The Cross River gorilla (Gorilla gorilla diehli), a recently revived fourth subspecies of gorilla... more The Cross River gorilla (Gorilla gorilla diehli), a recently revived fourth subspecies of gorilla, is the most endangered and poorly studied ape taxon. Only about 300 Cross River gorillas remain and these gorillas occur in at least eleven different localities. This dissertation presents a population-wide assessment of threats to this population based on molecular genetic data, satellite imagery and demographic
Today many large mammals live in small, fragmented populations, but it is often unclear whether t... more Today many large mammals live in small, fragmented populations, but it is often unclear whether this subdivision is the result of long-term or recent events. Demographic modeling using genetic data can estimate changes in long-term population sizes while temporal sampling provides a way to compare genetic variation present today with that sampled in the past. In order to better understand the dynamics associated with the divergences of great ape populations, these analytical approaches were applied to western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) and in particular to the isolated and Critically Endangered Cross River gorilla subspecies (G. g. diehli). We used microsatellite genotypes from museum specimens and contemporary samples of Cross River gorillas to infer both the long-term and recent population history. We find that Cross River gorillas diverged from the ancestral western gorilla population ~17,800 years ago (95% HDI: 760, 63,245 years). However, gene flow ceased only ~420 years ago (95% HDI: 200, 16,256 years), followed by a bottleneck beginning ~320 years ago (95% HDI: 200, 2,825 years) that caused a 60-fold decrease in the effective population size of Cross River gorillas. Direct comparison of heterozygosity estimates from museum and contemporary samples suggests a loss of genetic variation over the last 100 years. The composite history of western gorillas could plausibly be explained by climatic oscillations inducing environmental changes in western equatorial Africa that would have allowed gorilla populations to expand over time but ultimately isolate the Cross River gorillas, which thereafter exhibited a dramatic population size reduction. The recent decrease in the Cross River population is accordingly most likely attributable to increasing anthropogenic pressure over the last several hundred years. Isolation of diverging populations with prolonged concomitant gene flow, but not secondary admixture, appears to be a typical characteristic of the population histories of African great apes, including gorillas, chimpanzees and bonobos.
Connectivity among subpopulations is vital for the persistence of small and fragmented population... more Connectivity among subpopulations is vital for the persistence of small and fragmented populations. For management interventions to be effective conservation planners have to make the critical distinction between structural connectivity (based on landscape structure) and functional connectivity (which considers both landscape structure and organism-specific behavioral attributes) which can differ considerably within a given context. We assessed spatial and temporal changes in structural and functional connectivity of the Cross River gorilla Gorilla gorilla diehli (CRG) population in a 12,000 km(2) landscape in the Nigeria-Cameroon border region over a 23-year period, comparing two periods: 1987-2000 and 2000-2010. Despite substantial forest connections between occupied areas, genetic evidence shows that only limited dispersal occurs among CRG subpopulations. We used remotely sensed land-cover data and simulated human pressure (using a spatially explicit agent-based model) to assess human impact on connectivity of the CRG population. We calculated cost-weighted distances between areas occupied by gorillas as measures of connectivity (structural based on land-cover only, functional based on both land-cover and simulated human pressure). Whereas structural connectivity decreased by 5% over the 23-year period, functional connectivity decreased by 11%, with both decreasing more during the latter compared to the earlier period. Our results highlight the increasing threat of isolation of CRG subpopulations due to human disturbance, and provide insight into how increasing human influence may lead to functional isolation of wildlife populations despite habitat continuity, a pressing and common issue in tropical Africa often not accounted for when deciding management interventions. In addition to quantifying threats to connectivity, our study provides crucial evidence for management authorities to identify actions that are more likely to be effective for conservation of species in human-dominated landscapes. Our approach can be easily applied to other species, regions, and scales.
Mount Cameroon (4095 m), the highest peak and only active volcano in West Africa, is located in t... more Mount Cameroon (4095 m), the highest peak and only active volcano in West Africa, is located in the center of the Gulf of Guinea Pleistocene refugium. The associated forests and highlands along the southern Nigerian-Cameroon border and on the island of Bioko, known as the Biafran forests and highlands, are important formations of the Cameroon Volcanic Line owing to their wide elevational range, and on Mount Cameroon, a continuous gradient of unbroken vegetation from sea level to over 4000 m. The montane zones in the region begin 800 m above sea level forming the critically endangered Mount Cameroon and Bioko Montane Forests ecoregion.
The broad elevational gradient of the region has resulted in high habitat diversity, leading the region to be a center for species endemism and richness across many taxa. Some of the densest human populations in Africa also occur in this region, putting intense pressure on the forests and highlands mostly due to overexploitation and habitat loss. The governments of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea have designated protected areas in the region, but coverage is inadequate, especially for the rare montane ecosystems and endemic taxa. More importantly, protected areas are often not accompanied by effective management and regulatory enforcement. We recommend improved law enforcement and an expansion of the protected area network, as well as stronger commitments of institutional, financial, and technical support from governments and non-governmental organizations, in order to move conservation in the region in a positive direction. Without significant and immediate conservation progress, increasing anthropogenic pressure and systemic ineffectiveness of protected area management represent major concerns for the future of this important area.
The Cross River gorilla (Gorilla gorilla diehli), a recently revived fourth subspecies of gorilla... more The Cross River gorilla (Gorilla gorilla diehli), a recently revived fourth subspecies of gorilla, is the most endangered and poorly studied ape taxon. Only about 300 Cross River gorillas remain and these gorillas occur in at least eleven different localities. This dissertation presents a population-wide assessment of threats to this population based on molecular genetic data, satellite imagery and demographic
Today many large mammals live in small, fragmented populations, but it is often unclear whether t... more Today many large mammals live in small, fragmented populations, but it is often unclear whether this subdivision is the result of long-term or recent events. Demographic modeling using genetic data can estimate changes in long-term population sizes while temporal sampling provides a way to compare genetic variation present today with that sampled in the past. In order to better understand the dynamics associated with the divergences of great ape populations, these analytical approaches were applied to western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla) and in particular to the isolated and Critically Endangered Cross River gorilla subspecies (G. g. diehli). We used microsatellite genotypes from museum specimens and contemporary samples of Cross River gorillas to infer both the long-term and recent population history. We find that Cross River gorillas diverged from the ancestral western gorilla population ~17,800 years ago (95% HDI: 760, 63,245 years). However, gene flow ceased only ~420 years ago (95% HDI: 200, 16,256 years), followed by a bottleneck beginning ~320 years ago (95% HDI: 200, 2,825 years) that caused a 60-fold decrease in the effective population size of Cross River gorillas. Direct comparison of heterozygosity estimates from museum and contemporary samples suggests a loss of genetic variation over the last 100 years. The composite history of western gorillas could plausibly be explained by climatic oscillations inducing environmental changes in western equatorial Africa that would have allowed gorilla populations to expand over time but ultimately isolate the Cross River gorillas, which thereafter exhibited a dramatic population size reduction. The recent decrease in the Cross River population is accordingly most likely attributable to increasing anthropogenic pressure over the last several hundred years. Isolation of diverging populations with prolonged concomitant gene flow, but not secondary admixture, appears to be a typical characteristic of the population histories of African great apes, including gorillas, chimpanzees and bonobos.
Connectivity among subpopulations is vital for the persistence of small and fragmented population... more Connectivity among subpopulations is vital for the persistence of small and fragmented populations. For management interventions to be effective conservation planners have to make the critical distinction between structural connectivity (based on landscape structure) and functional connectivity (which considers both landscape structure and organism-specific behavioral attributes) which can differ considerably within a given context. We assessed spatial and temporal changes in structural and functional connectivity of the Cross River gorilla Gorilla gorilla diehli (CRG) population in a 12,000 km(2) landscape in the Nigeria-Cameroon border region over a 23-year period, comparing two periods: 1987-2000 and 2000-2010. Despite substantial forest connections between occupied areas, genetic evidence shows that only limited dispersal occurs among CRG subpopulations. We used remotely sensed land-cover data and simulated human pressure (using a spatially explicit agent-based model) to assess human impact on connectivity of the CRG population. We calculated cost-weighted distances between areas occupied by gorillas as measures of connectivity (structural based on land-cover only, functional based on both land-cover and simulated human pressure). Whereas structural connectivity decreased by 5% over the 23-year period, functional connectivity decreased by 11%, with both decreasing more during the latter compared to the earlier period. Our results highlight the increasing threat of isolation of CRG subpopulations due to human disturbance, and provide insight into how increasing human influence may lead to functional isolation of wildlife populations despite habitat continuity, a pressing and common issue in tropical Africa often not accounted for when deciding management interventions. In addition to quantifying threats to connectivity, our study provides crucial evidence for management authorities to identify actions that are more likely to be effective for conservation of species in human-dominated landscapes. Our approach can be easily applied to other species, regions, and scales.
Mount Cameroon (4095 m), the highest peak and only active volcano in West Africa, is located in t... more Mount Cameroon (4095 m), the highest peak and only active volcano in West Africa, is located in the center of the Gulf of Guinea Pleistocene refugium. The associated forests and highlands along the southern Nigerian-Cameroon border and on the island of Bioko, known as the Biafran forests and highlands, are important formations of the Cameroon Volcanic Line owing to their wide elevational range, and on Mount Cameroon, a continuous gradient of unbroken vegetation from sea level to over 4000 m. The montane zones in the region begin 800 m above sea level forming the critically endangered Mount Cameroon and Bioko Montane Forests ecoregion.
The broad elevational gradient of the region has resulted in high habitat diversity, leading the region to be a center for species endemism and richness across many taxa. Some of the densest human populations in Africa also occur in this region, putting intense pressure on the forests and highlands mostly due to overexploitation and habitat loss. The governments of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea have designated protected areas in the region, but coverage is inadequate, especially for the rare montane ecosystems and endemic taxa. More importantly, protected areas are often not accompanied by effective management and regulatory enforcement. We recommend improved law enforcement and an expansion of the protected area network, as well as stronger commitments of institutional, financial, and technical support from governments and non-governmental organizations, in order to move conservation in the region in a positive direction. Without significant and immediate conservation progress, increasing anthropogenic pressure and systemic ineffectiveness of protected area management represent major concerns for the future of this important area.
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Volcanic Line owing to their wide elevational range, and on Mount Cameroon, a continuous gradient of unbroken vegetation from sea level to over 4000 m. The montane zones
in the region begin 800 m above sea level forming the critically endangered Mount Cameroon and Bioko Montane Forests ecoregion.
The broad elevational gradient of the region has resulted in high habitat diversity, leading the region to be a center for species endemism and richness across many taxa. Some of
the densest human populations in Africa also occur in this region, putting intense pressure on the forests and highlands mostly due to overexploitation and habitat loss. The governments of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea have designated protected areas in the region, but coverage is inadequate, especially for the rare montane ecosystems and endemic taxa. More importantly, protected areas are often not accompanied by effective management and regulatory enforcement. We recommend improved law enforcement and an expansion of the protected area network, as well as stronger commitments of institutional, financial, and technical support from governments and non-governmental organizations, in order to move conservation in the region in a positive direction. Without significant and immediate conservation progress, increasing anthropogenic pressure and systemic ineffectiveness of protected area management represent major concerns for the future of this important area.
Volcanic Line owing to their wide elevational range, and on Mount Cameroon, a continuous gradient of unbroken vegetation from sea level to over 4000 m. The montane zones
in the region begin 800 m above sea level forming the critically endangered Mount Cameroon and Bioko Montane Forests ecoregion.
The broad elevational gradient of the region has resulted in high habitat diversity, leading the region to be a center for species endemism and richness across many taxa. Some of
the densest human populations in Africa also occur in this region, putting intense pressure on the forests and highlands mostly due to overexploitation and habitat loss. The governments of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea have designated protected areas in the region, but coverage is inadequate, especially for the rare montane ecosystems and endemic taxa. More importantly, protected areas are often not accompanied by effective management and regulatory enforcement. We recommend improved law enforcement and an expansion of the protected area network, as well as stronger commitments of institutional, financial, and technical support from governments and non-governmental organizations, in order to move conservation in the region in a positive direction. Without significant and immediate conservation progress, increasing anthropogenic pressure and systemic ineffectiveness of protected area management represent major concerns for the future of this important area.