PhD candidate with great interest in research regarding the molecular and physiological mechanisms that leads to an attenuated biological cell aging. Further interested in sports science research for endurance athletes, such as, physiological assessments, physiological responses to different pacing strategies. Teacher in sport science and exercise physiology.
Background Physical activity has been associated with reduced oxidative stress (OS) in observatio... more Background Physical activity has been associated with reduced oxidative stress (OS) in observational studies and clinical trials.
Objective The purpose of this systematic review and meta- analysis of controlled trials was to determine the effect of physical exercise on OS parameters.
Methods We conducted a systematic review of the litera- ture up to March 2016 that included the following data- bases: PubMed, SCOPUS, and Web of Science. A keyword combination referring to exercise training and OS was included as part of a more thorough search process. We also manually searched the reference lists of the articles. From an initial 1573 references, we included 30 controlled trials (1346 participants) in the qualitative analysis, 19 of which were included in the meta-analysis. All trials were conducted in humans and had at least one exercise inter- vention and a paired control group. Using a standardized protocol, two investigators independently abstracted data on study design, sample size, participant characteristics, intervention, follow-up duration, outcomes, and quantita- tive data for the meta-analysis. Thus, the investigators independently assigned quality scores with a methodolog- ical quality assessment (MQA).
Results The agreement level between the reviewers was 85.3 %. Discrepancies were solved in a consensus meeting. The MQA showed a total score in the quality index between 40 and 90 % and a mean quality of 55 %. Further, in a random-effects model, data from each trial were pooled and weighted by the inverse of the total variance. Physical training was associated with a significant reduc- tion in pro-oxidant parameters (standard mean difference [SMD] –1.08; 95 % confidence interval [CI] –1.57 to –0.58; p \ 0.001) and an increase in antioxidant capacity (SMD 1.45; 95 % CI 0.83–2.06; p \ 0.001).
Conclusion The pooled analysis revealed that regardless of intensity, volume, type of exercise, and studied population, the antioxidant indicators tended to increase and pro-oxi- dant indicators tended to decrease after training. Therefore, we conclude that exercise training seems to induce an antioxidant effect. Thus, it is suggested that people practice some kind of exercise to balance the redox state, regardless of their health status, to improve health-related outcomes.
The sub-2-hour marathon is a new barrier in endurance running performance, and it has been widely... more The sub-2-hour marathon is a new barrier in endurance running performance, and it has been widely debated in the scientific community. In this review we present a mathematical model to estimate the possible year when a male could break through the sub-2-hour barrier, and also an estimation of when a female could break Paula Radcliffe's marathon running record. Further, we present several aspects (ie, physiology, nationality, age, biomechanics, pacing, and drafting) that are associated with marathon running performance in elite runners and, finally, the possible characteristics of the male to break the sub-2-hour barrier. In summary, with the results of the developed equations, it is possible that a male athlete can break through the sub-2-hour barrier in the next decade (with Nike ® Breaking2 performance 1920-2018 [NBP]: y =0.0417x 2-14.18x +3,128; year of 2026; without NBP 1920-2018: y =0.045x 2-15.12x +3,194; year of 2027). This marathoner will possibly have a maximal oxygen uptake >85 mL•kg-1 •min-1 and should perform the race at a pacing higher than 85% of maximal oxygen uptake. In addition, this runner should pay more attention to strength training, endurance strength, speed training, and focus on running training at an intensity above the anaerobic threshold. Most likely, this runner originates from East Africa (especially from Ethiopia) and will have an age of ~27 years. For the females, there is poor evidence regarding the physiological profile of the female marathoner who will break Radcliffe's record, but the available literature suggests that it will not happen any time soon.
Leukocyte telomere length (LTL), a biological marker of aging that is associated with age-related... more Leukocyte telomere length (LTL), a biological marker of aging that is associated with age-related diseases, is longer in master endurance runners (ER) than age-matched controls, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly investigated. The LTL, nitric oxide (NO), and redox balance of ER master runners were analyzed and compared to untrained middle-aged and young adults. We hypothesized that NO and redox balance at baseline would be related to longer LTL in ER athletes. Participants (n = 38) were long-term ER runners (n = 10; 51.6 ± 5.2 yrs.; 28.4 ± 9.4 yrs. of experience) and untrained age-matched (n = 17; 46.6 ± 7.1 yrs) and young controls (n = 11; 21.8 ± 4.0 yrs). Volunteers were assessed for anamnesis, anthropometrics, and blood sampling. Measurements of pro-and anti-oxidant status and DNA extraction were performed using commercial kits. Relative LTL was determined with qPCR analyses (T/S). While the middle-aged controls had shorter LTL than the young group, no difference was observed between ER athletes and young participants. A large effect size be- tween the LTL of ER athletes and middle-aged controls (d = 0.85) was also observed. The ER athletes and untrained young group had better redox balance according to antioxidant/pro-oxidant ratios compared to middle-aged untrained participants, which also had lower values for redox parameters (TEAC/TBARS, SOD/ TBARS, and CAT/TBARS; all p < 0.05). Furthermore, the NO level of ER athletes (175.2 ± 31.9 μM) was higher (p < 0.05) than middle-aged controls (67.2 ± 23.3 μM) and young participants (129.2 ± 17.3 μM), with a significant correlation with LTL (r = 0.766; p = 0.02). In conclusion, ER runners have longer LTL than age-matched controls, which in turn may be related to better NO bioavailability and redox balance status.
The concept of anaerobic threshold (AT) was introduced during the nineteen sixties. Since then, s... more The concept of anaerobic threshold (AT) was introduced during the nineteen sixties. Since then, several methods to identify the anaerobic threshold (AT) have been studied and suggested as novel ‘thresholds’ based upon the variable used for its detection (i.e. lactate threshold, ventilatory threshold, glucose threshold). These different techniques have brought some confusion about how we should name this parameter, for instance, anaerobic threshold or the physiological measure used (i.e. lactate, ventilation). On the other hand, the modernization of scientific methods and apparatus to detect AT, as well as the body of literature formed in the past decades, could provide a more cohesive understanding over the AT and the multiple physiological systems involved. Thus, the purpose of this review was to provide an integrative perspective of the methods to determine AT.
For any triathlon distance (short, Olympic, half-distance and full-distance), competitors spend m... more For any triathlon distance (short, Olympic, half-distance and full-distance), competitors spend more time cycling than swimming or running, but running has emerged as the discipline with the greatest influence on overall performance at the Olympic distance. However, there is a lack of evidence on which discipline has the greatest influence on performance in the overall full-distance triathlon (3.8 km swimming/180 km cycling/42.195 km running), especially for the fastest performing athletes of all time. The total race times of 51 fastest triathletes (sub-8-hour) were studied, while for the split times, a sample of 44 participants was considered. The discipline that seemed to better predict total race time was cycling (coefficient = 0.828; p < 0.001), followed by running (coefficient = 0.726; p < 0.001) and swimming (coefficient = 0.476; p < 0.001). Furthermore, cycling was the discipline with the highest performance improvement over the years, whereas running had a slightly decrease. In conclusion, cycling seems to be the discipline with greater influence in final result for the full-distance triathlon.
Emergent evidence suggests that the long-term healthy life- style of master athletes may attenuat... more Emergent evidence suggests that the long-term healthy life- style of master athletes may attenuate aging. We compared telomere length (TL) of high-level master sprinters and non- athlete age-matched controls, and analyzed the relationships of TL with performance and body fat. Elite master sprinters (n = 11; aged 50.1 ± 9.2yrs) and healthy untrained controls (n = 10; aged 45.4 ± 10.9yrs) had blood samples collected for biochemical and biomolecular analyses. Master sprinters had longer TL, lower body fat and BMI, and a better lipid profile than age-matched controls (p < 0.05). A large effect size was verified comparing TL between athletes vs. controls (Cohen’s d = 1.039), with a significant negative correlation between TL and perfor- mance decline per decade (r = − 0.624, p < 0.01) and a positive correlation of TL and actual performance level (r = 0.641, p < 0.01). In conclusion, TL of elite master sprinters was longer than their untrained peers, and seems to be not only a marker of health status, but also an indicator of sports longevity since both actual performance level and its decrease over years were related to TL. Further research might assess the TL of elite mas- ter endurance athletes for comparison with sprinters, and also investigate the underlying mechanisms by which the attenua- tion of telomere shortening occurs in master athletes.
We aimed to determine which discipline had the greater performance improvements in the history of... more We aimed to determine which discipline had the greater performance improvements in the history of Ironman triathlon in Hawaii and also which discipline had the greater influence in overall race time. Data from 1983 to 2018 of the top three women and men of each year who competed in the Ironman World Championship were included. In addition to exploratory data analyses, linear regressions between split times and years of achievement were performed. Further, a stepwise multiple linear regression was applied using total race time as the dependent variable and split times as the independent variables. Both women and men significantly improved their performances from 1983 to 2018 in the Ironman World Championship. Swimming had the largest difference in improvements between men and women (3.0% versus 12.1%, respectively). A negative and significant decrease in each discipline was identified for both women and men, with cycling being the discipline with the greatest reduction. The results from the stepwise multiple regression indicated that cycling was the discipline with the highest influence on overall race time for both sexes. Based on the findings of this study, cycling seems to be the Ironman triathlon discipline that most improved overall race times and is also the discipline with the greatest influence on the overall race time of elite men and women in the Ironman World Championship.
Introduction The influence of socioeconomic factors in the achievement of sport success is still ... more Introduction The influence of socioeconomic factors in the achievement of sport success is still a matter of debate. Due to the popularity and low-cost practice, analyses of the Athletics World Ranking (AWR) may provide valuable information. Therefore, we investigated the frequency of different socioeconomic status in the AWR for two events (100 m and 10 k) in three categories: Junior, Elite Professionals and Masters. Method Data of 5,011 athletes from 99 nationalities were obtained from the official websites of International Association of Athletics Federations, and World Masters Rankings in the years of 2006–2016. The Human Development Index (HDI) for each nationality was used as a marker of socioeconomic status. Results AnHDI×agegroupassociationwasobserved(χ2=0.001,p=0.001,φC=0.322),wheretheanalysisoffrequency rate demonstrated a high prevalence of very elevated and elevated HDI in the AWR for the 100 m. For the endurance 10 k race analysis, the HDI × age group association was also observed, with a high prevalence of moderate and low HDI in Junior and Professionals. Regarding the Masters, the prevalence of moderate and low HDI is almost zero. In addition, multiple linear regressions indicate that the HDI, gross domestic product per capita (GDP/capita) and population can predict the frequency of a country in athletics ranking. Conclusions There is a high prevalence of elevated and very elevated HDI nationalities in the AWR in sprint races in all age groups. For endurance races, Junior and Professionals had a great prevalence of low/moderate HDI, and Masters are dominated by very elevated HDI. A nation’s frequency in the World Masters Ranking could be indicative of HDI, since an association was found among them.
Telomeres are genomic complex at the end of chromosomes that protects the DNA and telomere length... more Telomeres are genomic complex at the end of chromosomes that protects the DNA and telomere length (TL) is related to several age-related diseases, lifespan, and cancer. On the other hand, cancer is a multifactorial disease that is responsible for reduce the quality of life and kills millions of people every year. Both, shorter TL and cancer are related and could be treated or prevented depending of the lifestyle. In this review we discuss the possible role of exercise in the relationship between shorter telomeres, telomerase activity, and cancer. In summary, there is evidence that exercise leads to less telomere attrition and exercise also may diminish the risk of cancer, these two outcomes are possible intermediated by a reduction in oxidative stress, and chronic inflammation. Although, there is evidence that shorter TL are associated with cancer, the possible mechanisms that one may lead to the other remains to be clarified. We assume that humans under cancer treatment may suffer a great decrease in quality of life, which may increase sedentary behavior and lead to increased telomere attrition. And those humans with already shorter TL likely lived under a poor lifestyle and might have an increased risk to have cancer.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2019
Recent studies investigating elite and master athletes in pool-and long-distance open-water swimm... more Recent studies investigating elite and master athletes in pool-and long-distance open-water swimming showed for elite swimmers that the fastest women were able to outperform the fastest men, and for master athletes that elderly women were able to achieve a similar performance to elderly men. The present study investigating age group records in runners from 5 km to 6 days aimed to test this hypothesis for master runners. Data from the American Master Road Running Records were analyzed, for 5 km, 8 km, 10 km, 10 miles, 20 km, half-marathon, 25 km, 30 km, marathon, 50 km, 50 miles, 100 km, 100 miles, 12 h, 24 h, 48 h and 144 h, for athletes in age groups ranging from 40 to 99 years old. The performance gap between men and women showed higher effects in events lengthening from 5 km to 10 miles (d = 0.617) and lower effects in events lengthening from 12 to 144 h (d = 0.304) running. Both other groups showed similar effects, being 20 km to the marathon (d = 0.607) and 50 km to 100 miles (d = 0.563). The performance gap between men and women showed higher effects in the age groups 85 years and above (d = 0.953) followed by 55 to 69 years (d = 0.633), and lower effects for the age groups 40 to 54 years (d = 0.558) and 70 to 84 years (d = 0.508). In summary, men are faster than women in American road running events, however, the sex gap decreases with increasing age but not with increasing event length.
The aim of this study was to examine the effects of the performance level and race distance on pa... more The aim of this study was to examine the effects of the performance level and race distance on pacing in ultra-triathlons (Double, Triple, Quintuple and Deca), wherein pacing is defined as the relative time (%) spent in each discipline (swimming, cycling and running). All finishers (n = 3,622) of Double, Triple, Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlons between 1985 and 2016 were analysed and classified into quartile groups (Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4) with Q1 being the fastest and Q4 the slowest. Performance of all non-finishers (n = 1,000) during the same period was also examined. Triple and Quintuple triathlons (24.4%) produced the highest rate of non-finishers, and Deca Iron ultra-triathlons produced the lowest rate (18.0%) (χ 2 = 12.1, p = 0.007, φC = 0.05). For the relative swimming and cycling times (%), Deca triathletes (6.7 ± 1.5% and 48.8 ± 4.9%, respectively) proved the fastest and Double (9.2 ± 1.6% and 49.6 ± 3.6%) Iron ultra-triathletes were the slowest (p < 0.008) with Q4 being the fastest group (8.3 ± 1.6% and 48.8 ± 4.3%) and Q1 the slowest one (9.5 ± 1.5% and 50.9 ± 3.0%) (p < 0.001). In running, Double triathletes were relatively the fastest (41.2 ± 4.0%) and Deca (44.5 ± 5.4%) Iron ultra-triathletes the slowest (p < 0.001) with Q1 being the fastest (39.6 ± 3.3%) and Q4 the slowest group (42.9 ± 4.7%) (p < 0.001). Based on these findings, it was concluded that the fastest ultra-triathletes spent relatively more time swimming and cycling and less time running, highlighting the importance of the role of the latter discipline for the overall ultra-triathlon performance. Furthermore, coaches and ultra-triathletes should be aware of differences in pacing between Double, Triple, Quintuple and Deca Iron triathlons.
[Purpose] To verify the identification of the anaerobic threshold through the double product brea... more [Purpose] To verify the identification of the anaerobic threshold through the double product breakpoint (DPBP) method for individuals with type 2 diabetes. [Subjects and Methods] Nine individuals with T2D (7 females; age=63.2 ± 8.9 y) and 10 non-diabetic (ND) (7 females; age=58.3 ± 7.8 y) performed an incremental exercise test on a cycle ergometer. Heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP) and expired gas were measured at the end of each stage. The ventilatory threshold (VT) and DPBP were considered as the exercise intensities above which an over proportional increases in VE and DP were observed in relation to increasing workload. [Results] No differences were observed between the workloads, HR and VO 2 corresponding to the AT identified respectively by VT and DPBP. For the T2D, strong correlations between VT and DBPB workloads (r= 0.853), HR (r= 0.714), and VO 2 (r=0.863) were found. These relationships were similar to those found for the control group (r= 0.923; r=0.881; and r= 0.863, respectively). [Conclusion] These results demonstrate that the DPBP enables for the prediction of AT and correlated well the VT in both the T2D and ND participants.
Background/Study context: Many studies have been conducted on the triathlon during the last sever... more Background/Study context: Many studies have been conducted on the triathlon during the last several years; however, less information exists with regards to duathlon (i.e., Run 1, Bike and Run 2). The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of age on pacing (i.e., the relative contribution – % – of each discipline and transition times – Transition 1 and Transition 2 – to overall race time) of duathletes compet- ing either to short (i.e., 10 km Run 1, 50 km Bike and 5 km Run 2) or long distance (i.e., 10 km Run 1, 150 km Bike and 30 km Run 2). Methods: We analyzed 6,671 finishes (women’s, n= 1,037, age 36.6 ± 9.1 years; men’s, n= 5,634, 40.0 ± 10.0 years) of 3,881 duathletes competing in ‘Powerman Zofingen’, the World Championship, from 2003 to 2017, in both the short and the long distance race. Results: A large discipline×distance interaction on relative time (%) was observed in the short distance (p < .001, η2p = .936); 24.7%, 57.4%, and 15.8% were spent in Run 1, Bike, and Run 2, respectively. In the long distance, the relative contribution of disciplines was 8.0%, 59.0%, and 32.1%, respectively. A trivial discipline×sex interaction on relative time (%) was shown in the short (p < .001, η2p = .007) and long distance (p < .001, η2p = .016). In the short distance, a small discipline×age group interaction on relative time (%) was found (p < .001, η2p = .030) with younger age groups spending less time (%) in Run 1, Transition 1 and Transition 2, and older groups less time (%) in Bike and Run 2. In the long distance, a moderate discipline×age group interaction on relative time (%) was observed (p < .001, η2p = .077) with younger age groups spending less time (%) in Run 1, Transition 1, Transition 2 and Run 2, and older groups less time (%) in Bike. Conclusions: These findings suggest that younger duathletes are relatively faster in Run 1 and transitions, and older duathletes in Bike in both distances. However, older duathletes are relatively faster in Run 2 in the short distance and younger duathletes are relatively faster in Run 2 in the long distance. The magnitude of the combined effect of discipline and age group on pacing was larger in the long than in the short distance. Therefore, athletes and coaches should be aware of the variation of pacing by age group and distance of a duathlon race such as ‘Powerman Zofingen’.
Background: Aging is associated with decreased autonomic balance which could be assessed by Heart... more Background: Aging is associated with decreased autonomic balance which could be assessed by Heart Rate Variability (HRV). Exercise training improves autonomic balance, but there is a lack in the literature regarding the heart rate variability (HRV) of master sprinters and endurance athletes. Purpose: The effects of lifelong endurance and sprint training on cardiac autonomic balance were assessed in master athletes and compared with age-matched controls and young untrained controls. Methods: Participants (n = 81) were 8 master sprinters (MS; 51.8 ± 11.1 yrs), 8 master endurance athletes (EN, n = 8, 53.6 ± 8.6 yrs), 17 age-matched untrained (CON, 47.47 ± 6.00 yrs) and 48 young controls (YC, 25.40 ± 3.87 yrs). For the acquisition of RR intervals (iRR) (Polar RS800X Heart Rate Monitor®) the participants remained seated for 15-min with the final 10-min being considered for analysis. HRV was measured using Kubios software. A one-way ANOVA with repeated measures was applied. Results: All studied parameters did not differ between MS and EN {Time Domain [HR (bpm) 59.00 ± 6.13 vs. 58.94 ± 12.75], [R-R (ms) 1030.45 ± 107.45 vs. 1068.77 ± 206.17], [SDNN (ms) 57.35 ± 20.07 vs. 80.66 ± 71.07], [RMSSD (ms) 40.88 ± 20.07 vs. 38.93 ± 20.44]; Non-linear domain [SD1 (ms) 28.93 ± 14.20 vs. 27.56 ± 14.46]}, whose demonstrated a reduced HR and elevated mean R-R intervals in comparison to both YC {[HR (bpm) 69.64 ± 9.81]; [R-R (ms) 883.93 ± 124.11]} and age-matched controls {[HR (bpm) 70.06 ± 6.63]; [R-R (ms) 865.11 ± 78.39]}. It was observed a lower HRV for middle-aged CON {[RMSSD (ms) 20.23 ± 5.87], [SDNN (ms) 37.79 ± 10.15] and [SD1 (ms) 14.31 ± 4.15]} compared to YC {[RMSSD (ms) 43.33 ± 26.41], [SDNN (ms) 67.07 ± 28.77] and [SD1 (ms) 30.66 ± 18.69; p < .05]}. These last age-related differences were not observed for MS and EN. Conclusion: For master athletes, regardless of whether they are trained in endurance or sprinters, both training modes revealed to be equally beneficial in attenuating the effects of aging on the autonomic balance.
Background: Running velocity associated with VO 2 max (vVO 2 max) is a parameter widely used for ... more Background: Running velocity associated with VO 2 max (vVO 2 max) is a parameter widely used for exercise prescription and is related to endurance performance. However, the vVO 2 max determination usually requires a maximal effort test and equipped laboratory for expired gas analysis, what make difficulty its assessment. Objective: We aimed to test the validity of a simple method of vVO 2 max prediction through the heart rate cost of running (HRC) in a submaximal 6-min running test, both in treadmill and in a 400-meter track. Methods: Male recreational runners (n = 16; 30.3 ± 8.0 years; VO 2 max of 46.2 ± 3.2 ml·kg −1 ·min −1) randomly underwent an incremental test in treadmill with gas analysis, and a 3000-m time trial in a track, to determine vVO 2 max. Before every maximal test, participants also performed a submaximal 6-min running (~85% HRmax), both in the treadmill and in a track, to assess HRC (bpm −1 m·min −1) by dividing the sub-maximal running velocity by its respective HR. The vVO 2 max (km·h −1) was predicted by dividing the HRmax (bpm)/HRC (bpm −1 m·min −1). Results: No differences were verified (p > .05) among vVO 2 max determined both in the treadmill (13.8 ± 0.9 km·h −1) and track (13.6 ± 0.9 km·h −1) to those predicted by the HRC method both in treadmill (13.5 ± 0.8 km·h −1) and track (13.6 ± 1.0 km·h −1). The vVO 2 max measured directly with expired gas analysis was highly correlated with vVO 2 max estimated through HRC in treadmill and track (p < .05). Additionally, the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and Bland-Altman technique revealed good agreement and reliability classified with substantial agreement [ICC = 0.673 (95% CI 0.064-0.886; p = .019)] and almost perfect agreement [ICC = 0.870 (95% CI 0.628-0.955 p = .0001)] between methods to identify vVO 2 max, respectively. Conclusion: A submaximal 6-min exercise test protocol to assess HRC of running was considered valid to estimate vVO 2 max of recreational runners both in treadmill and outdoor track.
Brazilian Journal of Kinanthropometry and Human Performance, 2019
The postural evaluation software (SAPO) has been used as a valuable tool for the analysis of post... more The postural evaluation software (SAPO) has been used as a valuable tool for the analysis of postural alterations, however, such a tool depends on palpation performed by the evaluator. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the inter-and intra-examiner reliability of experienced and inexperienced examiners in measurements derived from the palpation method, and its possible influence on measurements obtained by SAPO. Nine evaluators participated in the study, which were divided into three groups according to experience with respect to palpation (GI: inexperienced group, GSE: semi-experienced group and GE: experienced group). Each evaluator performed the postural analysis of 10 volunteers, which were photographed in orthostatic position, following the SAPO recommendations. The intra-examiner reliability analysis indicated that all three groups had higher, good and moderate mean correlation values for each examiner than low correlations. In the inter-examiner reliability assessment, GE and GSE groups exhibited higher correlation values. The intra-class correlation coefficient, in the single-measure analysis, presented correlation coefficients <0.70 in 9 of the variables analyzed, indicating non-significant correlation. It was concluded that the measures analyzed by SAPO have high intra-examiner reliability. However, regarding inter-examiner reliability, the group composed of inexperienced evaluators presented lower values, suggesting that the experience time may have influenced the inter-examiner reliability regarding postural evaluation. Resumo-O Software de avaliação postural (SAPO) vem sendo utilizado como uma ferra-menta valiosa para a análise das alterações posturais, porém tal ferramenta depende da palpação realizada pelo examinador. O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar a fidedignidade inter e intraexaminadores experientes e inexperientes nas medidas derivadas do método de palpação, e sua possível influência sobre as medidas obtidas pelo SAPO. Participaram do estudo nove avaliadores, divididos em três grupos de acordo com a experiência com relação a palpação (GI: grupo inexperiente, GSE: grupo semi experiente e GE: grupo experiente). Cada avaliador re-alizou a análise postural de 10 voluntários, os quais foram fotografados em posição ortostática, seguindo as recomendações do SAPO. A análise da fidedignidade intraexaminadores indicou que os três grupos apresentaram valores de correlação em média mais altos, bons e moderados, do que correlações baixas. Na avaliação da fidedignidade interexaminadores os grupos GE e GSE exibiram valores de correlação mais altos. O coeficiente de correlação intraclasse, na análise de medida única, apresentou índices de correlação <0,70 em 9 das variáveis analisadas, indicando correlação não considerável. Concluiu-se que as medidas analisadas pelo SAPO possuem uma alta fidedignidade intraexaminadores. No entanto, em relação a fidedignidade interexaminadores o grupo composto por examinadores inexperientes com relação a palpação apresentou valores mais baixos, sugerindo que o tempo de experiência dos examinadores pode ter influenciado na fidedignidade interexaminadores da avaliação postural.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2018
“Ice Mile” swimming (i.e., 1,608 m in water of below 58 C) is becoming increasingly popular. Sinc... more “Ice Mile” swimming (i.e., 1,608 m in water of below 58 C) is becoming increasingly popular. Since the foundation of the International Ice Swimming Association (II- SA) in 2009, official races are held as World Cup Races and World Championships. Ice swimming was a demonstration sport at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia. This case study aimed to identify core body temperature and selected hematological and biochemical parameters before and after repeated “Ice Miles.” An experienced ice swimmer completed 6 consecutive Ice Miles within 2 days. Three Ice Miles adhered to the strict criteria for the definition of Ice Miles, whereas the other 3 were very close (i.e., 5.2, 6.1, and 6.68 C) to the temperature limit. Swimming times, changes in core body temperatures, and selected urinary and hematological parameters were recorded. The athlete showed after each Ice Mile a metabolic acidosis (i.e., an increase in lactate and TCO2; a decrease in base excess and HCO32) and an increase in blood glucose, cortisol, and creatine kinase concentration. The decrease in pH cor- related significantly and negatively with the increase in corti- sol level, indicating that this intense exercise causes a metabolic stress. The change in core body temperature between start and finish was negatively associated with met- abolic acidosis. The increase in creatine kinase suggests skeletal muscle damages due to shivering after an Ice Mile. For athletes and coaches, swimming in cold water during Ice Miles leads to a metabolic acidosis, which the swimmer tries to compensate with a respiratory response. Considering the increasing popularity of ice swimming, the findings have practical value for swimmers and practitioners (e.g., coaches, exercise physiologists, and physicians) working with them because our results provide a detailed description of acute physiological responses to repeated swimming in cold con- ditions. These findings are of importance for athletes and coaches for National Championships and World Champion- ships in Ice Swimming following the IISA rules.
Applied Physiology, Nutrition and Metabolism, 2018
Resistance exercise (RE) can be an excellent modality for glycemic control. Studies have demonstr... more Resistance exercise (RE) can be an excellent modality for glycemic control. Studies have demonstrated that a single RE session can reduce glycemia in subjects with or without diabetes. Little is known about the dose-response effect of RE on glycemic control. This study aimed to investigate the acute metabolic responses after different RE protocols. Eighty-nine males were separated into six groups that completed RE protocols: 2 sets of 18 repetitions (2 × 18 at 50% of 1-repetition maximum (1RM); n = 19); 3 sets of 12 repetitions (3 × 12 at 70% of 1RM; n = 14); 4 sets of 9 repetitions (4 × 9 at 80% of 1RM; n = 13); 6 sets of 6 repetitions (6 × 6 at 90% of 1RM; n = 19); circuit (2 × 18 at 50% of 1RM; n = 12); and a control session (n = 12). The exercise sequence consisted of 8 exercises. An oral glucose tolerance test was conducted with metabolic measurements immediately after each RE protocol and every 15 min until 120 min of recovery. All groups exhibited significantly lower values (p < 0.05) in the glucose area under the curve (AUC) when compared with control over a 120 min monitoring period. The 6 × 6 group showed a significantly lower glucose AUC versus the 3 × 12 and 4 × 9 groups (p = 0.004; p = 0.001, respectively). As for blood lactate, the control and 6 × 6 groups exhibited lower AUC values versus all other groups (p < 0.05), and AUC for glucose and lactate concentration showed a negative and significant correlation (r =-0.46; p < 0.0001). It appears that a combination of 9-12 repetitions per set and 3-4 sets per muscle group might be optimal for acute postprandial glucose control. Résumé : L'exercice contre résistance (RE) peut s'avérer un excellent moyen de contrôle de la glycémie. D'après des études, une seule séance de RE peut diminuer la glycémie chez des sujets avec ou sans diabète. On en sait peu au sujet de la relation dose-réponse de RE sur le contrôle de la glycémie. Cette étude a pour objectif d'analyser les réponses métaboliques ponctuelles consécutives à divers protocoles RE. On répartit 89 hommes dans 6 groupes de protocoles RE consistant en : 2 séries de 18 répétitions (2 × 18 à 50 % 1RM; n = 19), 3 séries de 12 répétitions (3 × 12 à 70 % 1RM; n = 14), 4 séries de 9 répétitions (4 × 9 à 80 % 1RM; n = 13), 6 séries de 6 répétitions (6 × 6 à 90 % 1RM; n = 19), un circuit d'exercices (2 × 18 à 50% 1RM; n = 12) et une séance de contrôle (n = 12). La séquence d'exercices comprend 8 exercices. Les participants se soumettent à une épreuve d'hyperglycémie provoquée par voie orale et à d'autres mesures métaboliques immédiatement après chaque protocole RE puis toutes les 15 min durant 120 min de récupération. Durant les 120 min de récupération, tous les groupes présentent de plus petites surfaces (p < 0,05) sous la courbe de glucose (AUC) comparativement au groupe de contrôle. Le protocole 6 × 6 présente une plus petite AUC significative de glucose comparativement aux groupes 3 × 12 et 4 × 9 (p = 0,004; p = 0,001, respectivement). À propos du lactate sanguin, le groupe de contrôle et le groupe 6 × 6 présentent des plus petites AUC comparativement à tous les autres groupes (p < 0,05); de plus, on observe une corrélation inverse significative entre les AUC du glucose et du lactate (r = −0,46; p < 0,0001). Il semble qu'une combinaison de 9 à 12 répétitions par série et 3 à 4 séries par groupe musculaire s'avèrent un protocole optimal pour le contrôle postprandial ponctuel de la glycémie. [Traduit par la Rédaction] Mots-clés : glycémie, protocoles d'exercices contre résistance, lactate, épreuve d'hyperglycémie provoquée par voie orale, entraînement à la force.
Telomere shortening is associated to sarcopenia leading to functional impairment during aging. Th... more Telomere shortening is associated to sarcopenia leading to functional impairment during aging. There are mechanisms associated with telomere attrition, as well to its protection and repair. Physical training is a factor that attenuates telomere exercise intensities on telomere biology. Thus, we evaluated domain) on gene expression of senescence markers Checkpoint kinase 2 and tumor suppressor (Chk2 and p53, respectively), shelterin telomere repeat binding 1 and 2 (Trf1/Trf2), DNA re- pair (Xrcc5), telomerase reverse transcriptase (mTERT) and telomere length in middle aged mice. Three groups were stud- ied: a control group (CTL) and two groups submitted to swim- ming at intensities below the lactate threshold (LI group) and above the lactate threshold (HI group) for 40 and 20 min re- spectively, for 12 weeks. After training, the HI group showed reduction in p53 expression in the muscle, and decreased shel- terin complex expression when compared to LI group. No dif- ferences were observed between groups for mTERT expression and telomere length. Thus, exercise training in high-intensity and apoptosis. The higher intensity exercise training also di length and mTERT expression. Such results possibly indicate a training.
Background Physical activity has been associated with reduced oxidative stress (OS) in observatio... more Background Physical activity has been associated with reduced oxidative stress (OS) in observational studies and clinical trials.
Objective The purpose of this systematic review and meta- analysis of controlled trials was to determine the effect of physical exercise on OS parameters.
Methods We conducted a systematic review of the litera- ture up to March 2016 that included the following data- bases: PubMed, SCOPUS, and Web of Science. A keyword combination referring to exercise training and OS was included as part of a more thorough search process. We also manually searched the reference lists of the articles. From an initial 1573 references, we included 30 controlled trials (1346 participants) in the qualitative analysis, 19 of which were included in the meta-analysis. All trials were conducted in humans and had at least one exercise inter- vention and a paired control group. Using a standardized protocol, two investigators independently abstracted data on study design, sample size, participant characteristics, intervention, follow-up duration, outcomes, and quantita- tive data for the meta-analysis. Thus, the investigators independently assigned quality scores with a methodolog- ical quality assessment (MQA).
Results The agreement level between the reviewers was 85.3 %. Discrepancies were solved in a consensus meeting. The MQA showed a total score in the quality index between 40 and 90 % and a mean quality of 55 %. Further, in a random-effects model, data from each trial were pooled and weighted by the inverse of the total variance. Physical training was associated with a significant reduc- tion in pro-oxidant parameters (standard mean difference [SMD] –1.08; 95 % confidence interval [CI] –1.57 to –0.58; p \ 0.001) and an increase in antioxidant capacity (SMD 1.45; 95 % CI 0.83–2.06; p \ 0.001).
Conclusion The pooled analysis revealed that regardless of intensity, volume, type of exercise, and studied population, the antioxidant indicators tended to increase and pro-oxi- dant indicators tended to decrease after training. Therefore, we conclude that exercise training seems to induce an antioxidant effect. Thus, it is suggested that people practice some kind of exercise to balance the redox state, regardless of their health status, to improve health-related outcomes.
The sub-2-hour marathon is a new barrier in endurance running performance, and it has been widely... more The sub-2-hour marathon is a new barrier in endurance running performance, and it has been widely debated in the scientific community. In this review we present a mathematical model to estimate the possible year when a male could break through the sub-2-hour barrier, and also an estimation of when a female could break Paula Radcliffe's marathon running record. Further, we present several aspects (ie, physiology, nationality, age, biomechanics, pacing, and drafting) that are associated with marathon running performance in elite runners and, finally, the possible characteristics of the male to break the sub-2-hour barrier. In summary, with the results of the developed equations, it is possible that a male athlete can break through the sub-2-hour barrier in the next decade (with Nike ® Breaking2 performance 1920-2018 [NBP]: y =0.0417x 2-14.18x +3,128; year of 2026; without NBP 1920-2018: y =0.045x 2-15.12x +3,194; year of 2027). This marathoner will possibly have a maximal oxygen uptake >85 mL•kg-1 •min-1 and should perform the race at a pacing higher than 85% of maximal oxygen uptake. In addition, this runner should pay more attention to strength training, endurance strength, speed training, and focus on running training at an intensity above the anaerobic threshold. Most likely, this runner originates from East Africa (especially from Ethiopia) and will have an age of ~27 years. For the females, there is poor evidence regarding the physiological profile of the female marathoner who will break Radcliffe's record, but the available literature suggests that it will not happen any time soon.
Leukocyte telomere length (LTL), a biological marker of aging that is associated with age-related... more Leukocyte telomere length (LTL), a biological marker of aging that is associated with age-related diseases, is longer in master endurance runners (ER) than age-matched controls, but the underlying mechanisms are poorly investigated. The LTL, nitric oxide (NO), and redox balance of ER master runners were analyzed and compared to untrained middle-aged and young adults. We hypothesized that NO and redox balance at baseline would be related to longer LTL in ER athletes. Participants (n = 38) were long-term ER runners (n = 10; 51.6 ± 5.2 yrs.; 28.4 ± 9.4 yrs. of experience) and untrained age-matched (n = 17; 46.6 ± 7.1 yrs) and young controls (n = 11; 21.8 ± 4.0 yrs). Volunteers were assessed for anamnesis, anthropometrics, and blood sampling. Measurements of pro-and anti-oxidant status and DNA extraction were performed using commercial kits. Relative LTL was determined with qPCR analyses (T/S). While the middle-aged controls had shorter LTL than the young group, no difference was observed between ER athletes and young participants. A large effect size be- tween the LTL of ER athletes and middle-aged controls (d = 0.85) was also observed. The ER athletes and untrained young group had better redox balance according to antioxidant/pro-oxidant ratios compared to middle-aged untrained participants, which also had lower values for redox parameters (TEAC/TBARS, SOD/ TBARS, and CAT/TBARS; all p < 0.05). Furthermore, the NO level of ER athletes (175.2 ± 31.9 μM) was higher (p < 0.05) than middle-aged controls (67.2 ± 23.3 μM) and young participants (129.2 ± 17.3 μM), with a significant correlation with LTL (r = 0.766; p = 0.02). In conclusion, ER runners have longer LTL than age-matched controls, which in turn may be related to better NO bioavailability and redox balance status.
The concept of anaerobic threshold (AT) was introduced during the nineteen sixties. Since then, s... more The concept of anaerobic threshold (AT) was introduced during the nineteen sixties. Since then, several methods to identify the anaerobic threshold (AT) have been studied and suggested as novel ‘thresholds’ based upon the variable used for its detection (i.e. lactate threshold, ventilatory threshold, glucose threshold). These different techniques have brought some confusion about how we should name this parameter, for instance, anaerobic threshold or the physiological measure used (i.e. lactate, ventilation). On the other hand, the modernization of scientific methods and apparatus to detect AT, as well as the body of literature formed in the past decades, could provide a more cohesive understanding over the AT and the multiple physiological systems involved. Thus, the purpose of this review was to provide an integrative perspective of the methods to determine AT.
For any triathlon distance (short, Olympic, half-distance and full-distance), competitors spend m... more For any triathlon distance (short, Olympic, half-distance and full-distance), competitors spend more time cycling than swimming or running, but running has emerged as the discipline with the greatest influence on overall performance at the Olympic distance. However, there is a lack of evidence on which discipline has the greatest influence on performance in the overall full-distance triathlon (3.8 km swimming/180 km cycling/42.195 km running), especially for the fastest performing athletes of all time. The total race times of 51 fastest triathletes (sub-8-hour) were studied, while for the split times, a sample of 44 participants was considered. The discipline that seemed to better predict total race time was cycling (coefficient = 0.828; p < 0.001), followed by running (coefficient = 0.726; p < 0.001) and swimming (coefficient = 0.476; p < 0.001). Furthermore, cycling was the discipline with the highest performance improvement over the years, whereas running had a slightly decrease. In conclusion, cycling seems to be the discipline with greater influence in final result for the full-distance triathlon.
Emergent evidence suggests that the long-term healthy life- style of master athletes may attenuat... more Emergent evidence suggests that the long-term healthy life- style of master athletes may attenuate aging. We compared telomere length (TL) of high-level master sprinters and non- athlete age-matched controls, and analyzed the relationships of TL with performance and body fat. Elite master sprinters (n = 11; aged 50.1 ± 9.2yrs) and healthy untrained controls (n = 10; aged 45.4 ± 10.9yrs) had blood samples collected for biochemical and biomolecular analyses. Master sprinters had longer TL, lower body fat and BMI, and a better lipid profile than age-matched controls (p < 0.05). A large effect size was verified comparing TL between athletes vs. controls (Cohen’s d = 1.039), with a significant negative correlation between TL and perfor- mance decline per decade (r = − 0.624, p < 0.01) and a positive correlation of TL and actual performance level (r = 0.641, p < 0.01). In conclusion, TL of elite master sprinters was longer than their untrained peers, and seems to be not only a marker of health status, but also an indicator of sports longevity since both actual performance level and its decrease over years were related to TL. Further research might assess the TL of elite mas- ter endurance athletes for comparison with sprinters, and also investigate the underlying mechanisms by which the attenua- tion of telomere shortening occurs in master athletes.
We aimed to determine which discipline had the greater performance improvements in the history of... more We aimed to determine which discipline had the greater performance improvements in the history of Ironman triathlon in Hawaii and also which discipline had the greater influence in overall race time. Data from 1983 to 2018 of the top three women and men of each year who competed in the Ironman World Championship were included. In addition to exploratory data analyses, linear regressions between split times and years of achievement were performed. Further, a stepwise multiple linear regression was applied using total race time as the dependent variable and split times as the independent variables. Both women and men significantly improved their performances from 1983 to 2018 in the Ironman World Championship. Swimming had the largest difference in improvements between men and women (3.0% versus 12.1%, respectively). A negative and significant decrease in each discipline was identified for both women and men, with cycling being the discipline with the greatest reduction. The results from the stepwise multiple regression indicated that cycling was the discipline with the highest influence on overall race time for both sexes. Based on the findings of this study, cycling seems to be the Ironman triathlon discipline that most improved overall race times and is also the discipline with the greatest influence on the overall race time of elite men and women in the Ironman World Championship.
Introduction The influence of socioeconomic factors in the achievement of sport success is still ... more Introduction The influence of socioeconomic factors in the achievement of sport success is still a matter of debate. Due to the popularity and low-cost practice, analyses of the Athletics World Ranking (AWR) may provide valuable information. Therefore, we investigated the frequency of different socioeconomic status in the AWR for two events (100 m and 10 k) in three categories: Junior, Elite Professionals and Masters. Method Data of 5,011 athletes from 99 nationalities were obtained from the official websites of International Association of Athletics Federations, and World Masters Rankings in the years of 2006–2016. The Human Development Index (HDI) for each nationality was used as a marker of socioeconomic status. Results AnHDI×agegroupassociationwasobserved(χ2=0.001,p=0.001,φC=0.322),wheretheanalysisoffrequency rate demonstrated a high prevalence of very elevated and elevated HDI in the AWR for the 100 m. For the endurance 10 k race analysis, the HDI × age group association was also observed, with a high prevalence of moderate and low HDI in Junior and Professionals. Regarding the Masters, the prevalence of moderate and low HDI is almost zero. In addition, multiple linear regressions indicate that the HDI, gross domestic product per capita (GDP/capita) and population can predict the frequency of a country in athletics ranking. Conclusions There is a high prevalence of elevated and very elevated HDI nationalities in the AWR in sprint races in all age groups. For endurance races, Junior and Professionals had a great prevalence of low/moderate HDI, and Masters are dominated by very elevated HDI. A nation’s frequency in the World Masters Ranking could be indicative of HDI, since an association was found among them.
Telomeres are genomic complex at the end of chromosomes that protects the DNA and telomere length... more Telomeres are genomic complex at the end of chromosomes that protects the DNA and telomere length (TL) is related to several age-related diseases, lifespan, and cancer. On the other hand, cancer is a multifactorial disease that is responsible for reduce the quality of life and kills millions of people every year. Both, shorter TL and cancer are related and could be treated or prevented depending of the lifestyle. In this review we discuss the possible role of exercise in the relationship between shorter telomeres, telomerase activity, and cancer. In summary, there is evidence that exercise leads to less telomere attrition and exercise also may diminish the risk of cancer, these two outcomes are possible intermediated by a reduction in oxidative stress, and chronic inflammation. Although, there is evidence that shorter TL are associated with cancer, the possible mechanisms that one may lead to the other remains to be clarified. We assume that humans under cancer treatment may suffer a great decrease in quality of life, which may increase sedentary behavior and lead to increased telomere attrition. And those humans with already shorter TL likely lived under a poor lifestyle and might have an increased risk to have cancer.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2019
Recent studies investigating elite and master athletes in pool-and long-distance open-water swimm... more Recent studies investigating elite and master athletes in pool-and long-distance open-water swimming showed for elite swimmers that the fastest women were able to outperform the fastest men, and for master athletes that elderly women were able to achieve a similar performance to elderly men. The present study investigating age group records in runners from 5 km to 6 days aimed to test this hypothesis for master runners. Data from the American Master Road Running Records were analyzed, for 5 km, 8 km, 10 km, 10 miles, 20 km, half-marathon, 25 km, 30 km, marathon, 50 km, 50 miles, 100 km, 100 miles, 12 h, 24 h, 48 h and 144 h, for athletes in age groups ranging from 40 to 99 years old. The performance gap between men and women showed higher effects in events lengthening from 5 km to 10 miles (d = 0.617) and lower effects in events lengthening from 12 to 144 h (d = 0.304) running. Both other groups showed similar effects, being 20 km to the marathon (d = 0.607) and 50 km to 100 miles (d = 0.563). The performance gap between men and women showed higher effects in the age groups 85 years and above (d = 0.953) followed by 55 to 69 years (d = 0.633), and lower effects for the age groups 40 to 54 years (d = 0.558) and 70 to 84 years (d = 0.508). In summary, men are faster than women in American road running events, however, the sex gap decreases with increasing age but not with increasing event length.
The aim of this study was to examine the effects of the performance level and race distance on pa... more The aim of this study was to examine the effects of the performance level and race distance on pacing in ultra-triathlons (Double, Triple, Quintuple and Deca), wherein pacing is defined as the relative time (%) spent in each discipline (swimming, cycling and running). All finishers (n = 3,622) of Double, Triple, Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlons between 1985 and 2016 were analysed and classified into quartile groups (Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4) with Q1 being the fastest and Q4 the slowest. Performance of all non-finishers (n = 1,000) during the same period was also examined. Triple and Quintuple triathlons (24.4%) produced the highest rate of non-finishers, and Deca Iron ultra-triathlons produced the lowest rate (18.0%) (χ 2 = 12.1, p = 0.007, φC = 0.05). For the relative swimming and cycling times (%), Deca triathletes (6.7 ± 1.5% and 48.8 ± 4.9%, respectively) proved the fastest and Double (9.2 ± 1.6% and 49.6 ± 3.6%) Iron ultra-triathletes were the slowest (p < 0.008) with Q4 being the fastest group (8.3 ± 1.6% and 48.8 ± 4.3%) and Q1 the slowest one (9.5 ± 1.5% and 50.9 ± 3.0%) (p < 0.001). In running, Double triathletes were relatively the fastest (41.2 ± 4.0%) and Deca (44.5 ± 5.4%) Iron ultra-triathletes the slowest (p < 0.001) with Q1 being the fastest (39.6 ± 3.3%) and Q4 the slowest group (42.9 ± 4.7%) (p < 0.001). Based on these findings, it was concluded that the fastest ultra-triathletes spent relatively more time swimming and cycling and less time running, highlighting the importance of the role of the latter discipline for the overall ultra-triathlon performance. Furthermore, coaches and ultra-triathletes should be aware of differences in pacing between Double, Triple, Quintuple and Deca Iron triathlons.
[Purpose] To verify the identification of the anaerobic threshold through the double product brea... more [Purpose] To verify the identification of the anaerobic threshold through the double product breakpoint (DPBP) method for individuals with type 2 diabetes. [Subjects and Methods] Nine individuals with T2D (7 females; age=63.2 ± 8.9 y) and 10 non-diabetic (ND) (7 females; age=58.3 ± 7.8 y) performed an incremental exercise test on a cycle ergometer. Heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP) and expired gas were measured at the end of each stage. The ventilatory threshold (VT) and DPBP were considered as the exercise intensities above which an over proportional increases in VE and DP were observed in relation to increasing workload. [Results] No differences were observed between the workloads, HR and VO 2 corresponding to the AT identified respectively by VT and DPBP. For the T2D, strong correlations between VT and DBPB workloads (r= 0.853), HR (r= 0.714), and VO 2 (r=0.863) were found. These relationships were similar to those found for the control group (r= 0.923; r=0.881; and r= 0.863, respectively). [Conclusion] These results demonstrate that the DPBP enables for the prediction of AT and correlated well the VT in both the T2D and ND participants.
Background/Study context: Many studies have been conducted on the triathlon during the last sever... more Background/Study context: Many studies have been conducted on the triathlon during the last several years; however, less information exists with regards to duathlon (i.e., Run 1, Bike and Run 2). The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of age on pacing (i.e., the relative contribution – % – of each discipline and transition times – Transition 1 and Transition 2 – to overall race time) of duathletes compet- ing either to short (i.e., 10 km Run 1, 50 km Bike and 5 km Run 2) or long distance (i.e., 10 km Run 1, 150 km Bike and 30 km Run 2). Methods: We analyzed 6,671 finishes (women’s, n= 1,037, age 36.6 ± 9.1 years; men’s, n= 5,634, 40.0 ± 10.0 years) of 3,881 duathletes competing in ‘Powerman Zofingen’, the World Championship, from 2003 to 2017, in both the short and the long distance race. Results: A large discipline×distance interaction on relative time (%) was observed in the short distance (p < .001, η2p = .936); 24.7%, 57.4%, and 15.8% were spent in Run 1, Bike, and Run 2, respectively. In the long distance, the relative contribution of disciplines was 8.0%, 59.0%, and 32.1%, respectively. A trivial discipline×sex interaction on relative time (%) was shown in the short (p < .001, η2p = .007) and long distance (p < .001, η2p = .016). In the short distance, a small discipline×age group interaction on relative time (%) was found (p < .001, η2p = .030) with younger age groups spending less time (%) in Run 1, Transition 1 and Transition 2, and older groups less time (%) in Bike and Run 2. In the long distance, a moderate discipline×age group interaction on relative time (%) was observed (p < .001, η2p = .077) with younger age groups spending less time (%) in Run 1, Transition 1, Transition 2 and Run 2, and older groups less time (%) in Bike. Conclusions: These findings suggest that younger duathletes are relatively faster in Run 1 and transitions, and older duathletes in Bike in both distances. However, older duathletes are relatively faster in Run 2 in the short distance and younger duathletes are relatively faster in Run 2 in the long distance. The magnitude of the combined effect of discipline and age group on pacing was larger in the long than in the short distance. Therefore, athletes and coaches should be aware of the variation of pacing by age group and distance of a duathlon race such as ‘Powerman Zofingen’.
Background: Aging is associated with decreased autonomic balance which could be assessed by Heart... more Background: Aging is associated with decreased autonomic balance which could be assessed by Heart Rate Variability (HRV). Exercise training improves autonomic balance, but there is a lack in the literature regarding the heart rate variability (HRV) of master sprinters and endurance athletes. Purpose: The effects of lifelong endurance and sprint training on cardiac autonomic balance were assessed in master athletes and compared with age-matched controls and young untrained controls. Methods: Participants (n = 81) were 8 master sprinters (MS; 51.8 ± 11.1 yrs), 8 master endurance athletes (EN, n = 8, 53.6 ± 8.6 yrs), 17 age-matched untrained (CON, 47.47 ± 6.00 yrs) and 48 young controls (YC, 25.40 ± 3.87 yrs). For the acquisition of RR intervals (iRR) (Polar RS800X Heart Rate Monitor®) the participants remained seated for 15-min with the final 10-min being considered for analysis. HRV was measured using Kubios software. A one-way ANOVA with repeated measures was applied. Results: All studied parameters did not differ between MS and EN {Time Domain [HR (bpm) 59.00 ± 6.13 vs. 58.94 ± 12.75], [R-R (ms) 1030.45 ± 107.45 vs. 1068.77 ± 206.17], [SDNN (ms) 57.35 ± 20.07 vs. 80.66 ± 71.07], [RMSSD (ms) 40.88 ± 20.07 vs. 38.93 ± 20.44]; Non-linear domain [SD1 (ms) 28.93 ± 14.20 vs. 27.56 ± 14.46]}, whose demonstrated a reduced HR and elevated mean R-R intervals in comparison to both YC {[HR (bpm) 69.64 ± 9.81]; [R-R (ms) 883.93 ± 124.11]} and age-matched controls {[HR (bpm) 70.06 ± 6.63]; [R-R (ms) 865.11 ± 78.39]}. It was observed a lower HRV for middle-aged CON {[RMSSD (ms) 20.23 ± 5.87], [SDNN (ms) 37.79 ± 10.15] and [SD1 (ms) 14.31 ± 4.15]} compared to YC {[RMSSD (ms) 43.33 ± 26.41], [SDNN (ms) 67.07 ± 28.77] and [SD1 (ms) 30.66 ± 18.69; p < .05]}. These last age-related differences were not observed for MS and EN. Conclusion: For master athletes, regardless of whether they are trained in endurance or sprinters, both training modes revealed to be equally beneficial in attenuating the effects of aging on the autonomic balance.
Background: Running velocity associated with VO 2 max (vVO 2 max) is a parameter widely used for ... more Background: Running velocity associated with VO 2 max (vVO 2 max) is a parameter widely used for exercise prescription and is related to endurance performance. However, the vVO 2 max determination usually requires a maximal effort test and equipped laboratory for expired gas analysis, what make difficulty its assessment. Objective: We aimed to test the validity of a simple method of vVO 2 max prediction through the heart rate cost of running (HRC) in a submaximal 6-min running test, both in treadmill and in a 400-meter track. Methods: Male recreational runners (n = 16; 30.3 ± 8.0 years; VO 2 max of 46.2 ± 3.2 ml·kg −1 ·min −1) randomly underwent an incremental test in treadmill with gas analysis, and a 3000-m time trial in a track, to determine vVO 2 max. Before every maximal test, participants also performed a submaximal 6-min running (~85% HRmax), both in the treadmill and in a track, to assess HRC (bpm −1 m·min −1) by dividing the sub-maximal running velocity by its respective HR. The vVO 2 max (km·h −1) was predicted by dividing the HRmax (bpm)/HRC (bpm −1 m·min −1). Results: No differences were verified (p > .05) among vVO 2 max determined both in the treadmill (13.8 ± 0.9 km·h −1) and track (13.6 ± 0.9 km·h −1) to those predicted by the HRC method both in treadmill (13.5 ± 0.8 km·h −1) and track (13.6 ± 1.0 km·h −1). The vVO 2 max measured directly with expired gas analysis was highly correlated with vVO 2 max estimated through HRC in treadmill and track (p < .05). Additionally, the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and Bland-Altman technique revealed good agreement and reliability classified with substantial agreement [ICC = 0.673 (95% CI 0.064-0.886; p = .019)] and almost perfect agreement [ICC = 0.870 (95% CI 0.628-0.955 p = .0001)] between methods to identify vVO 2 max, respectively. Conclusion: A submaximal 6-min exercise test protocol to assess HRC of running was considered valid to estimate vVO 2 max of recreational runners both in treadmill and outdoor track.
Brazilian Journal of Kinanthropometry and Human Performance, 2019
The postural evaluation software (SAPO) has been used as a valuable tool for the analysis of post... more The postural evaluation software (SAPO) has been used as a valuable tool for the analysis of postural alterations, however, such a tool depends on palpation performed by the evaluator. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the inter-and intra-examiner reliability of experienced and inexperienced examiners in measurements derived from the palpation method, and its possible influence on measurements obtained by SAPO. Nine evaluators participated in the study, which were divided into three groups according to experience with respect to palpation (GI: inexperienced group, GSE: semi-experienced group and GE: experienced group). Each evaluator performed the postural analysis of 10 volunteers, which were photographed in orthostatic position, following the SAPO recommendations. The intra-examiner reliability analysis indicated that all three groups had higher, good and moderate mean correlation values for each examiner than low correlations. In the inter-examiner reliability assessment, GE and GSE groups exhibited higher correlation values. The intra-class correlation coefficient, in the single-measure analysis, presented correlation coefficients <0.70 in 9 of the variables analyzed, indicating non-significant correlation. It was concluded that the measures analyzed by SAPO have high intra-examiner reliability. However, regarding inter-examiner reliability, the group composed of inexperienced evaluators presented lower values, suggesting that the experience time may have influenced the inter-examiner reliability regarding postural evaluation. Resumo-O Software de avaliação postural (SAPO) vem sendo utilizado como uma ferra-menta valiosa para a análise das alterações posturais, porém tal ferramenta depende da palpação realizada pelo examinador. O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar a fidedignidade inter e intraexaminadores experientes e inexperientes nas medidas derivadas do método de palpação, e sua possível influência sobre as medidas obtidas pelo SAPO. Participaram do estudo nove avaliadores, divididos em três grupos de acordo com a experiência com relação a palpação (GI: grupo inexperiente, GSE: grupo semi experiente e GE: grupo experiente). Cada avaliador re-alizou a análise postural de 10 voluntários, os quais foram fotografados em posição ortostática, seguindo as recomendações do SAPO. A análise da fidedignidade intraexaminadores indicou que os três grupos apresentaram valores de correlação em média mais altos, bons e moderados, do que correlações baixas. Na avaliação da fidedignidade interexaminadores os grupos GE e GSE exibiram valores de correlação mais altos. O coeficiente de correlação intraclasse, na análise de medida única, apresentou índices de correlação <0,70 em 9 das variáveis analisadas, indicando correlação não considerável. Concluiu-se que as medidas analisadas pelo SAPO possuem uma alta fidedignidade intraexaminadores. No entanto, em relação a fidedignidade interexaminadores o grupo composto por examinadores inexperientes com relação a palpação apresentou valores mais baixos, sugerindo que o tempo de experiência dos examinadores pode ter influenciado na fidedignidade interexaminadores da avaliação postural.
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2018
“Ice Mile” swimming (i.e., 1,608 m in water of below 58 C) is becoming increasingly popular. Sinc... more “Ice Mile” swimming (i.e., 1,608 m in water of below 58 C) is becoming increasingly popular. Since the foundation of the International Ice Swimming Association (II- SA) in 2009, official races are held as World Cup Races and World Championships. Ice swimming was a demonstration sport at the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Russia. This case study aimed to identify core body temperature and selected hematological and biochemical parameters before and after repeated “Ice Miles.” An experienced ice swimmer completed 6 consecutive Ice Miles within 2 days. Three Ice Miles adhered to the strict criteria for the definition of Ice Miles, whereas the other 3 were very close (i.e., 5.2, 6.1, and 6.68 C) to the temperature limit. Swimming times, changes in core body temperatures, and selected urinary and hematological parameters were recorded. The athlete showed after each Ice Mile a metabolic acidosis (i.e., an increase in lactate and TCO2; a decrease in base excess and HCO32) and an increase in blood glucose, cortisol, and creatine kinase concentration. The decrease in pH cor- related significantly and negatively with the increase in corti- sol level, indicating that this intense exercise causes a metabolic stress. The change in core body temperature between start and finish was negatively associated with met- abolic acidosis. The increase in creatine kinase suggests skeletal muscle damages due to shivering after an Ice Mile. For athletes and coaches, swimming in cold water during Ice Miles leads to a metabolic acidosis, which the swimmer tries to compensate with a respiratory response. Considering the increasing popularity of ice swimming, the findings have practical value for swimmers and practitioners (e.g., coaches, exercise physiologists, and physicians) working with them because our results provide a detailed description of acute physiological responses to repeated swimming in cold con- ditions. These findings are of importance for athletes and coaches for National Championships and World Champion- ships in Ice Swimming following the IISA rules.
Applied Physiology, Nutrition and Metabolism, 2018
Resistance exercise (RE) can be an excellent modality for glycemic control. Studies have demonstr... more Resistance exercise (RE) can be an excellent modality for glycemic control. Studies have demonstrated that a single RE session can reduce glycemia in subjects with or without diabetes. Little is known about the dose-response effect of RE on glycemic control. This study aimed to investigate the acute metabolic responses after different RE protocols. Eighty-nine males were separated into six groups that completed RE protocols: 2 sets of 18 repetitions (2 × 18 at 50% of 1-repetition maximum (1RM); n = 19); 3 sets of 12 repetitions (3 × 12 at 70% of 1RM; n = 14); 4 sets of 9 repetitions (4 × 9 at 80% of 1RM; n = 13); 6 sets of 6 repetitions (6 × 6 at 90% of 1RM; n = 19); circuit (2 × 18 at 50% of 1RM; n = 12); and a control session (n = 12). The exercise sequence consisted of 8 exercises. An oral glucose tolerance test was conducted with metabolic measurements immediately after each RE protocol and every 15 min until 120 min of recovery. All groups exhibited significantly lower values (p < 0.05) in the glucose area under the curve (AUC) when compared with control over a 120 min monitoring period. The 6 × 6 group showed a significantly lower glucose AUC versus the 3 × 12 and 4 × 9 groups (p = 0.004; p = 0.001, respectively). As for blood lactate, the control and 6 × 6 groups exhibited lower AUC values versus all other groups (p < 0.05), and AUC for glucose and lactate concentration showed a negative and significant correlation (r =-0.46; p < 0.0001). It appears that a combination of 9-12 repetitions per set and 3-4 sets per muscle group might be optimal for acute postprandial glucose control. Résumé : L'exercice contre résistance (RE) peut s'avérer un excellent moyen de contrôle de la glycémie. D'après des études, une seule séance de RE peut diminuer la glycémie chez des sujets avec ou sans diabète. On en sait peu au sujet de la relation dose-réponse de RE sur le contrôle de la glycémie. Cette étude a pour objectif d'analyser les réponses métaboliques ponctuelles consécutives à divers protocoles RE. On répartit 89 hommes dans 6 groupes de protocoles RE consistant en : 2 séries de 18 répétitions (2 × 18 à 50 % 1RM; n = 19), 3 séries de 12 répétitions (3 × 12 à 70 % 1RM; n = 14), 4 séries de 9 répétitions (4 × 9 à 80 % 1RM; n = 13), 6 séries de 6 répétitions (6 × 6 à 90 % 1RM; n = 19), un circuit d'exercices (2 × 18 à 50% 1RM; n = 12) et une séance de contrôle (n = 12). La séquence d'exercices comprend 8 exercices. Les participants se soumettent à une épreuve d'hyperglycémie provoquée par voie orale et à d'autres mesures métaboliques immédiatement après chaque protocole RE puis toutes les 15 min durant 120 min de récupération. Durant les 120 min de récupération, tous les groupes présentent de plus petites surfaces (p < 0,05) sous la courbe de glucose (AUC) comparativement au groupe de contrôle. Le protocole 6 × 6 présente une plus petite AUC significative de glucose comparativement aux groupes 3 × 12 et 4 × 9 (p = 0,004; p = 0,001, respectivement). À propos du lactate sanguin, le groupe de contrôle et le groupe 6 × 6 présentent des plus petites AUC comparativement à tous les autres groupes (p < 0,05); de plus, on observe une corrélation inverse significative entre les AUC du glucose et du lactate (r = −0,46; p < 0,0001). Il semble qu'une combinaison de 9 à 12 répétitions par série et 3 à 4 séries par groupe musculaire s'avèrent un protocole optimal pour le contrôle postprandial ponctuel de la glycémie. [Traduit par la Rédaction] Mots-clés : glycémie, protocoles d'exercices contre résistance, lactate, épreuve d'hyperglycémie provoquée par voie orale, entraînement à la force.
Telomere shortening is associated to sarcopenia leading to functional impairment during aging. Th... more Telomere shortening is associated to sarcopenia leading to functional impairment during aging. There are mechanisms associated with telomere attrition, as well to its protection and repair. Physical training is a factor that attenuates telomere exercise intensities on telomere biology. Thus, we evaluated domain) on gene expression of senescence markers Checkpoint kinase 2 and tumor suppressor (Chk2 and p53, respectively), shelterin telomere repeat binding 1 and 2 (Trf1/Trf2), DNA re- pair (Xrcc5), telomerase reverse transcriptase (mTERT) and telomere length in middle aged mice. Three groups were stud- ied: a control group (CTL) and two groups submitted to swim- ming at intensities below the lactate threshold (LI group) and above the lactate threshold (HI group) for 40 and 20 min re- spectively, for 12 weeks. After training, the HI group showed reduction in p53 expression in the muscle, and decreased shel- terin complex expression when compared to LI group. No dif- ferences were observed between groups for mTERT expression and telomere length. Thus, exercise training in high-intensity and apoptosis. The higher intensity exercise training also di length and mTERT expression. Such results possibly indicate a training.
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Objective The purpose of this systematic review and meta- analysis of controlled trials was to determine the effect of physical exercise on OS parameters.
Methods We conducted a systematic review of the litera- ture up to March 2016 that included the following data- bases: PubMed, SCOPUS, and Web of Science. A keyword combination referring to exercise training and OS was included as part of a more thorough search process. We also manually searched the reference lists of the articles. From an initial 1573 references, we included 30 controlled trials (1346 participants) in the qualitative analysis, 19 of which were included in the meta-analysis. All trials were conducted in humans and had at least one exercise inter- vention and a paired control group. Using a standardized protocol, two investigators independently abstracted data on study design, sample size, participant characteristics, intervention, follow-up duration, outcomes, and quantita- tive data for the meta-analysis. Thus, the investigators independently assigned quality scores with a methodolog- ical quality assessment (MQA).
Results The agreement level between the reviewers was 85.3 %. Discrepancies were solved in a consensus meeting. The MQA showed a total score in the quality index between 40 and 90 % and a mean quality of 55 %. Further, in a random-effects model, data from each trial were pooled and weighted by the inverse of the total variance. Physical training was associated with a significant reduc- tion in pro-oxidant parameters (standard mean difference [SMD] –1.08; 95 % confidence interval [CI] –1.57 to –0.58; p \ 0.001) and an increase in antioxidant capacity (SMD 1.45; 95 % CI 0.83–2.06; p \ 0.001).
Conclusion The pooled analysis revealed that regardless of intensity, volume, type of exercise, and studied population, the antioxidant indicators tended to increase and pro-oxi- dant indicators tended to decrease after training. Therefore, we conclude that exercise training seems to induce an antioxidant effect. Thus, it is suggested that people practice some kind of exercise to balance the redox state, regardless of their health status, to improve health-related outcomes.
to identify the anaerobic threshold (AT) have been studied and suggested as novel ‘thresholds’ based upon the variable used for its detection (i.e. lactate threshold, ventilatory threshold, glucose threshold). These different techniques have brought some confusion about how we should name this parameter, for instance, anaerobic threshold or the physiological measure used (i.e. lactate, ventilation). On the other hand, the modernization of scientific methods and apparatus to detect AT, as well as the body of literature formed in the past decades, could provide a more cohesive understanding over the AT and the multiple physiological systems involved. Thus, the purpose of this review was to provide an integrative perspective of the methods to determine AT.
Method Data of 5,011 athletes from 99 nationalities were obtained from the official websites of International Association of Athletics Federations, and World Masters Rankings in the years of 2006–2016. The Human Development Index (HDI) for each nationality was used as a marker of socioeconomic status.
Results AnHDI×agegroupassociationwasobserved(χ2=0.001,p=0.001,φC=0.322),wheretheanalysisoffrequency rate demonstrated a high prevalence of very elevated and elevated HDI in the AWR for the 100 m. For the endurance 10 k race analysis, the HDI × age group association was also observed, with a high prevalence of moderate and low HDI in Junior and Professionals. Regarding the Masters, the prevalence of moderate and low HDI is almost zero. In addition, multiple linear regressions indicate that the HDI, gross domestic product per capita (GDP/capita) and population can predict the frequency of a country in athletics ranking.
Conclusions There is a high prevalence of elevated and very elevated HDI nationalities in the AWR in sprint races in all age groups. For endurance races, Junior and Professionals had a great prevalence of low/moderate HDI, and Masters are dominated by very elevated HDI. A nation’s frequency in the World Masters Ranking could be indicative of HDI, since an association was found among them.
Methods: We analyzed 6,671 finishes (women’s, n= 1,037, age 36.6 ± 9.1 years; men’s, n= 5,634, 40.0 ± 10.0 years) of 3,881 duathletes competing in ‘Powerman Zofingen’, the World Championship, from 2003 to 2017, in both the short and the long distance race.
Results: A large discipline×distance interaction on relative time (%) was observed in the short distance (p < .001, η2p = .936); 24.7%, 57.4%, and 15.8% were spent in Run 1, Bike, and Run 2, respectively. In the long distance, the relative contribution of disciplines was 8.0%, 59.0%, and 32.1%, respectively. A trivial discipline×sex interaction on relative time (%) was shown in the short (p < .001, η2p = .007) and long distance (p < .001, η2p = .016). In the short distance, a small discipline×age group interaction on relative time (%) was found (p < .001, η2p = .030) with younger age groups spending less time (%) in Run 1, Transition 1 and Transition 2, and older groups less time (%) in Bike and Run 2. In the long distance, a moderate discipline×age group interaction on relative time (%) was observed (p < .001, η2p = .077) with younger age groups spending less time (%) in Run 1, Transition 1, Transition 2 and Run 2, and older groups less time (%) in Bike.
Conclusions: These findings suggest that younger duathletes are relatively faster in Run 1 and transitions, and older duathletes in Bike in both distances. However, older duathletes are relatively faster in Run 2 in the short distance and younger duathletes are relatively faster in Run 2 in the long distance. The magnitude of the combined effect of discipline and age group on pacing was larger in the long than in the short distance. Therefore, athletes and coaches should be aware of the variation of pacing by age group and distance of a duathlon race such as ‘Powerman Zofingen’.
Objective The purpose of this systematic review and meta- analysis of controlled trials was to determine the effect of physical exercise on OS parameters.
Methods We conducted a systematic review of the litera- ture up to March 2016 that included the following data- bases: PubMed, SCOPUS, and Web of Science. A keyword combination referring to exercise training and OS was included as part of a more thorough search process. We also manually searched the reference lists of the articles. From an initial 1573 references, we included 30 controlled trials (1346 participants) in the qualitative analysis, 19 of which were included in the meta-analysis. All trials were conducted in humans and had at least one exercise inter- vention and a paired control group. Using a standardized protocol, two investigators independently abstracted data on study design, sample size, participant characteristics, intervention, follow-up duration, outcomes, and quantita- tive data for the meta-analysis. Thus, the investigators independently assigned quality scores with a methodolog- ical quality assessment (MQA).
Results The agreement level between the reviewers was 85.3 %. Discrepancies were solved in a consensus meeting. The MQA showed a total score in the quality index between 40 and 90 % and a mean quality of 55 %. Further, in a random-effects model, data from each trial were pooled and weighted by the inverse of the total variance. Physical training was associated with a significant reduc- tion in pro-oxidant parameters (standard mean difference [SMD] –1.08; 95 % confidence interval [CI] –1.57 to –0.58; p \ 0.001) and an increase in antioxidant capacity (SMD 1.45; 95 % CI 0.83–2.06; p \ 0.001).
Conclusion The pooled analysis revealed that regardless of intensity, volume, type of exercise, and studied population, the antioxidant indicators tended to increase and pro-oxi- dant indicators tended to decrease after training. Therefore, we conclude that exercise training seems to induce an antioxidant effect. Thus, it is suggested that people practice some kind of exercise to balance the redox state, regardless of their health status, to improve health-related outcomes.
to identify the anaerobic threshold (AT) have been studied and suggested as novel ‘thresholds’ based upon the variable used for its detection (i.e. lactate threshold, ventilatory threshold, glucose threshold). These different techniques have brought some confusion about how we should name this parameter, for instance, anaerobic threshold or the physiological measure used (i.e. lactate, ventilation). On the other hand, the modernization of scientific methods and apparatus to detect AT, as well as the body of literature formed in the past decades, could provide a more cohesive understanding over the AT and the multiple physiological systems involved. Thus, the purpose of this review was to provide an integrative perspective of the methods to determine AT.
Method Data of 5,011 athletes from 99 nationalities were obtained from the official websites of International Association of Athletics Federations, and World Masters Rankings in the years of 2006–2016. The Human Development Index (HDI) for each nationality was used as a marker of socioeconomic status.
Results AnHDI×agegroupassociationwasobserved(χ2=0.001,p=0.001,φC=0.322),wheretheanalysisoffrequency rate demonstrated a high prevalence of very elevated and elevated HDI in the AWR for the 100 m. For the endurance 10 k race analysis, the HDI × age group association was also observed, with a high prevalence of moderate and low HDI in Junior and Professionals. Regarding the Masters, the prevalence of moderate and low HDI is almost zero. In addition, multiple linear regressions indicate that the HDI, gross domestic product per capita (GDP/capita) and population can predict the frequency of a country in athletics ranking.
Conclusions There is a high prevalence of elevated and very elevated HDI nationalities in the AWR in sprint races in all age groups. For endurance races, Junior and Professionals had a great prevalence of low/moderate HDI, and Masters are dominated by very elevated HDI. A nation’s frequency in the World Masters Ranking could be indicative of HDI, since an association was found among them.
Methods: We analyzed 6,671 finishes (women’s, n= 1,037, age 36.6 ± 9.1 years; men’s, n= 5,634, 40.0 ± 10.0 years) of 3,881 duathletes competing in ‘Powerman Zofingen’, the World Championship, from 2003 to 2017, in both the short and the long distance race.
Results: A large discipline×distance interaction on relative time (%) was observed in the short distance (p < .001, η2p = .936); 24.7%, 57.4%, and 15.8% were spent in Run 1, Bike, and Run 2, respectively. In the long distance, the relative contribution of disciplines was 8.0%, 59.0%, and 32.1%, respectively. A trivial discipline×sex interaction on relative time (%) was shown in the short (p < .001, η2p = .007) and long distance (p < .001, η2p = .016). In the short distance, a small discipline×age group interaction on relative time (%) was found (p < .001, η2p = .030) with younger age groups spending less time (%) in Run 1, Transition 1 and Transition 2, and older groups less time (%) in Bike and Run 2. In the long distance, a moderate discipline×age group interaction on relative time (%) was observed (p < .001, η2p = .077) with younger age groups spending less time (%) in Run 1, Transition 1, Transition 2 and Run 2, and older groups less time (%) in Bike.
Conclusions: These findings suggest that younger duathletes are relatively faster in Run 1 and transitions, and older duathletes in Bike in both distances. However, older duathletes are relatively faster in Run 2 in the short distance and younger duathletes are relatively faster in Run 2 in the long distance. The magnitude of the combined effect of discipline and age group on pacing was larger in the long than in the short distance. Therefore, athletes and coaches should be aware of the variation of pacing by age group and distance of a duathlon race such as ‘Powerman Zofingen’.