mapped the site, and repaired walls. Documented features include concrete slabs, rock alignments, retaining walls, landscaping, and an impressive rock and concrete fireplace. During construction, wet concrete provided canvases for 33 inscriptions, written in both English and Japanese to register names, initials, a former hometown, and perhaps a former employer. Some inscriptions express unhappiness and resentment, others suggest jokes and good humor. Over 1,200 artifacts were collected: most are structural remains, but some provide hints about daily activities at the Chicken Ranch, and some reflect use of the area before and after World War II.
The labor provided by the volunteers has transformed the Chicken Ranch from an overgrown and forgotten aspect of history to a powerful interpretive site. The work completed also illustrates the utility of archeology to engage the local and descendant communities, and to supplement the historic record. More work is recommended to leverage the Chicken Ranch’s interpretive potential into a greater understanding of this important facet of the relocation center, for both researchers and visitors.
In the spring of 2017 archeological investigations were conducted in Block 11 at Manzanar Nationa... more In the spring of 2017 archeological investigations were conducted in Block 11 at Manzanar National Historic Site. The primary purpose of this work was to recover a cache of marbles, buried at the site in 1945 by 10-year old Jim Matsuoka, as part of a documentary project by artist and social justice activist Kyoko Nakamaru.
This report presents the results of a public archeological project in Block 15 at Manzanar Nation... more This report presents the results of a public archeological project in Block 15 at Manzanar National Historic Site, in the high desert of eastern California. The Manzanar Relocation Center was one of ten such facilities in the United States where Japanese immigrants and American citizens of Japanese ancestry were imprisoned during World War II. The investigations integrated archival history and archeological excavations to find two pond gardens abandoned since 1945: the ponds had been completely buried, with no evidence of them visible on the surface. Both were Japanese gardens featuring irregularly shaped ponds. One, built by Issei (first generation immigrate) Kiichiro Muto and Shinichi Sugiwara, included waterfalls, a low-arched bridge, rustic stone lanterns, stepping stones made of recycled concrete slabs, and possibly a stylized pagoda. The other, built by Issei Yasiaji Nakata, featured scalloped edges and a large central island. The gardens were situated to be shared, and materials used in their construction suggest different procurement strategies. Other landscape features recorded in Block 15 are more western in style: an entry garden built by Nisei (second generation) Tom Muto, walkways, stoops, and other small improvements. Over 4,000 artifacts were encountered during the work, most of them structural materials. However, the artifacts also reflect family life and a range of activities. Food remains recovered include peach pits, egg shell, and chicken, pig, and fish bones; the fish represent at least 23 fish of over 10 different salt-water species. The archeological work in Block 15 provides insight into the ways Japanese Americans modified their environment to acquire the goods they needed to improve their lives under incarceration. Although immersed in American material culture and imprisoned for their ethnicity, the gardens and food remains show how the incarcerees maintained their Japanese heritage. The restored pond gardens are not only a reminder of the Japanese Americans who were incarcerated, but are also a symbol of the hope and resilience of the people who built them.
One of the most significant collections of Japanese gardens in North America, the gardens at Manz... more One of the most significant collections of Japanese gardens in North America, the gardens at Manzanar National Historic Site are important symbols of how the World War II Japanese American internees modified and improved their prison surroundings. Manzanar’s Japanese gardens incorporate stylistic concepts and design elements developed over hundreds of years of garden-building tradition, and reflect Japanese history, culture, world-view, religion, and aesthetics. The gardens are character-defining elements of Manzanar’s cultural landscape. In addition, they are also important in their own right, meeting all four criteria required for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places, and many of the criteria for National Historic Landmarks.
In Manzanar’s General Management Plan and subsequent planning documents, the restoration and rehabilitation of gardens was identified as a priority. This Garden Management Plan identifies specific treatments to meet the goals set forth in the General Management Plan. Implementing the Garden Management Plan will provide the public with the opportunity to see the full range of gardens types at Manzanar.
All work will be designed to comply with the Secretary of the Interior’s Standards and Guidelines for the Treatment of Historic Properties. To meet the Historic Site’s sustainability objectives, new planted vegetation will be drought-resistant and non-invasive, and any irrigation and water features installed will utilize water-saving techniques. Gardens will be suitable for accessible interpretation, with barrier-free paths and the potential for different forms of interpretive media.
Three gardens located along the driving tour road would be planted with vegetation and their water features would be recreated: • Block 33 Arai Fish Pond. • Block 34 Mess Hall Garden (San-shi-en). • Merritt Park. These gardens represent a family barracks garden, a mess hall garden, and the most well-known community park at Manzanar. Because of their proximity to each other and the tour road they could easily be accessed on a single walking tour.Water can be brought to these three gardens relatively easily thanks to a nearby well and orchard irrigation pipeline.
In the administration area, two gardens would be restored and maintained in their original historic condition, to show the differences between the gardens internees built for the Caucasian staff versus for themselves: • Entrance Garden. • Administration Circle Garden. These are dry gardens with rocks, Joshua trees, and cactus. Although they may require occasional hand-watering and periodic plant replacement, no irrigation system is needed.
Manzanar was the only relocation center with an orphanage, so the Children’s Village and the adjacent Cherry Park would be partially restored as particularly poignant symbols of the internment. Archeological excavation would be necessary to further identify and document features to be restored.
To enhance interpretation in the Demonstration Block, small lawns and gardens in Block 14 would be rehabilitated where there is a replica building to provide the appropriate context and where historic and archeological data provide sufficient information for an accurate replacement. Important character-defining features or attributes at the Hospital garden and the Block 9, 12, and 22 mess hall gardens would be restored. Several other important gardens are known from historic records and oral histories; archeological investigations are necessary to uncover them and assess their condition.
The majority of Manzanar’s gardens would be stabilized and maintained as-is. For these gardens, preservation in their state of abandonment will allow the gardens to evoke the dry, harsh conditions of Manzanar when internees arrived, and the inexorable way the desert has reclaimed the site.
Implementation of the Garden Management Plan is dependent upon supplemental project funding, but could be accomplished with current staffing. Stabilization, regular routine maintenance, monitoring, and staff training will be necessary to ensure long-term success.
The impact of implementation of the Garden Management Plan is expected to be significant: visitors who come mainly to see the restored gardens will learn more about the internment; visitors who come mainly to learn about internment will learn more about how internees coped with confinement. The gardens will draw people out into the site itself, to experience a tangible connection to the past. Manzanar’s gardens were important in the past and remain so today, as physical manifestations of adaptation, resistance, resilience, and hope. The National Park Service is committed to preserving this vital cultural, educational, aesthetic, and inspirational legacy of for future generations.
This report presents the results of the research and restoration of the Arai Family Pond, at Manz... more This report presents the results of the research and restoration of the Arai Family Pond, at Manzanar National Historic Site in the Owens Valley of eastern California. The Manzanar Relocation Center was one of ten such facilities at which Japanese American citizens and Japanese immigrants were interned during World War II. The research for this project integrated oral history, archival history, and archeological investigations to find the pond that had been built by Jack Hanshiro Arai. Abandoned for decades, the pond had been buried, with little evidence of it visible on the surface. Archeological excavation revealed the pond to be irregular in shape, 22 by 22 feet in size, and up to 2½ feet deep. Bordered with rocks, the concrete-lined pond included three islands, a fish tunnel, and water lily boxes. Other landscaping features in the area between the two barracks were also uncovered, including rock alignments, concrete pads, stepping stones, and a small stream channel. Over 2,000 artifacts were recovered, most of them nails and broken glass. However, the artifacts also included over 300 marbles, other toys, whole beverage bottles, abalone shells, eating utensils, and pond plant remains. The results of the investigation provide insight into the ways one imprisoned family modified their environment to improve their surroundings.
In 2002 archeological investigations were undertaken in Block 8 at Manzanar National Historic Si... more In 2002 archeological investigations were undertaken in Block 8 at Manzanar National Historic Site. Work included (1) tabulation of all surface artifacts; (2) clearing and recording of visible surface features, (3) collection of diagnostic or unusual surface artifacts, and (4) subsurface testing.
Between December 1999 and April 2001 the Western Archeological and Conservation Center of the Nat... more Between December 1999 and April 2001 the Western Archeological and Conservation Center of the National Park Service conducted archeological investigations at the relocation center cemetery in Manzanar National Historic Site. A total of 19 surface features were investigated; 104 square meters and 210 linear meters of trench were excavated. In addition an area of 575 square meters was scraped to depths of up to 10 cm. This work discovered that many of the rock outlines and grave markers present at the start of the project bore little correspondence to historical records or actual cemetery conditions. It was determined that there had been no more than 15 burials in the cemetery originally and of these, only six remain. As a part of this project, graves with human remains were marked with rock outlines and mounded with earth; former graves were marked with rock outlines. Post markers, a returned headstone, and a small plot fence were also replaced. The concrete cemetery monument built by the internees was cleaned and repainted.
Vases that once held floral arrangements that adorned the graves and cemetery monument during the relocation center occupation, as well as the abundant remains of hand-made artificial flowers, were found during the excavations. As part of the cemetery clean-up when the relocation center closed in 1946, the vases and flower remains apparently had been removed from individual graves and the monument and buried. The archeological work also identified the location of the original internee-constructed fence, so that it could be accurately reconstructed. The location of a 1970s fence refurbished by the Manzanar Committee and clues about the location of a 1946 fence built by the War Relocation Authority were likewise uncovered. Traces of occupations prior to the relocation center were found as well. A concrete pipeline, an earthen ditch, and buried tree stumps from an orchard planted by the residents of the 1910-1930s town of Manzanar were encountered within the cemetery, and a small roasting pit and a few scattered artifacts indicate use of the immediate area by Native American Indians possibly as early as A.D. 600.
Western Archeological and Conservation Center, National Park Service, 2000
Between July 6 and 16, and September 13 and 16, 1999, I was in charge of archeological excavation... more Between July 6 and 16, and September 13 and 16, 1999, I was in charge of archeological excavations at Manzanar National Historic Site. The primary purpose of the work was to locate and document through archeological excavation the remains of security features from the World War II Manzanar Relocation Center. These included watchtowers, portions of the perimeter security fence, features at the main relocation center entrance, and an evacuee-built sentry post at the military police compound (Figure 1). Manzanar National Historic Site has been awarded a " Save America's Treasures Planning Fund " grant which includes funding to reconstruct the original perimeter security fence and one of the eight watchtowers. These features are integral parts of the history of the relocation center. However, the fences and watchtowers have been subject to much debate and are some of the most contentious issues at Manzanar. In fact, their mere existence has been disputed in spite of their depiction on WRA blueprints and in historical photographs. Archeological excavation is necessary for the accurate reconstruction of the fence and watchtower, critical at such a controversial park. Archeological excavation to locate remains entailed making wide shallow exposures with a front-end loader, backhoe trenching, and hand excavation. None of the sediments were screened. Extant features, War Relocation Authority blueprints, 1944 aerial photographs, and other historical photographs were used to guide this work. All discovered features were mapped and photographed. Fence post locations were marked by rebar and PVC pipe. Markers (coins or flagging) were placed in each excavation prior to backfilling. The crew for this project consisted of WACC archeologists Ron Beckwith, Ian Hough, and Charny White. We were assisted in the field by park superintendent Ross Hopkins and backhoe operator Tom Dews of South County Construction (Olancha, California). A total of 68 person-days were spent on field work. The archeological work is considered an agency responsibility under Section 110 of the National Historic Preservation Act. Results are discussed below, however the bulk of the data collected is presented in Figures 2 through 23.
The National Park Service conducted archeological investigations at 23 sites, features, and loci ... more The National Park Service conducted archeological investigations at 23 sites, features, and loci along U.S. Highway 395 within and around the Manzanar National Historic Site in Inyo County, California. Caltrans has proposed upgrading the current two-lane highway in the vicinity of the National Historic Site to a four-lane divided highway. The archaeological work was deemed necessary to determine the research potential of the cultural resources and to make recommendations about how the resources should be managed. Archaeological field work included mapping, artifact inventory and collection, and subsurface testing. Most the investigated sites are associated with the town of Manzanar and date to between 1910 and the early 1930s. Two of the sites have earlier historical components and three have prehistoric components. Six are associated with the World War II Manzanar Relocation Center and nine are more recent (post 1945). Most of the Relocation Center features in the project area are significant, three of the town-era sites are significant for their information potential, and the one single-component prehistoric site tested may be significant, depending upon whether there are substantial subsurface cultural deposits in addition to those found during these investigations. All of the significant or potentially significant sites or features are located west of the existing highway and would not be physically affected by the proposed highway widening. However, the highway itself is part of the historic Relocation Center-era landscape. It is recommended that its two-lane character be retained as a frontage road, and that the new divided highway be located to the east.
This report presents the results of archeological investigations at Manzanar National Historic Si... more This report presents the results of archeological investigations at Manzanar National Historic Site in the Owens Valley of eastern California. The Manzanar Relocation Center was one of ten such facilities at which Japanese American citizens and Japanese immigrants were interned during World War II. The archeological work was designed to inventory and evaluate all historical and prehistoric archeological resources within the National Historic Site, as well as other archeological resources near the National Historic Site related to the relocation center. Three major categories of remains were encountered: (1) those associated with the Manzanar Relocation Center; (2) those associated with the early twentieth century abandoned Manzanar townsite; and (3) those associated with late prehistoric and early historical Native American Indian use of the area. In all, 14 Native American Indian sites, dozens of sites and features associated with the townsite and earlier ranches, and all of the known features of the relocation center have been fully recorded. This project also included test excavation at four of the Native American Indian sites, four sites associated with the town of Manzanar, and three relocation center features. In spite of historical and recent disturbance, the preservation of features and artifacts is far better than initially evident. Each of the identified components was found to have excellent archeological and interpretive potential.
During World War II, the U.S. incarcerated at Honouliuli not only prisoners of war but also diver... more During World War II, the U.S. incarcerated at Honouliuli not only prisoners of war but also diverse U.S. citizens and resident aliens under the authority of martial law. Th is history was long forgotten until 2002, when the Japanese Cultural Center of Hawai‘i (JCCH) rediscovered the site, which had been known as Jigoku-Dani, or Hell Valley, to some of its civilian prisoners. Archaeological investigations undertaken by the JCCH and the University of Hawai‘i West O‘ahu (UHWO) led to the Honouliuli Internment and Prisoner of War Camp Site (State Site No. 50-80-08-9068) being listed on the National Register of Historic Places on February 21, 2012 at the national level of significance. As an internment site, Honouliuli represents the fragility of constitutional rights and the effects of martial law; as a POW camp, Honouliuli exemplifies the management of enemy troops, as the military balanced the need for national security and the need to comply with the Geneva convention. Thanks to the efforts of the JCCH, the National Park Service, UHWO scholars, the public, Hawai’i legislators, and Monsanto Hawai‘i, which owned the land, the site was designated the Honouliuli National Monument by President Barack Obama on February 24, 2015. To facilitate the Park Service’s management, this report summarizes the archaeological work conducted before the site became a National Monument. It compiles information from several previous reports and the National Register nomination, and incorporates the results of the 2014 UHWO field session, the last before the site became a unit of the National Park Service.
Th is report, sponsored by the Japanese Cultural Center of Hawai‘i, describes what is left at 23 ... more Th is report, sponsored by the Japanese Cultural Center of Hawai‘i, describes what is left at 23 sites associated with the incarceration of civilians in Hawai‘i during World War II. Most of the civilians incarcerated were community leaders; many were U.S. citizens; some were targeted simply because they had helped immigrants with paperwork and forms required by their home country. Seven of the sites had been identified in a previous archaeological overview conducted ten years ago; since that time, researchers associated with the Japanese Cultural Center of Hawai‘i, University of Hawai‘i West O‘ahu, Maui Nisei Veterans Memorial Center, Kapi’olani Community College, National Park Service, and others have identified additional locations associated with the internment.
Some of the sites look much like they did 75 years ago, and would be instantly recognized by those who were unconstitutionally incarcerated. Some of the sites have been completely razed, and in a couple cases, paved over: these locations were discovered by correlating archival information and historic maps with oral histories and local expertise. The sites are spread over six of Hawai‘i’s seven populated islands, from sea level to 4,000 feet elevation, from downtown Honolulu to isolated valleys.
All 23 sites are potent symbols of injustice undertaken in the name of national security. This report includes the author’s recommendations for research, preservation, interpretation, and commemoration so that these places can honor the legacy of those who were unjustly interned, and remind us how we need to be vigilant and wise to live up to the U.S. Constitution and our American ideals.
This report describes the results of archeological and preservation work at the site of the camou... more This report describes the results of archeological and preservation work at the site of the camouflage net factory at the former Manzanar Relocation Center, now a National Historic Site. The Manzanar Relocation Center was one of ten such facilities in the United States where nearly 120,000 Japanese immigrants and American citizens of Japanese ancestry were imprisoned during World War II. Initiated so those incarcerated at Manzanar could contribute to the war effort, the net factory became a flash point of discontent. Some believed working at the net factory would prove patriotism, and others believed the project took advantage of a captive work force who had already been adversely impacted by wartime hysteria and prejudice. The discontent led to the closure of the net factory after only six months, and its role in exacerbating internal divisions among the imprisoned Japanese Americans is an important part of Manzanar’s history. In fact, Manzanar National Historic Site’s driving tour road was routed next to the net factory location so that it would be accessible to all of Manzanar’s visitors.
Between 2009 and 2018, National Park Service staff and dozens of volunteers, as individuals, students, and service groups, spent over 170 person-days working at the net factory. The volunteers removed brush, uncovered foundations, screened sediments, and helped document and map the site. Features documented at the net factory include four large concrete slabs, where individual net-garnishing stations can still be discerned. Modifications for reuse of the buildings, after the net factory closed, are also evident. Other features recorded were rock alignments at an entrance road gate, two unidentified concrete structures, and an artifact concentration centered around a shallow depression. The overwhelming majority of artifacts recovered during the work were structural, reflecting the relatively substantial construction of the factory buildings. A variety of other artifacts attest to daily life, and may even reflect the patriotism of some of the workers.
The archeological and restoration work has also resulted in recommendations for additional public interpretation, further archeological investigations, and routine maintenance to help the camouflage net factory tell its important story.
This report describes the results of archeological and preservation projects conducted at the Man... more This report describes the results of archeological and preservation projects conducted at the Manzanar Chicken Ranch between 2009 and 2018. The Manzanar Relocation Center is one of ten such facilities where nearly 120,000 Japanese immigrants and American citizens of Japanese ancestry were imprisoned without trials or formal charges during World War II. An integral, but often overlooked, part of the Manzanar Relocation Center, the Chicken Ranch and other support facilities were added to the Manzanar National Historic Site in 1996 to better preserve, interpret, and memorialize the story of the Japanese American Relocation. The Chicken Ranch site attests to the effort and expense entailed in the mass incarceration, but it also conveys many other stories, such as how the incarcerees sustained themselves, both physically and mentally.
Led by National Park Service staff, over a hundred volunteers, as individuals, students, and service groups, spent 210 person-days doing archeological and restoration work at the Chicken Ranch. The volunteers removed brush, uncovered and documented foundations and other features, mapped the site, and repaired walls. Documented features include concrete slabs, rock alignments, retaining walls, landscaping, and an impressive rock and concrete fireplace. During construction, wet concrete provided canvases for 33 inscriptions, written in both English and Japanese to register names, initials, a former hometown, and perhaps a former employer. Some inscriptions express unhappiness and resentment, others suggest jokes and good humor. Over 1,200 artifacts were collected: most are structural remains, but some provide hints about daily activities at the Chicken Ranch, and some reflect use of the area before and after World War II.
The labor provided by the volunteers has transformed the Chicken Ranch from an overgrown and forgotten aspect of history to a powerful interpretive site. The work completed also illustrates the utility of archeology to engage the local and descendant communities, and to supplement the historic record. More work is recommended to leverage the Chicken Ranch’s interpretive potential into a greater understanding of this important facet of the relocation center, for both researchers and visitors.
In the spring of 2017 archeological investigations were conducted in Block 11 at Manzanar Nationa... more In the spring of 2017 archeological investigations were conducted in Block 11 at Manzanar National Historic Site. The primary purpose of this work was to recover a cache of marbles, buried at the site in 1945 by 10-year old Jim Matsuoka, as part of a documentary project by artist and social justice activist Kyoko Nakamaru.
This report presents the results of a public archeological project in Block 15 at Manzanar Nation... more This report presents the results of a public archeological project in Block 15 at Manzanar National Historic Site, in the high desert of eastern California. The Manzanar Relocation Center was one of ten such facilities in the United States where Japanese immigrants and American citizens of Japanese ancestry were imprisoned during World War II. The investigations integrated archival history and archeological excavations to find two pond gardens abandoned since 1945: the ponds had been completely buried, with no evidence of them visible on the surface. Both were Japanese gardens featuring irregularly shaped ponds. One, built by Issei (first generation immigrate) Kiichiro Muto and Shinichi Sugiwara, included waterfalls, a low-arched bridge, rustic stone lanterns, stepping stones made of recycled concrete slabs, and possibly a stylized pagoda. The other, built by Issei Yasiaji Nakata, featured scalloped edges and a large central island. The gardens were situated to be shared, and materials used in their construction suggest different procurement strategies. Other landscape features recorded in Block 15 are more western in style: an entry garden built by Nisei (second generation) Tom Muto, walkways, stoops, and other small improvements. Over 4,000 artifacts were encountered during the work, most of them structural materials. However, the artifacts also reflect family life and a range of activities. Food remains recovered include peach pits, egg shell, and chicken, pig, and fish bones; the fish represent at least 23 fish of over 10 different salt-water species. The archeological work in Block 15 provides insight into the ways Japanese Americans modified their environment to acquire the goods they needed to improve their lives under incarceration. Although immersed in American material culture and imprisoned for their ethnicity, the gardens and food remains show how the incarcerees maintained their Japanese heritage. The restored pond gardens are not only a reminder of the Japanese Americans who were incarcerated, but are also a symbol of the hope and resilience of the people who built them.
One of the most significant collections of Japanese gardens in North America, the gardens at Manz... more One of the most significant collections of Japanese gardens in North America, the gardens at Manzanar National Historic Site are important symbols of how the World War II Japanese American internees modified and improved their prison surroundings. Manzanar’s Japanese gardens incorporate stylistic concepts and design elements developed over hundreds of years of garden-building tradition, and reflect Japanese history, culture, world-view, religion, and aesthetics. The gardens are character-defining elements of Manzanar’s cultural landscape. In addition, they are also important in their own right, meeting all four criteria required for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places, and many of the criteria for National Historic Landmarks.
In Manzanar’s General Management Plan and subsequent planning documents, the restoration and rehabilitation of gardens was identified as a priority. This Garden Management Plan identifies specific treatments to meet the goals set forth in the General Management Plan. Implementing the Garden Management Plan will provide the public with the opportunity to see the full range of gardens types at Manzanar.
All work will be designed to comply with the Secretary of the Interior’s Standards and Guidelines for the Treatment of Historic Properties. To meet the Historic Site’s sustainability objectives, new planted vegetation will be drought-resistant and non-invasive, and any irrigation and water features installed will utilize water-saving techniques. Gardens will be suitable for accessible interpretation, with barrier-free paths and the potential for different forms of interpretive media.
Three gardens located along the driving tour road would be planted with vegetation and their water features would be recreated: • Block 33 Arai Fish Pond. • Block 34 Mess Hall Garden (San-shi-en). • Merritt Park. These gardens represent a family barracks garden, a mess hall garden, and the most well-known community park at Manzanar. Because of their proximity to each other and the tour road they could easily be accessed on a single walking tour.Water can be brought to these three gardens relatively easily thanks to a nearby well and orchard irrigation pipeline.
In the administration area, two gardens would be restored and maintained in their original historic condition, to show the differences between the gardens internees built for the Caucasian staff versus for themselves: • Entrance Garden. • Administration Circle Garden. These are dry gardens with rocks, Joshua trees, and cactus. Although they may require occasional hand-watering and periodic plant replacement, no irrigation system is needed.
Manzanar was the only relocation center with an orphanage, so the Children’s Village and the adjacent Cherry Park would be partially restored as particularly poignant symbols of the internment. Archeological excavation would be necessary to further identify and document features to be restored.
To enhance interpretation in the Demonstration Block, small lawns and gardens in Block 14 would be rehabilitated where there is a replica building to provide the appropriate context and where historic and archeological data provide sufficient information for an accurate replacement. Important character-defining features or attributes at the Hospital garden and the Block 9, 12, and 22 mess hall gardens would be restored. Several other important gardens are known from historic records and oral histories; archeological investigations are necessary to uncover them and assess their condition.
The majority of Manzanar’s gardens would be stabilized and maintained as-is. For these gardens, preservation in their state of abandonment will allow the gardens to evoke the dry, harsh conditions of Manzanar when internees arrived, and the inexorable way the desert has reclaimed the site.
Implementation of the Garden Management Plan is dependent upon supplemental project funding, but could be accomplished with current staffing. Stabilization, regular routine maintenance, monitoring, and staff training will be necessary to ensure long-term success.
The impact of implementation of the Garden Management Plan is expected to be significant: visitors who come mainly to see the restored gardens will learn more about the internment; visitors who come mainly to learn about internment will learn more about how internees coped with confinement. The gardens will draw people out into the site itself, to experience a tangible connection to the past. Manzanar’s gardens were important in the past and remain so today, as physical manifestations of adaptation, resistance, resilience, and hope. The National Park Service is committed to preserving this vital cultural, educational, aesthetic, and inspirational legacy of for future generations.
This report presents the results of the research and restoration of the Arai Family Pond, at Manz... more This report presents the results of the research and restoration of the Arai Family Pond, at Manzanar National Historic Site in the Owens Valley of eastern California. The Manzanar Relocation Center was one of ten such facilities at which Japanese American citizens and Japanese immigrants were interned during World War II. The research for this project integrated oral history, archival history, and archeological investigations to find the pond that had been built by Jack Hanshiro Arai. Abandoned for decades, the pond had been buried, with little evidence of it visible on the surface. Archeological excavation revealed the pond to be irregular in shape, 22 by 22 feet in size, and up to 2½ feet deep. Bordered with rocks, the concrete-lined pond included three islands, a fish tunnel, and water lily boxes. Other landscaping features in the area between the two barracks were also uncovered, including rock alignments, concrete pads, stepping stones, and a small stream channel. Over 2,000 artifacts were recovered, most of them nails and broken glass. However, the artifacts also included over 300 marbles, other toys, whole beverage bottles, abalone shells, eating utensils, and pond plant remains. The results of the investigation provide insight into the ways one imprisoned family modified their environment to improve their surroundings.
In 2002 archeological investigations were undertaken in Block 8 at Manzanar National Historic Si... more In 2002 archeological investigations were undertaken in Block 8 at Manzanar National Historic Site. Work included (1) tabulation of all surface artifacts; (2) clearing and recording of visible surface features, (3) collection of diagnostic or unusual surface artifacts, and (4) subsurface testing.
Between December 1999 and April 2001 the Western Archeological and Conservation Center of the Nat... more Between December 1999 and April 2001 the Western Archeological and Conservation Center of the National Park Service conducted archeological investigations at the relocation center cemetery in Manzanar National Historic Site. A total of 19 surface features were investigated; 104 square meters and 210 linear meters of trench were excavated. In addition an area of 575 square meters was scraped to depths of up to 10 cm. This work discovered that many of the rock outlines and grave markers present at the start of the project bore little correspondence to historical records or actual cemetery conditions. It was determined that there had been no more than 15 burials in the cemetery originally and of these, only six remain. As a part of this project, graves with human remains were marked with rock outlines and mounded with earth; former graves were marked with rock outlines. Post markers, a returned headstone, and a small plot fence were also replaced. The concrete cemetery monument built by the internees was cleaned and repainted.
Vases that once held floral arrangements that adorned the graves and cemetery monument during the relocation center occupation, as well as the abundant remains of hand-made artificial flowers, were found during the excavations. As part of the cemetery clean-up when the relocation center closed in 1946, the vases and flower remains apparently had been removed from individual graves and the monument and buried. The archeological work also identified the location of the original internee-constructed fence, so that it could be accurately reconstructed. The location of a 1970s fence refurbished by the Manzanar Committee and clues about the location of a 1946 fence built by the War Relocation Authority were likewise uncovered. Traces of occupations prior to the relocation center were found as well. A concrete pipeline, an earthen ditch, and buried tree stumps from an orchard planted by the residents of the 1910-1930s town of Manzanar were encountered within the cemetery, and a small roasting pit and a few scattered artifacts indicate use of the immediate area by Native American Indians possibly as early as A.D. 600.
Western Archeological and Conservation Center, National Park Service, 2000
Between July 6 and 16, and September 13 and 16, 1999, I was in charge of archeological excavation... more Between July 6 and 16, and September 13 and 16, 1999, I was in charge of archeological excavations at Manzanar National Historic Site. The primary purpose of the work was to locate and document through archeological excavation the remains of security features from the World War II Manzanar Relocation Center. These included watchtowers, portions of the perimeter security fence, features at the main relocation center entrance, and an evacuee-built sentry post at the military police compound (Figure 1). Manzanar National Historic Site has been awarded a " Save America's Treasures Planning Fund " grant which includes funding to reconstruct the original perimeter security fence and one of the eight watchtowers. These features are integral parts of the history of the relocation center. However, the fences and watchtowers have been subject to much debate and are some of the most contentious issues at Manzanar. In fact, their mere existence has been disputed in spite of their depiction on WRA blueprints and in historical photographs. Archeological excavation is necessary for the accurate reconstruction of the fence and watchtower, critical at such a controversial park. Archeological excavation to locate remains entailed making wide shallow exposures with a front-end loader, backhoe trenching, and hand excavation. None of the sediments were screened. Extant features, War Relocation Authority blueprints, 1944 aerial photographs, and other historical photographs were used to guide this work. All discovered features were mapped and photographed. Fence post locations were marked by rebar and PVC pipe. Markers (coins or flagging) were placed in each excavation prior to backfilling. The crew for this project consisted of WACC archeologists Ron Beckwith, Ian Hough, and Charny White. We were assisted in the field by park superintendent Ross Hopkins and backhoe operator Tom Dews of South County Construction (Olancha, California). A total of 68 person-days were spent on field work. The archeological work is considered an agency responsibility under Section 110 of the National Historic Preservation Act. Results are discussed below, however the bulk of the data collected is presented in Figures 2 through 23.
The National Park Service conducted archeological investigations at 23 sites, features, and loci ... more The National Park Service conducted archeological investigations at 23 sites, features, and loci along U.S. Highway 395 within and around the Manzanar National Historic Site in Inyo County, California. Caltrans has proposed upgrading the current two-lane highway in the vicinity of the National Historic Site to a four-lane divided highway. The archaeological work was deemed necessary to determine the research potential of the cultural resources and to make recommendations about how the resources should be managed. Archaeological field work included mapping, artifact inventory and collection, and subsurface testing. Most the investigated sites are associated with the town of Manzanar and date to between 1910 and the early 1930s. Two of the sites have earlier historical components and three have prehistoric components. Six are associated with the World War II Manzanar Relocation Center and nine are more recent (post 1945). Most of the Relocation Center features in the project area are significant, three of the town-era sites are significant for their information potential, and the one single-component prehistoric site tested may be significant, depending upon whether there are substantial subsurface cultural deposits in addition to those found during these investigations. All of the significant or potentially significant sites or features are located west of the existing highway and would not be physically affected by the proposed highway widening. However, the highway itself is part of the historic Relocation Center-era landscape. It is recommended that its two-lane character be retained as a frontage road, and that the new divided highway be located to the east.
This report presents the results of archeological investigations at Manzanar National Historic Si... more This report presents the results of archeological investigations at Manzanar National Historic Site in the Owens Valley of eastern California. The Manzanar Relocation Center was one of ten such facilities at which Japanese American citizens and Japanese immigrants were interned during World War II. The archeological work was designed to inventory and evaluate all historical and prehistoric archeological resources within the National Historic Site, as well as other archeological resources near the National Historic Site related to the relocation center. Three major categories of remains were encountered: (1) those associated with the Manzanar Relocation Center; (2) those associated with the early twentieth century abandoned Manzanar townsite; and (3) those associated with late prehistoric and early historical Native American Indian use of the area. In all, 14 Native American Indian sites, dozens of sites and features associated with the townsite and earlier ranches, and all of the known features of the relocation center have been fully recorded. This project also included test excavation at four of the Native American Indian sites, four sites associated with the town of Manzanar, and three relocation center features. In spite of historical and recent disturbance, the preservation of features and artifacts is far better than initially evident. Each of the identified components was found to have excellent archeological and interpretive potential.
During World War II, the U.S. incarcerated at Honouliuli not only prisoners of war but also diver... more During World War II, the U.S. incarcerated at Honouliuli not only prisoners of war but also diverse U.S. citizens and resident aliens under the authority of martial law. Th is history was long forgotten until 2002, when the Japanese Cultural Center of Hawai‘i (JCCH) rediscovered the site, which had been known as Jigoku-Dani, or Hell Valley, to some of its civilian prisoners. Archaeological investigations undertaken by the JCCH and the University of Hawai‘i West O‘ahu (UHWO) led to the Honouliuli Internment and Prisoner of War Camp Site (State Site No. 50-80-08-9068) being listed on the National Register of Historic Places on February 21, 2012 at the national level of significance. As an internment site, Honouliuli represents the fragility of constitutional rights and the effects of martial law; as a POW camp, Honouliuli exemplifies the management of enemy troops, as the military balanced the need for national security and the need to comply with the Geneva convention. Thanks to the efforts of the JCCH, the National Park Service, UHWO scholars, the public, Hawai’i legislators, and Monsanto Hawai‘i, which owned the land, the site was designated the Honouliuli National Monument by President Barack Obama on February 24, 2015. To facilitate the Park Service’s management, this report summarizes the archaeological work conducted before the site became a National Monument. It compiles information from several previous reports and the National Register nomination, and incorporates the results of the 2014 UHWO field session, the last before the site became a unit of the National Park Service.
Th is report, sponsored by the Japanese Cultural Center of Hawai‘i, describes what is left at 23 ... more Th is report, sponsored by the Japanese Cultural Center of Hawai‘i, describes what is left at 23 sites associated with the incarceration of civilians in Hawai‘i during World War II. Most of the civilians incarcerated were community leaders; many were U.S. citizens; some were targeted simply because they had helped immigrants with paperwork and forms required by their home country. Seven of the sites had been identified in a previous archaeological overview conducted ten years ago; since that time, researchers associated with the Japanese Cultural Center of Hawai‘i, University of Hawai‘i West O‘ahu, Maui Nisei Veterans Memorial Center, Kapi’olani Community College, National Park Service, and others have identified additional locations associated with the internment.
Some of the sites look much like they did 75 years ago, and would be instantly recognized by those who were unconstitutionally incarcerated. Some of the sites have been completely razed, and in a couple cases, paved over: these locations were discovered by correlating archival information and historic maps with oral histories and local expertise. The sites are spread over six of Hawai‘i’s seven populated islands, from sea level to 4,000 feet elevation, from downtown Honolulu to isolated valleys.
All 23 sites are potent symbols of injustice undertaken in the name of national security. This report includes the author’s recommendations for research, preservation, interpretation, and commemoration so that these places can honor the legacy of those who were unjustly interned, and remind us how we need to be vigilant and wise to live up to the U.S. Constitution and our American ideals.
Critical Public Archaeology: Confronting Social Challenges in the 21st Century , 2022
Manzanar National Historic Site was established by the U.S. Congress in 1992 to commemorate an ig... more Manzanar National Historic Site was established by the U.S. Congress in 1992 to commemorate an ignominious episode in American history: the mass incarceration of 120,000 civilians during World War II. Most of those incarcerated were U.S. citizens; the majority of the others were immigrants who had lived in the country for many years but who had been denied citizenship because of racist laws. Their only “crime” was sharing ethnicity with a military enemy, the Empire of Japan. Those incarcerated included men, women, and children, even orphans and U.S. military veterans; they lost billions of dollars’ worth of homes, farms, and businesses; the social and psychological losses are incalculable. During World War II the “Relocation,” as it was euphemistically called, was justified as a military necessity, but 40 years later a U.S. government commission determined that the incarceration was caused by racial prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership. Since 2003, community archaeology projects at Manzanar have enlisted hundreds of volunteers to investigate the physical traces of this history. Project priorities are driven by the descendant community through collaborative planning between the National Park Service and the public. Diverse volunteers, including former incarcerees and their families, have uncovered not only some the massive infrastructure built to house Manzanar’s 10,000 prisoners, but also the ways that the prisoners modified their environment. Many of these improvements indicate the incarcerees were proud of their Japanese heritage, even though they were being persecuted for it. Ornamental gardens show the incarcerees’ concern for their community, and their hope for the future, while hidden graffiti express disillusionment and anger. In addition, the archaeological projects have uncovered evidence of earlier occupations, and given voice to pre-World War II inhabitants of the area. The community archaeological projects both expand and contradict the dominant narratives of the mass incarceration, demonstrating the value of conducting archaeology even at relatively recent sites. The projects also provide a benign starting point for discussing racism and the treatment of immigrants, and how human decency, civil rights, and the U.S. Constitution can be casually set aside in the name of national security.
Seventy-eight years ago, James Hatsuaki Wakasa was shot and killed while walking his dog in the U... more Seventy-eight years ago, James Hatsuaki Wakasa was shot and killed while walking his dog in the Utah desert. In a finding that would sound all too familiar to today’s Black Lives Matter protesters, an official inquiry determined that the killing was a “justifiable military action.” Mr. Wakasa’s fellow incarcerees at the World War II Topaz Relocation Center may not have agreed: a memorial was erected to Mr. Wakasa near where he was killed. The military and the Topaz administration quickly ordered the monument destroyed. If, as they claimed, the killing of an innocent man walking his dog was justified, it was “most inappropriate that a monument be erected to him.”
When Nancy Ukai, director of the “50 Objects/50 Stories” project, shared with us a map she had found in the National Archives that documented the precise location of the 1943 killing, we authors traveled the 500 miles from our home to Topaz to learn if any traces of the monument remained.
In: Jameson J., Musteaţă S. (eds), Transforming Heritage Practice in the 21st Century. One World Archaeology, Springer, 2019
Sometimes part of a community’s heritage is buried not just physically but also historically. For... more Sometimes part of a community’s heritage is buried not just physically but also historically. For decades, there was a widespread belief that there had been no internment of civilians in Hawai‘i during World War II, even as numerous scholars and activists chronicled the mass removal and incarceration of Japanese Americans from the west coast of the USA. When members of the Japanese American community in Hawai‘i learned of the existence of Honouliuli prison camp, community archaeology verified the location and determined what remained. Volunteers, students, and professionals collaborated in fieldwork and research to uncover the archaeological evidence of a hidden history, in which the US incarcerated citizens of a variety of ethnic and social backgrounds without cause, under the authority of martial law. Honouliuli transformed from a secret site of shame to a symbol of irrational racism and discrimination in the name of national security. In 2015 President Obama declared Honouliuli a National Monument, to serve as a powerful reminder of the need to protect civil liberties in times of conflict.
Journal of Community Archaeology & Heritage , 2017
This article discusses the ongoing public archaeology programme at Manzanar National Historic Sit... more This article discusses the ongoing public archaeology programme at Manzanar National Historic Site (NHS), a unit of the US National Park Service (NPS). Unlike archaeological projects rooted in academic questions or cultural resource management needs, the NPS centred its archaeological work on collaboration with descendant and local communities, respecting and drawing on their knowledge, stories, and personal connections with the site. Many young people, who will form the next generation of park visitors, supporters, and advocates, participate in the archaeological projects. Archaeology at Manzanar NHS thus ensures that the public retains an active voice as the NPS moves into its next century.
Even as scholars of the University of Hawai‘i–West O‘ahu (UHWO) research team begin to uncover th... more Even as scholars of the University of Hawai‘i–West O‘ahu (UHWO) research team begin to uncover the history of Honouliuli Internment and Prisoner of War Camp (State Site No. 50-80-08-9068), archaeologists have been uncovering its physical remains. For decades, Honouliuli lay lost and forgotten, hidden in a densely vegetated gulch and surrounded by agricultural fields, 14 miles northwest of Honolulu. With the assistance of the Japanese Cultural Center of Hawai‘i volunteers and UHWO archaeology students, over 130 archaeological features have been discovered and documented, and the site is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Contributing resources in the 122.5-acre archaeological site include two standing buildings, numerous building foundations, rock walls, fence remnants, artifact scatters, and other features. As an internment site, Honouliuli represents the fragility of constitutional rights and the effects of martial law; as a POW camp, Honouliuli exemplifies the management of enemy troops as the military balanced the need for national security and the need to comply with the Geneva Convention. This article describes how oral histories, archaeological fieldwork, and archival research have been integrated to document the physical remains of the Honouliuli Internment and POW Camp. This interdisciplinary approach has contributed small but important details about the site on the one hand, and broader and more universal implications about how ethnicity and status play out on the other.
Historical Archaeologies of Cognition - Explorations into Faith, Hope and Charity, 2013
This chapter discusses the incarceration of almost 120,000 Japanese Americans by the US governmen... more This chapter discusses the incarceration of almost 120,000 Japanese Americans by the US government during World War II and in particular explores the numerous internee-built ornamental gardens which reflect undiminished Japanese ideals.
Prisoners of War. Contributions To Global Historical Archaeology, 2012
Confinement sites by design replace freedom with restriction and restraints, and individuality wi... more Confinement sites by design replace freedom with restriction and restraints, and individuality with anonymity. However, recent research has shown that even in strictly controlled circumstances, individual emotions, thoughts, and reactions to the social context can be revealed by graffiti. In settings and institutions of confinement, graffiti can have various meanings and functions, including self-identity, enduring dignity, and resistance. Over 280 inscriptions made in wet concrete have been recorded at the Manzanar Relocation Center, one of the ten internment camps where Japanese American civilians were confined during World War II. These hidden texts include militaristic slogans, poems, individual and group names, present and former addresses, whimsical sayings, and expressions of love. Numerous directly and indirectly dated inscriptions allow an examination of how attitudes within the camp changed through time, reflecting both internal camp politics and external world events.
A recent archaeological survey at the Catalina Prison Camp, a mid-twentieth-century labor camp in... more A recent archaeological survey at the Catalina Prison Camp, a mid-twentieth-century labor camp in the mountains of Arizona, found few significant features or artifacts, and an archival search also suggested little of note. It was only through public outreach that the site’s relationship to one of the more shameful events in American history was revealed: individuals who nonviolently protested the internment of Japanese Americans during the Second World War were imprisoned there. This paper discusses the way in which the archaeological site played a role in the recognition, remembrance, and redefinition of this history, and in the reconciliation of disparate struggles for civil rights. Available here: http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4419-9666-4_6
It’s Not Rocket Science Contributions to the Archeology of Petrified Forest National Park in Honor of Bob Cooper, 2007
Five eroding burials were excavated and reburied at Black Ax Pueblo, a large PIII-PIV site within... more Five eroding burials were excavated and reburied at Black Ax Pueblo, a large PIII-PIV site within Petrified Forest National Park. The burials included that of a young mother and her 8-month old fetus, two other young adults, and a child. The excavation and reburial were undertaken primarily to protect inhumations in danger of erosion. However, physical anthropological analysis of the five individuals and consideration of the items buried with them also provides information about their lives.
It’s Not Rocket Science Contributions to the Archeology of Petrified Forest National Park in Honor of Bob Cooper, 2007
Radiocarbon dating at five Basketmaker II period sites provide the first chronometric determinati... more Radiocarbon dating at five Basketmaker II period sites provide the first chronometric determinations for Adamana Brown ware, considered the earliest pottery on the Colorado Plateau. The radiocarbon dates indicate that production of the pottery began between A.D. 1 and A.D. 200 and possibly as early as 400 B.C. The pottery enjoyed long-lived use, possibly produced as late as A.D. 600. The Adamana Brown Ware series consists of Adamana Brown, along with a few other minor variations. The ware was first named and described by Mera (1934:4):
1994 IRAC Proceedings, Rock Art-World Heritage, 2006
In northeastern Arizona over 100 rock art sites have been recorded in Petrified Forest National P... more In northeastern Arizona over 100 rock art sites have been recorded in Petrified Forest National Park, nineteen dating to the Pueblo IV period, A.D. 1300 to 1450. These Pueblo IV rock art sites can be divided into two distinct geographic groups that cluster near the only two Pueblo IV villages in the Petrified Forest region. Comparison with earlier Petrified Forest rock art suggests that kachina, cloud terrace, and parrot motifs were introduced during the Pueblo IV period and several kachina types can be identified. While most of the identified kachina types occur near both villages, some only occur at Puerco Ruin, suggesting that kachinas may have served to distinguish, as well as to integrate, individual villages. The number, detail, and elaboration of the Petrified Forest kachinas rival that of larger sites, such as those in the Rio Grande Valley of New Mexico, and may have implications for the introduction of the Pueblo kachina cult.
1994 IRAC Proceedings, Rock Art-World Heritage, 2006
This paper presents preliminary results of ongoing rock art recording on the Coronado National Fo... more This paper presents preliminary results of ongoing rock art recording on the Coronado National Forest, in southeastern Arizona. This work has generated one of the broadest and largest rock art data bases yet compiled in southern Arizona. However, given the geographical extent and prehistoric cultural diversity of Southeast Arizona, the 80 sites considered still form a limited data base. The recording has helped expand the known range of several previously defined styles. Most of the styles that could be defined at the sites generally fall within eographic ranges that correlate with other cultural signifiers or that could be predicted by past work. For example, Mogollon Red and Chihuahuan Polychrome Abstract predominate in the eastern part of the Forest, Hohokam and Desert Archaic styles predominate in the western part, and Apache rock art occurs throughout the area. Two new styles are suggested: a Hohokam painted style and an Archaic representational form here termed Pedregosa Black.
Rock art analysis has been used both to provide insight into prehistoric symbolism and ceremony, ... more Rock art analysis has been used both to provide insight into prehistoric symbolism and ceremony, and to measure prehistoric interaction and communication. But chronological control, essential to distinguishing functional or social differences from temporal differences, has been difficult to establish. No one method of dating has yet proven completely reliable or applicable. Accelerator mass spectrometer radiocarbon dating, at the Tom Ketchum Cave pictograph site in southeastern Arizona, provides one of the first examples of direct independent dating of rock art. The dates suggest the pictographs may have been created during a time when subsistence patterns were shifting from Archaic hunter and gatherer traditions to more agriculture-based subsistence. The Tom Ketchum Cave artists broke from the abstract style more common in the region to represent game animals and hunters, perhaps to ensure success in a disappearing way of life.
KIVA Journal of Southwestern Anthropology and History, 1988
This article describes a distinctive rock-art site in the Pedregosa Mountains of southeast Arizon... more This article describes a distinctive rock-art site in the Pedregosa Mountains of southeast Arizona. The more than 200 black representational elements do not conform to any of the various rock-art styles that have been described for the Southwest. Description of the design motifs, environmental setting, and artifacts provides information for tentative interpretations regarding cultural affiliation, function, and age of the pictographs.
The Tumamoc Hill Archaeological Site, comprising 886.55 acres of state, city, and private land in... more The Tumamoc Hill Archaeological Site, comprising 886.55 acres of state, city, and private land in the city of Tucson, Pima County, Arizona, is considered historically significant at the national level:
* Encompassing one of the most striking topographic features of the Tucson Basin, the Tumamoc Hill Archaeological Site has been well known as an archaeological site at least since the beginning of the twentieth century, figuring in some of the first theories about the early cultures of Arizona.
* The site was used for thousands of years and encompasses thousands of features, including masonry rock walls, rock circles, rock alignments, trails, bedrock milling stations, petroglyphs, agricultural fields, and historic features.
* The Tumamoc Hill Archaeological Site embodies the distinctive characteristics of trincheras sites, and its massive walls appear to be the first public architecture in Arizona.
* Associated with the Early Agricultural and the early Hohokam periods, the Tumamoc Hill Archaeological Site occupation spanned major changes in technology, subsistence, social organization, and settlement patterns.
* Archaeological studies of the Tumamoc Hill Archaeological Site, especially those undertaken by the Arizona Archaeological and Historical Society in the 1970s and by Drs. Paul and Suzanne Fish from 1985 and continuing to the present, have provided, and will continue to provide, important information about the past, and engendered pivotal issues for additional research. Tumamoc Hill plays a central role in questions and hypotheses about the development of early agriculture, agricultural intensification, the organization and integration of society, community planning, and warfare and defense.
* Tumamoc Hill had an ongoing economic and symbolic importance into the early twentieth century, evident in historic stone quarries, a clay pit, rock structures, and inscriptions. Talus pits, inferred to have been O’odham burials or storage caches, add to the site’s significance.
A relatively undeveloped island amidst much more intensive disturbance, the site includes the largest remaining contiguous block of archaeological features and cultural deposits within the city of Tucson. The Tumamoc Hill Archaeological Site meets National Register criteria A, C, and D.
2023 Society for American Archaeology Annual Meeting, 2023
There were ten War Relocation Centers established during World War II to incarcerate over 120,000... more There were ten War Relocation Centers established during World War II to incarcerate over 120,000 Japanese American citizens and immigrants, but only one had an orphanage. Manzanar's "Children's Village" housed 101 orphans, from newborns to teenagers. The entire mass incarceration was unconstitutional, tragic, costly, and unnecessary, but imprisoning orphans seems especially egregious. Now Manzanar is a National Historic Site, designated to preserve and interpret cultural resources associated with this history. A recent Community Archaeology Project, funded by a former orphan, uncovered features and artifacts that shed light on the lives of the orphans and the absurdity of their incarceration. By removing vegetation and flood deposits, the project turned an overgrown thicket into a commemorative space. Today, the public can visit the Children's Village site to learn about and contemplate one small example of the consequences of government actions motivated by racism, wartime hysteria, and a failure of political leadership.
Jeffery Burton, archaeologist at Manzanar National Historic Site, examines traces of the gardens,... more Jeffery Burton, archaeologist at Manzanar National Historic Site, examines traces of the gardens, which were lost and abandoned when the site was closed.
For more than 10 years, National Park Service archaeologist Jeff Burton has worked to excavate, p... more For more than 10 years, National Park Service archaeologist Jeff Burton has worked to excavate, preserve, and interpret the physical reminders of one of the most troubling episodes in American history: the internment of thousands of Japanese Americans in isolated detention camps during World War II.
Connie Y. Chiang. Nature Behind Barbed Wire: An Environmental History of the Japanese American In... more Connie Y. Chiang. Nature Behind Barbed Wire: An Environmental History of the Japanese American Incarceration. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018. 328 pp., 34 halftones, 1 map. $35.00 (cloth), ISBN 9780190842062.
A gift from the past, the rose garden and Japanese garden at Merritt Park were built by Japanese ... more A gift from the past, the rose garden and Japanese garden at Merritt Park were built by Japanese Americans incarcerated in Manzanar. As a sanctuary of beauty and nature, the park was one of the few locations in camp where one could be without a backdrop of tar-papered barracks or the barbed-wire security fence and guard towers. The park began in 1942 as a Western style "Rose Garden," where Kuichiro and Akira Nishi grafted domestic roses onto wild rose root stock. Before the war, the Nishi brothers had operated a nursery in Los Angeles specializing in roses. Other Japanese Americans in Manzanar who had been professional gardeners and nursery owners joined the Nishis to design additions to what was first called Rose Park. Photographs, archives, and oral histories have documented the participation of Saichi Kawakami, Toyoshige Ioki, Kiichiro and Takio Muto, Chotaro Nishimura, and Teruo Yasuda, but there likely were others who contributed. Eventually the park included an outdoor "Dutch" oven and a Japanese garden with ponds, bridges, and a viewing pavilion. With the addition of the Japanese garden the park was renamed Pleasure Park and later Merritt Park in honor of the camp director.
Maps of World War II Japanese American and Japanese Canadian internment sites: USA, Hawaii, Arizo... more Maps of World War II Japanese American and Japanese Canadian internment sites: USA, Hawaii, Arizona, Canada. Free to use with citation: "www.academia.edu/43978128/WWII_Japanese_American_and_Canadian_Internment_Sites_Maps_" or just "Courtesy of Jeff Burton"
Translation into Japanese of pages 288-291 of Manzanar's Garden Management Plan (NPS 2015), than... more Translation into Japanese of pages 288-291 of Manzanar's Garden Management Plan (NPS 2015), thanks to Koichi Kobayashi, May 1, 2016
Interpretative sign installed at Paradise Camp Resort, a restaurant and tourist cabin motel in ea... more Interpretative sign installed at Paradise Camp Resort, a restaurant and tourist cabin motel in eastern California dating to 1928-2007.
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Reports and Publications by Jeff Burton
Between 2009 and 2018, National Park Service staff and dozens of volunteers, as individuals, students, and service groups, spent over 170 person-days working at the net factory. The volunteers removed brush, uncovered foundations, screened sediments, and helped document and map the site. Features documented at the net factory include four large concrete slabs, where individual net-garnishing stations can still be discerned. Modifications for reuse of the buildings, after the net factory closed, are also evident. Other features recorded were rock alignments at an entrance road gate, two unidentified concrete structures, and an artifact concentration centered around a shallow depression. The overwhelming majority of artifacts recovered during the work were structural, reflecting the relatively substantial construction of the factory buildings. A variety of other artifacts attest to daily life, and may even reflect the patriotism of some of the workers.
The archeological and restoration work has also resulted in recommendations for additional public interpretation, further archeological investigations, and routine maintenance to help the camouflage net factory tell its important story.
Led by National Park Service staff, over a hundred volunteers, as individuals, students, and service groups, spent 210 person-days doing archeological and restoration work at the Chicken Ranch. The volunteers removed brush, uncovered and documented foundations and other features, mapped the site, and repaired walls. Documented features include concrete slabs, rock alignments, retaining walls, landscaping, and an impressive rock and concrete fireplace. During construction, wet concrete provided canvases for 33 inscriptions, written in both English and Japanese to register names, initials, a former hometown, and perhaps a former employer. Some inscriptions express unhappiness and resentment, others suggest jokes and good humor. Over 1,200 artifacts were collected: most are structural remains, but some provide hints about daily activities at the Chicken Ranch, and some reflect use of the area before and after World War II.
The labor provided by the volunteers has transformed the Chicken Ranch from an overgrown and forgotten aspect of history to a powerful interpretive site. The work completed also illustrates the utility of archeology to engage the local and descendant communities, and to supplement the historic record. More work is recommended to leverage the Chicken Ranch’s interpretive potential into a greater understanding of this important facet of the relocation center, for both researchers and visitors.
In Manzanar’s General Management Plan and subsequent planning documents, the restoration and rehabilitation of gardens was identified as a priority. This Garden Management Plan identifies specific treatments to meet the goals set forth in the General Management Plan. Implementing the Garden Management Plan will provide the public with the opportunity to see the full range of gardens types at Manzanar.
All work will be designed to comply with the Secretary of the
Interior’s Standards and Guidelines for the Treatment of Historic Properties. To meet the Historic Site’s sustainability objectives, new planted vegetation will be drought-resistant and non-invasive, and any irrigation and water features installed will utilize water-saving techniques. Gardens will be suitable for accessible interpretation, with barrier-free paths and the potential for different forms of interpretive media.
Three gardens located along the driving tour road would be planted with vegetation and their water features would be recreated:
• Block 33 Arai Fish Pond.
• Block 34 Mess Hall Garden (San-shi-en).
• Merritt Park.
These gardens represent a family barracks garden, a mess hall garden, and the most well-known community park at Manzanar. Because of their proximity to each other and the tour road they could easily be accessed on a single walking tour.Water can be brought to these three gardens relatively easily thanks to a nearby well and orchard irrigation pipeline.
In the administration area, two gardens would be restored and maintained in their original historic condition, to show the differences between the gardens internees built for the Caucasian staff versus for themselves:
• Entrance Garden.
• Administration Circle Garden.
These are dry gardens with rocks, Joshua trees, and cactus. Although they may require occasional hand-watering and periodic plant replacement, no irrigation system is needed.
Manzanar was the only relocation center with an orphanage,
so the Children’s Village and the adjacent Cherry Park would be partially restored as particularly poignant symbols of the internment. Archeological excavation would be necessary to further identify and document features to be restored.
To enhance interpretation in the Demonstration Block, small lawns and gardens in Block 14 would be rehabilitated where there is a replica building to provide the appropriate context and where historic and archeological data provide sufficient information for an accurate replacement. Important character-defining features or attributes at the Hospital garden and the Block 9, 12, and 22 mess hall gardens would be restored. Several other important gardens are known from historic records and oral histories; archeological investigations are necessary to uncover them and assess their condition.
The majority of Manzanar’s gardens would be stabilized and maintained as-is. For these gardens, preservation in their state of abandonment will allow the gardens to evoke the dry, harsh conditions of Manzanar when internees arrived, and the
inexorable way the desert has reclaimed the site.
Implementation of the Garden Management Plan is dependent upon supplemental project funding, but could be accomplished with current staffing. Stabilization, regular routine maintenance, monitoring, and staff training will be necessary to ensure long-term success.
The impact of implementation of the Garden Management Plan is expected to be significant: visitors who come mainly to see the restored gardens will learn more about the internment; visitors who come mainly to learn about internment will learn more about how internees coped with confinement. The gardens will draw people out into the site itself, to experience a tangible connection to the past. Manzanar’s gardens were important in the past and remain so today, as physical manifestations of adaptation, resistance, resilience, and hope. The National Park Service is committed to preserving this vital cultural, educational, aesthetic, and inspirational legacy of for future generations.
安息の場・アライ家園池のと復元発掘調査
東カリフォルニア、オーウェンズバレー、マンザナール国立歴史地区におけるアライ家園池の発掘・復元の 報告を伝えます。 マンザナール強制収容所は、第二次世界大戦時に日系アメリカ人と日本からの移民が収 容された10ヶ所の内の1施設でした。 この調査は、関係者の口述記録や歴史資料、また、アライ・ジャック・ ハンシロウ氏により造成された園池の発掘調査より、まとめたものです。 戦後、数十年間の放置により、こ の園池は土に埋没し、かろうじて少し表層部が見られる状態になっていました。 発掘調査により、22フィー
ト四方の広さと2.5フィートの深さの不整形な園池の存在が明らかになりました。 石によって敷地境界が作 られ、3つの島と魚の通り道(トンネル)、水蓮のカゴを有した、コンクリート製の園池です。 二つのバラック の間に位置するこの庭の特性は、敷石やコンクリート面、飛石、小さな流れです。 また、2000以上の遺物が 発見され、その多くは釘や割れたガラスでした。 しかしながら、それら遺物の中には、300以上のビー玉や 玩具、水筒、アワビの貝殻、調理器具、池の植物の残存物が含まれていました。 この調査結果により、収容 された家族が生活環境を変化させるために、周辺を改良していたことが言えます。
Vases that once held floral arrangements that adorned the graves and cemetery monument during the relocation center occupation, as well as the abundant remains of hand-made artificial flowers, were found during the excavations. As part of the cemetery clean-up when the relocation center closed in 1946, the vases and flower remains apparently had been removed from individual graves and the monument and buried. The archeological work also identified the location of the original internee-constructed fence, so that it could be accurately reconstructed. The location of a 1970s fence refurbished by the Manzanar Committee and clues about the location of a 1946 fence built by the War Relocation Authority were likewise uncovered. Traces of occupations prior to the relocation center were found as well. A concrete pipeline, an earthen ditch, and buried tree stumps from an orchard planted by the residents of the 1910-1930s town of Manzanar were encountered within the cemetery, and a small roasting pit and a few scattered artifacts indicate use of the immediate area by Native American Indians possibly as early as A.D. 600.
simply because they had helped immigrants with paperwork and forms required by their home country. Seven of the sites had been identified in a previous archaeological overview conducted ten years ago; since that time, researchers associated with the Japanese Cultural Center of Hawai‘i, University of Hawai‘i West O‘ahu, Maui Nisei Veterans Memorial Center, Kapi’olani Community College, National Park Service, and others have identified additional locations associated with the internment.
Some of the sites look much like they did 75 years ago, and would be instantly recognized by those who were unconstitutionally incarcerated. Some of the sites have been completely razed, and in a couple cases, paved over: these locations were discovered by correlating archival information and historic maps with oral histories and local expertise. The sites are spread over six of Hawai‘i’s seven populated islands, from sea level to 4,000 feet elevation, from downtown Honolulu to isolated valleys.
All 23 sites are potent symbols of injustice undertaken in the name of national security. This report includes the author’s recommendations for research, preservation, interpretation, and commemoration so that these places can honor the legacy of those who were unjustly interned, and remind us how we need to be vigilant and wise to live up to the U.S. Constitution and our American ideals.
Between 2009 and 2018, National Park Service staff and dozens of volunteers, as individuals, students, and service groups, spent over 170 person-days working at the net factory. The volunteers removed brush, uncovered foundations, screened sediments, and helped document and map the site. Features documented at the net factory include four large concrete slabs, where individual net-garnishing stations can still be discerned. Modifications for reuse of the buildings, after the net factory closed, are also evident. Other features recorded were rock alignments at an entrance road gate, two unidentified concrete structures, and an artifact concentration centered around a shallow depression. The overwhelming majority of artifacts recovered during the work were structural, reflecting the relatively substantial construction of the factory buildings. A variety of other artifacts attest to daily life, and may even reflect the patriotism of some of the workers.
The archeological and restoration work has also resulted in recommendations for additional public interpretation, further archeological investigations, and routine maintenance to help the camouflage net factory tell its important story.
Led by National Park Service staff, over a hundred volunteers, as individuals, students, and service groups, spent 210 person-days doing archeological and restoration work at the Chicken Ranch. The volunteers removed brush, uncovered and documented foundations and other features, mapped the site, and repaired walls. Documented features include concrete slabs, rock alignments, retaining walls, landscaping, and an impressive rock and concrete fireplace. During construction, wet concrete provided canvases for 33 inscriptions, written in both English and Japanese to register names, initials, a former hometown, and perhaps a former employer. Some inscriptions express unhappiness and resentment, others suggest jokes and good humor. Over 1,200 artifacts were collected: most are structural remains, but some provide hints about daily activities at the Chicken Ranch, and some reflect use of the area before and after World War II.
The labor provided by the volunteers has transformed the Chicken Ranch from an overgrown and forgotten aspect of history to a powerful interpretive site. The work completed also illustrates the utility of archeology to engage the local and descendant communities, and to supplement the historic record. More work is recommended to leverage the Chicken Ranch’s interpretive potential into a greater understanding of this important facet of the relocation center, for both researchers and visitors.
In Manzanar’s General Management Plan and subsequent planning documents, the restoration and rehabilitation of gardens was identified as a priority. This Garden Management Plan identifies specific treatments to meet the goals set forth in the General Management Plan. Implementing the Garden Management Plan will provide the public with the opportunity to see the full range of gardens types at Manzanar.
All work will be designed to comply with the Secretary of the
Interior’s Standards and Guidelines for the Treatment of Historic Properties. To meet the Historic Site’s sustainability objectives, new planted vegetation will be drought-resistant and non-invasive, and any irrigation and water features installed will utilize water-saving techniques. Gardens will be suitable for accessible interpretation, with barrier-free paths and the potential for different forms of interpretive media.
Three gardens located along the driving tour road would be planted with vegetation and their water features would be recreated:
• Block 33 Arai Fish Pond.
• Block 34 Mess Hall Garden (San-shi-en).
• Merritt Park.
These gardens represent a family barracks garden, a mess hall garden, and the most well-known community park at Manzanar. Because of their proximity to each other and the tour road they could easily be accessed on a single walking tour.Water can be brought to these three gardens relatively easily thanks to a nearby well and orchard irrigation pipeline.
In the administration area, two gardens would be restored and maintained in their original historic condition, to show the differences between the gardens internees built for the Caucasian staff versus for themselves:
• Entrance Garden.
• Administration Circle Garden.
These are dry gardens with rocks, Joshua trees, and cactus. Although they may require occasional hand-watering and periodic plant replacement, no irrigation system is needed.
Manzanar was the only relocation center with an orphanage,
so the Children’s Village and the adjacent Cherry Park would be partially restored as particularly poignant symbols of the internment. Archeological excavation would be necessary to further identify and document features to be restored.
To enhance interpretation in the Demonstration Block, small lawns and gardens in Block 14 would be rehabilitated where there is a replica building to provide the appropriate context and where historic and archeological data provide sufficient information for an accurate replacement. Important character-defining features or attributes at the Hospital garden and the Block 9, 12, and 22 mess hall gardens would be restored. Several other important gardens are known from historic records and oral histories; archeological investigations are necessary to uncover them and assess their condition.
The majority of Manzanar’s gardens would be stabilized and maintained as-is. For these gardens, preservation in their state of abandonment will allow the gardens to evoke the dry, harsh conditions of Manzanar when internees arrived, and the
inexorable way the desert has reclaimed the site.
Implementation of the Garden Management Plan is dependent upon supplemental project funding, but could be accomplished with current staffing. Stabilization, regular routine maintenance, monitoring, and staff training will be necessary to ensure long-term success.
The impact of implementation of the Garden Management Plan is expected to be significant: visitors who come mainly to see the restored gardens will learn more about the internment; visitors who come mainly to learn about internment will learn more about how internees coped with confinement. The gardens will draw people out into the site itself, to experience a tangible connection to the past. Manzanar’s gardens were important in the past and remain so today, as physical manifestations of adaptation, resistance, resilience, and hope. The National Park Service is committed to preserving this vital cultural, educational, aesthetic, and inspirational legacy of for future generations.
安息の場・アライ家園池のと復元発掘調査
東カリフォルニア、オーウェンズバレー、マンザナール国立歴史地区におけるアライ家園池の発掘・復元の 報告を伝えます。 マンザナール強制収容所は、第二次世界大戦時に日系アメリカ人と日本からの移民が収 容された10ヶ所の内の1施設でした。 この調査は、関係者の口述記録や歴史資料、また、アライ・ジャック・ ハンシロウ氏により造成された園池の発掘調査より、まとめたものです。 戦後、数十年間の放置により、こ の園池は土に埋没し、かろうじて少し表層部が見られる状態になっていました。 発掘調査により、22フィー
ト四方の広さと2.5フィートの深さの不整形な園池の存在が明らかになりました。 石によって敷地境界が作 られ、3つの島と魚の通り道(トンネル)、水蓮のカゴを有した、コンクリート製の園池です。 二つのバラック の間に位置するこの庭の特性は、敷石やコンクリート面、飛石、小さな流れです。 また、2000以上の遺物が 発見され、その多くは釘や割れたガラスでした。 しかしながら、それら遺物の中には、300以上のビー玉や 玩具、水筒、アワビの貝殻、調理器具、池の植物の残存物が含まれていました。 この調査結果により、収容 された家族が生活環境を変化させるために、周辺を改良していたことが言えます。
Vases that once held floral arrangements that adorned the graves and cemetery monument during the relocation center occupation, as well as the abundant remains of hand-made artificial flowers, were found during the excavations. As part of the cemetery clean-up when the relocation center closed in 1946, the vases and flower remains apparently had been removed from individual graves and the monument and buried. The archeological work also identified the location of the original internee-constructed fence, so that it could be accurately reconstructed. The location of a 1970s fence refurbished by the Manzanar Committee and clues about the location of a 1946 fence built by the War Relocation Authority were likewise uncovered. Traces of occupations prior to the relocation center were found as well. A concrete pipeline, an earthen ditch, and buried tree stumps from an orchard planted by the residents of the 1910-1930s town of Manzanar were encountered within the cemetery, and a small roasting pit and a few scattered artifacts indicate use of the immediate area by Native American Indians possibly as early as A.D. 600.
simply because they had helped immigrants with paperwork and forms required by their home country. Seven of the sites had been identified in a previous archaeological overview conducted ten years ago; since that time, researchers associated with the Japanese Cultural Center of Hawai‘i, University of Hawai‘i West O‘ahu, Maui Nisei Veterans Memorial Center, Kapi’olani Community College, National Park Service, and others have identified additional locations associated with the internment.
Some of the sites look much like they did 75 years ago, and would be instantly recognized by those who were unconstitutionally incarcerated. Some of the sites have been completely razed, and in a couple cases, paved over: these locations were discovered by correlating archival information and historic maps with oral histories and local expertise. The sites are spread over six of Hawai‘i’s seven populated islands, from sea level to 4,000 feet elevation, from downtown Honolulu to isolated valleys.
All 23 sites are potent symbols of injustice undertaken in the name of national security. This report includes the author’s recommendations for research, preservation, interpretation, and commemoration so that these places can honor the legacy of those who were unjustly interned, and remind us how we need to be vigilant and wise to live up to the U.S. Constitution and our American ideals.
When Nancy Ukai, director of the “50 Objects/50 Stories” project, shared with us a map she had found in the National Archives that documented the precise location of the 1943 killing, we authors traveled the 500 miles from our home to Topaz to learn if any traces of the monument remained.
This series describes our quest and its results.
balanced the need for national security and the need to comply with the Geneva Convention. This article describes how oral histories, archaeological fieldwork, and archival research have been integrated to document the physical remains of the Honouliuli Internment and POW Camp. This interdisciplinary approach has contributed small but important details about the site on the one hand, and broader and more universal implications about how ethnicity and status play out on the other.
* Encompassing one of the most striking topographic features of the Tucson Basin, the Tumamoc Hill Archaeological Site has been well known as an archaeological site at least since the beginning of the twentieth century, figuring in some of the first theories about the early cultures of Arizona.
* The site was used for thousands of years and encompasses thousands of features, including masonry rock walls, rock circles, rock alignments, trails, bedrock milling stations, petroglyphs, agricultural fields, and historic features.
* The Tumamoc Hill Archaeological Site embodies the distinctive characteristics of trincheras sites, and its massive walls appear to be the first public architecture in Arizona.
* Associated with the Early Agricultural and the early Hohokam periods, the Tumamoc Hill Archaeological Site occupation spanned major changes in technology, subsistence, social organization, and settlement patterns.
* Archaeological studies of the Tumamoc Hill Archaeological Site, especially those undertaken by the Arizona Archaeological and Historical Society in the 1970s and by Drs. Paul and Suzanne Fish from 1985 and continuing to the present, have provided, and will continue to provide, important information about the past, and engendered pivotal issues for additional research. Tumamoc Hill plays a central role in questions and hypotheses about the development of early agriculture, agricultural intensification, the organization and integration of society, community planning, and warfare and defense.
* Tumamoc Hill had an ongoing economic and symbolic importance into the early twentieth century, evident in historic stone quarries, a clay pit, rock structures, and inscriptions. Talus pits, inferred to have been O’odham burials or storage caches, add to the site’s significance.
A relatively undeveloped island amidst much more intensive disturbance, the site includes the largest remaining contiguous block of archaeological features and cultural deposits within the city of Tucson. The Tumamoc Hill Archaeological Site meets National Register criteria A, C, and D.