I am an architect with a keen interest in astronomy and archaeology of the Indian subcontinent. I have been investigating the megalithic monuments of southern India for possible intentional astronomical alignments incorporated in their design and layout since 2006. I completed a study of "Ancient Landscapes in south India" under a Homi Bhabha Fellowship during 2012-14, where I explored the various sites of the Malaprabha Valley in Karnataka. I am currently investigating links between megaliths and later monument-building traditions in India, as well as understanding ancient monumental architecture of India from the perspective of early artisans, primarily by investigating the quarries used by these artisans who pioneered monumental architecture in southern India, as well as the monuments they left behind. I have also been focusing attention on the folklore related to monuments and their builders - from megaliths to temples; and comparing the similarities and differences in these legends over different geographic regions.
Composing Worlds with Elephants: Interdisciplinary Dialogues, 2023
The Asian elephant has always occupied a prominent place in the art of the Indian subcontinent – ... more The Asian elephant has always occupied a prominent place in the art of the Indian subcontinent – from Harappan seals and prehistoric petroglyphs to later plastic art in Buddhist stupas and temples of the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain faiths. In this paper, we discuss the representation of elephants in various contexts at the Buddhist stupa at Kanaganahalli, in northern Karnataka, India. The 2nd century BCE – 3rd century CE stupa features numerous sculptures of elephants on its different components, such as the slabs which veneer the upper and lower drums, pilasters, friezes, copings and finials. Elephants are depicted in contexts such as war, pageantry, veneration of relics of the Buddha and birth-stories of the Buddha, as well as general embellishment of stupa components. Interestingly, several of the Kanaganahalli depictions are typical of the classical Indian ideal of the war elephant, including them being in a state of musth, to be even more effective in battle. Kanaganahalli boasts of some of the most accurate depictions of elephant anatomy and behaviour in Indian art, as well as aspects of elephant-handling, from harnesses and saddles, to use of goads etc. Most of the sculptures are in shallow relief, on limestone, and are excellent examples of the quality of early Indian art. These reliefs offer a unique insight on the relationship between humans and the Asiatic elephant in the early centuries of the Common Era, and the various uses that captive elephants were put to.
Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage, 2023
Badami in the valley of the Malaprabha River in northern Karnataka state of India was one of the ... more Badami in the valley of the Malaprabha River in northern Karnataka state of India was one of the earliest nuclei of construction of temples in stone in southern India. Among the various stone monuments built at Badami and other centres in the Valley, are rock-cut as well as structural sanctuaries of the Hindu, Jain and Buddhist faiths. Though most of these monuments were executed during the rule of the Early Chalukyan Dynasty, during the sixth to the eighth centuries CE, there are later monuments too, erected even after Badami ceased to be a capital city at the end of Chalukyan rule. In this paper, we examine one of the smaller rock-cut ‘caves’ at Badami and argue that it was intentionally aligned to receive the Sun’s rays at sunrise on every day of the year. We examine the orientation of the excavation and verify the incidence of the rays of the rising Sun throughout the year. We examine the legend of a leper king (Koshtaraya) prevalent in the region and associated with an enigmatic image near the rock-cut cave, and we hypothesize on the creation of this unique Sun-facing rock-cut feature.
Yunli, S. and Longfei, C. (eds.) Astronomical Heritages in Asia-Pacific Areas: Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Oriental Astronomy, 2022
This research sums up the status of understanding about the prehistoric megaliths of peninsular I... more This research sums up the status of understanding about the prehistoric megaliths of peninsular India and explores the possibility that some of them were used to observe celestial cycles. We have studied nearly 40 megalithic sites comprising of nearly every category of megalithic types encountered in the subcontinent and show that at least one type - the stone alignment, makes a strong case that they incorporated deliberate sightlines to the rising and setting points of the Sun on the longest and shortest days.
Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology, 2022
The ancient city of Vatapi (modern Badami, in Bagalkot District of Karnataka) was founded by Pole... more The ancient city of Vatapi (modern Badami, in Bagalkot District of Karnataka) was founded by Polekeshi I in the year 543CE. As part of the fortification scheme of the city, a bund was constructed to contain stormwater and create a reservoir. A waterfall, which is basically the stormwater runoff from a cliff in the east, is the most obvious contributor to the reservoir. In this paper, I present the discovery that this is an artificially created waterfall, with a semi-circular basin cut out of the top of the cliff to the east of the reservoir, at a point where a large number of the stormwater streams converge. I also examine the possibility that this rock-cut feature was created by the Early Chalukyan builders.
Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology, 2022
The diminutive rock-cut temple at Thal was first reported in 1916, and later described briefly in... more The diminutive rock-cut temple at Thal was first reported in 1916, and later described briefly in 1975. So far, there has been no detailed description or drawings published, for the same. In this paper, we describe this small, but important monument, present measured drawings for the same, and speculate on the possible date of the rock-cut temple, based on comparison with similar monuments in the region and elsewhere.
Vestiges of a prehistoric megalithic culture have been reported from Devidhura, near Almora in th... more Vestiges of a prehistoric megalithic culture have been reported from Devidhura, near Almora in the Kumaon Himalaya, in 1856, and subsequently. We visited Devidhura in December 2019, to study the reported megalithic remains. We have found that several of the features attributed to a megalithic culture are erroneously identified. Rock art features such as petroglyphs and other carvings, previously attributed to this period, were found to be products of stone-working by the builders of a nearby temple to the goddess Ma Varahi Devi, and associated structures, which date to the 8th or 9th century CE. In this paper we critically examine earlier literature on the megalithic remains at Devidhura in the light of our observations and make a case that there is no evidence to suspect the existence, in the prehistoric past, of a megalithic culture at Devidhura. We call for a similar examination of the other centers of megalithic culture reported from Kumaon and Garhwal.
(Upload of full paper on open access platforms is prevented by copyright considerations. Please contact for a PDF of the full paper, if interested.)
Megaliths feature commonly in the folklore of indigenous peoples all over their range of occurren... more Megaliths feature commonly in the folklore of indigenous peoples all over their range of occurrence. At several places in South India, the authorship of megaliths is attributed to a now extinct race of dwarves, who were endowed with superhuman strength to heft the large stones into position, and who subsequently were annihilated in a rain of fire. We have tracked this legend at several megalithic sites and present a comprehensive list of sites in this paper, as well as the local names attributed to this dwarf race. We demonstrate that the appellation "Pandu" often associated with megaliths refer to this dwarf race, and not the Pandavas of Mahabharata, or the Pandyan dynasty, as often assumed. We also conjecture if a cultural memory of an extinct dwarf hominin species could form the basis of this legend.
New Facets of Indian Art, Architecture and Epigraphy (Essays in of honour of Prof. S.L. Shantakumari) edited by Shrinivas V. Padigar , V. Shivananda , C.B. Patil, 2020
The imagery of the mountain that is latent in the form of the shikhara or “tower” of the Indian t... more The imagery of the mountain that is latent in the form of the shikhara or “tower” of the Indian temple is well-known and maybe rather obvious. The superstructure of temples have been likened to mountains real and mythical, such as Kailasa, Meru etc. in literature. It is perhaps no coincidence that certain forms of temple construction have been assigned terms that are names of mountain peaks, in ancient treatises on temple architecture. In this paper, we examine the significance of the mountain in Indian religious philosophy, and how the ancient artisans who pioneered temple construction in the subcontinent came up with architectural solutions to simulate the jagged geometry of mountain peaks with a limited repertoire of architectural elements at their disposal. With the aid of selected examples of temples and relief sculptures on temple walls, we attempt to comprehend what the idea of the temple as mountain meant to the artisans who built these structures.
Rituals, Collapse, and Radical Transformation in Archaic States edited by Joanne Murphy, 2021
Peninsular India has a rich history of monument-building traditions dating back to prehistoric pe... more Peninsular India has a rich history of monument-building traditions dating back to prehistoric periods. Beginning with the enigmatic ashmounds of the Neolithic, which were probably the earliest monumental constructions in the region, and the wide variety of megalithic monuments constructed subsequently, monument-building evolved into the erection of stupas and temples in later periods. There is evidence that stupas, and probably early temples too, were carrying forward commemorative traditions from the period of the megaliths. The first few centuries of the first millennium ce probably saw the construction of temples and stupas alongside megalith-building practices. While the megaliths were presumably erected by entire communities, the erection of stupas and temples were patronized by royalty—emperors as well as local rulers, administrators, and merchant guilds. The construction as well as maintenance of temples and the associated ritual activity entailed considerable expenses, which were met by channeling revenue from land donated for the upkeep of temples, attested to by epigraphical evidence. This paper examines temple-building activity as an expression of stable political power in a given region. With the aid of examples from the medieval period, from regions falling under the geographical limits of the present-day Karnataka State, I demonstrate how monument-building activity flourished when states were stable and declined with the weakening and collapse of these states. I also show how these activities were picked up subsequently, presumably by the same guilds of artisans under the patronage of subsequent states.
Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India, 1999
This paper (my very first one!) reports the results of the site monitoring for the IUCAA 2m teles... more This paper (my very first one!) reports the results of the site monitoring for the IUCAA 2m telescope, conducted during 1996-97, as part of site selection process. It reports seeing, near-ground turbulence, extinction, sky brightness, cloud cover and weather data, and their analysis.
Human and Heritage: An Archaeological Spectrum of Asiatic Countries (Felicitation to Professor Ajit Kumar) Volume – II, Delhi, New Bharatiya Book Corporation, 2019
This paper looks at myths about artisans in general, popular in five states of India as well as a... more This paper looks at myths about artisans in general, popular in five states of India as well as ancient Greece, and looks at the myth of the legendary artisan Jakanachari of Karnataka in detail. While examining the historicity of the myth, it also attempts to understand how the myth could have arisen. Basically, it is an examination of the ancient Indian artisan in myth and history.
The Archaeology of Burials: Examples from Indian Subcontinent, Volume – II, Delhi, New Bharatiya Book Corporation, 2019
Megalithic monuments are found all over the Indian subcontinent, though the vast majority of thes... more Megalithic monuments are found all over the Indian subcontinent, though the vast majority of these are distributed in peninsular India, with sparser distribution in the north. Though generally ascribed to the south Indian Iron Age, their origins could well go back to the Neolithic, and megalith construction might have lasted into the Early Historic period. Megalithic monuments vary widely in form, from simple erect standing stones called menhirs to elaborately conceived and executed dolmens and rock-cut tombs. Certain megalithic forms, such as the boulder circle and the dolmen are found widely distributed throughout the range of occurrence of megaliths, whereas some are endemic to certain regions – like the kodakkals and topikkals of Kerala.
Some Indian megaliths also show remarkable similarity in form to similar monuments elsewhere in the world. However, even within their range of distribution in the subcontinent, megalithic monuments grouped under the same category can exhibit differences in design, detailing, etc. Sundara (1975) has tried to account for these differences by adding the name of a type-site to the names of these megalithic forms. For instance, he differentiates between what he calls “port-holed chambers” of the Hire Benakal type and the Rajan Koluru type, based on dimensions and design of the structures.
In this paper, we will examine the design of five dolmens of the Hire Benakal type found at different places in south India. Though these structures are quite similar in design, they exhibit subtle differences in detailing, orientational preferences etc.
Heritaje: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology, 2019
I report the discovery of a hitherto unreported megalithic site near Pattadakal. The cluster of m... more I report the discovery of a hitherto unreported megalithic site near Pattadakal. The cluster of megalithic monuments, all of them stone circles, are located in a clearing on a hilltop, surrounded by rocky outcrops, at a location called Motara Maradi, which was one of the sandstone quarries of the Early Chalukyan artisans who built the group of temples at Pattadakal. I compare the megaliths with other known megalithic structures in the region, and speculate whether the megaliths belong to the protohistoric period to which the large majority of south Indian megaliths are attributed to, or could they have been the graves of the Early Chalukyan artisans who lived and worked at the quarry.
In a country like India which has a long history of human occupancy and rich cultural heritage, i... more In a country like India which has a long history of human occupancy and rich cultural heritage, identification of potential archaeological sites is essential before they get fully obliterated due to rapid urbanization, large-scale infrastructure development and mechanised agriculture activities. In this study, an important Buddhist site Sannati (which dates back to Maurya period, 3rd century BCE) and its surrounding, is investigated. Earlier investigations have uncovered a fortified mound, Vihara complex, habitation site and 3 stupa mounds in this region. The present study develops simple and cost-effective ways to identify potential buried archaeological sites and mounds using the knowledge of known sites and visual interpretation of remote sensing images of the region. This study has successfully located several archaeologically potential sites in the study area that now require archaeological investigation on ground. The developed approach can be applied to investigate other similar buried/undiscovered potential archaeological sites.
Ancient India: Identities, Boundaries and Cultural Practices (Kadambi, H. and Prasanna, D. A. Eds.), 2019
In the Indian context, megaliths are essentially funerary and memorial structures erected by diff... more In the Indian context, megaliths are essentially funerary and memorial structures erected by different cultures over vast swathes of time, from the Neolithic to the Iron Age, and in later periods too. Megaliths represent some of the oldest monuments in the subcontinent, of which only traces survive today. Though early scholarship attributed the phenomenon of the erection of megalithic structures over the entire range of its occurrence to a single "megalithic culture", today it is seen as a means of interring the dead, or erecting memorials, which was adopted by different cultures during different periods. The early part of the first millennium (and indeed a few centuries prior to that) is an important period in the history of monumental architecture in the subcontinent. During this time, the diminishing practice of erecting megaliths co-existed alongside the construction of some of the earliest religious monuments in stone which would, over a millennium and a half, evolve into the richly diverse traditions of monumental architecture which characterize the subcontinent. In this chapter, the possibility that megalithic construction had some influence on the architecture of later monuments, is explored. Instances where megalithic architecture seems to have inspired later monuments both in techniques as well as purpose is presented with the aid of examples from the Malaprabha Valley and the megalithic site at Mallasandram. Megaliths are not confined to the Indian subcontinent. Megalithic construction is encountered in various parts of the world during different periods. Though very early attempts to explain this by resorting to the "diffusion theories"-which involved the origin of megalithism in one part of the world and its subsequent dispersion, have been discredited, there has been no clear understanding of why cultures widely separated in space and time have been erecting monuments with nearly identical form. Is it possible that the adoption of this cultural trait by cultures in different geographical regions could be the result of the movement of ideas, or even people? In the conclusion, I will present a case for studying megaliths on a wider geographical canvas to better understand this phenomenon, especially considering the impact it seems to have had on later monument-building traditions in India.
Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Architecture, 2018
We report the discovery of a hitherto unreported rock art site in the neighbourhood of a recently... more We report the discovery of a hitherto unreported rock art site in the neighbourhood of a recently uncovered single-celled shrine at Benakanawari, near Aihole. The shrine is located deep inside a cleft of the sandstone ranges near Benakanawari, between Pattadakal and Aihole, at the foot of an escarpment. The painted rock shelter, which is roughly at a height of 25m in the cliffs above the temple, is formed by two large slabs of sandstone, collapsed and resting against a natural overhang, and contains a painted image as well as painted inscriptions in ochre and white. The inscriptions are in 8th century Kannada script as well as modern Kannada script, the former being definitely of Early Chalukyan provenance. In this paper, we describe the newly discovered site as well as the context in which it is located, and attempt to understand the possible use(s) it might have been put to.
Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology, 2018
The Malaprabha Valley in north Karnataka, with the well-known sites of Badami, Aihole, Pattadakal... more The Malaprabha Valley in north Karnataka, with the well-known sites of Badami, Aihole, Pattadakal etc. are regarded as some of the earliest sites of temple architecture in stone in southern India. At the sites of the temples itself, as well as the quarries from which the stone for the temples were sourced, wedge marks created by the Early Medieval stonecutters can be noticed. These wedge marks, created by hammering in steel wedges to split the stone, are noticeably different from the wedge marks of the Late Medieval stonecutters of the Vijayanagara Empire at Hampi and surrounding areas. In this paper, we develop a method to characterize the shape of wedge marks, and suggest that it can be used to differentiate between monuments created by successive dynasties in regions which have architectural interventions of different periods. We demonstrate this in the case of Badami, by attempting to differentiate parts of the fort wall constructed by the Early Chalukyas from the interventions of Vijayanagara artisans, on the basis of the shape of wedge marks on split stones which form part of the wall.
Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology, 2018
Badami, along with Aihole, Pattadakal and some other sites in and around the Malaprabha Valley in... more Badami, along with Aihole, Pattadakal and some other sites in and around the Malaprabha Valley in northern Karnataka, contain some of the earliest stone monuments of southern India, beginning with the constructions of the Early Chalukyan dynasty, which ruled from their capital at Badami (ancient Vatapi) during the 6th to 8th centuries CE. The purpose of two open mantapas which stand prominently on a large sandstone boulder in the North Fort at Badami and accessed via a stepped path through a very narrow gap, is hitherto unknown. We hypothesize that the mantapas, which stand on partly rock-cut bases, had their structural components fashioned entirely from rock quarried from the very boulder they stand on. We further hypothesize that they are unfinished, and not partly demolished during the Pallava occupation of Vatapi, as assumed earlier. Finally, based on the documentation of the rock cut plinth and analysis of similar monuments built under the patronage of the Early Chalukyas, we attempt a conjectural restoration of the structure as possibly imagined by its builders and put forward possible reasons why the structure remained unfinished.
Orchiston, W., Sule, A., and Vahia, M.N. (eds.), 2018. Growth and Development of Astronomy and Astrophysics in India and the Asia-Pacific Region. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Oriental Astronomy. Mumbai, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research., 2018
India has a long history of monuments built in stone—from prehistoric megaliths to later religiou... more India has a long history of monuments built in stone—from prehistoric megaliths to later religious monuments like stupas, temples etc. covering a period of nearly four millennia. In this paper we discuss the influence of astronomy on the design and layout of some of these monuments, as well as depiction and incorporation of astronomical objects and phenomena in several of these or their components. In several instances, prehistoric rock art features Sun and Moon motifs, which are also seen in later sculptural art in temples, hero stones, etc. Megaliths, which are mostly the sepulchral and commemorative monuments of the Iron Age, have a variety of forms, ranging from the simple upright stone to relatively complex constructions like dolmens etc. We demonstrate that at least some megaliths have sightlines to astronomical phenomena on the local horizon deliberately incorporated into their layout. It is quite possible that these early monuments evolved into later monumental structures like stupas and temples. Temple architecture in southern India followed two main evolutionary trajectories that spanned roughly 800 years. Temples often feature sculptural panels of deities, myths and legends on their outer walls. We examine some of the legends, such as the Tripurantaka legend of Shiva, commonly depicted on temple walls, for astronomical symbolism. Heavenly bodies, such as the Sun, Moon and planets, are deified in traditions of the Indic religions, and we examine some of these deities depicted in temple sculptures. We also discuss the Dikpalas—guardians of the directions—often depicted to safeguard temple precincts. The phenomena of Sun Temples, depictions of eclipses, zodiacal stones and navagraha worship are also dealt with. Finally, we examine Sun-facing structures, such as rock-cut temples and structural temples, which are designed to interact with the rising or setting Sun on given days of the year.
Beyond Stones and More Stones, Vol. II, edited by Ravi Korisettar (Mythic Society, Bangalore), 2018
Despite nearly two centuries of academic attention focused on Indian megaliths, there remain seve... more Despite nearly two centuries of academic attention focused on Indian megaliths, there remain several aspects of the monuments themselves and the cultures that authored them, that defy a clear understanding. While paucity of clear cut dates is certainly one of the major problems plaguing research on megaliths, lack of consistency in terminology and classification according to morphology, uncertainty in the understanding about the origins and possible spread of megalithism, evolution of detailing of various components of the monuments and possible links with later religious monumental architecture, are all aspects that call for attention. In this paper, the issues outlined above are discussed with specific examples. A case is made for a comprehensive classification scheme, based only on the form of the monuments. It is argued that the absence of wedge marks on the stones comprising megalithic monuments could point to their origin in a period when metal tools were not used in the extraction of stone. With specific reference to megaliths in the Malaprabha Valley in northern Karnataka, it is demonstrated that megaliths are linked to later religious monumental architecture in this region.
Composing Worlds with Elephants: Interdisciplinary Dialogues, 2023
The Asian elephant has always occupied a prominent place in the art of the Indian subcontinent – ... more The Asian elephant has always occupied a prominent place in the art of the Indian subcontinent – from Harappan seals and prehistoric petroglyphs to later plastic art in Buddhist stupas and temples of the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain faiths. In this paper, we discuss the representation of elephants in various contexts at the Buddhist stupa at Kanaganahalli, in northern Karnataka, India. The 2nd century BCE – 3rd century CE stupa features numerous sculptures of elephants on its different components, such as the slabs which veneer the upper and lower drums, pilasters, friezes, copings and finials. Elephants are depicted in contexts such as war, pageantry, veneration of relics of the Buddha and birth-stories of the Buddha, as well as general embellishment of stupa components. Interestingly, several of the Kanaganahalli depictions are typical of the classical Indian ideal of the war elephant, including them being in a state of musth, to be even more effective in battle. Kanaganahalli boasts of some of the most accurate depictions of elephant anatomy and behaviour in Indian art, as well as aspects of elephant-handling, from harnesses and saddles, to use of goads etc. Most of the sculptures are in shallow relief, on limestone, and are excellent examples of the quality of early Indian art. These reliefs offer a unique insight on the relationship between humans and the Asiatic elephant in the early centuries of the Common Era, and the various uses that captive elephants were put to.
Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage, 2023
Badami in the valley of the Malaprabha River in northern Karnataka state of India was one of the ... more Badami in the valley of the Malaprabha River in northern Karnataka state of India was one of the earliest nuclei of construction of temples in stone in southern India. Among the various stone monuments built at Badami and other centres in the Valley, are rock-cut as well as structural sanctuaries of the Hindu, Jain and Buddhist faiths. Though most of these monuments were executed during the rule of the Early Chalukyan Dynasty, during the sixth to the eighth centuries CE, there are later monuments too, erected even after Badami ceased to be a capital city at the end of Chalukyan rule. In this paper, we examine one of the smaller rock-cut ‘caves’ at Badami and argue that it was intentionally aligned to receive the Sun’s rays at sunrise on every day of the year. We examine the orientation of the excavation and verify the incidence of the rays of the rising Sun throughout the year. We examine the legend of a leper king (Koshtaraya) prevalent in the region and associated with an enigmatic image near the rock-cut cave, and we hypothesize on the creation of this unique Sun-facing rock-cut feature.
Yunli, S. and Longfei, C. (eds.) Astronomical Heritages in Asia-Pacific Areas: Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Oriental Astronomy, 2022
This research sums up the status of understanding about the prehistoric megaliths of peninsular I... more This research sums up the status of understanding about the prehistoric megaliths of peninsular India and explores the possibility that some of them were used to observe celestial cycles. We have studied nearly 40 megalithic sites comprising of nearly every category of megalithic types encountered in the subcontinent and show that at least one type - the stone alignment, makes a strong case that they incorporated deliberate sightlines to the rising and setting points of the Sun on the longest and shortest days.
Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology, 2022
The ancient city of Vatapi (modern Badami, in Bagalkot District of Karnataka) was founded by Pole... more The ancient city of Vatapi (modern Badami, in Bagalkot District of Karnataka) was founded by Polekeshi I in the year 543CE. As part of the fortification scheme of the city, a bund was constructed to contain stormwater and create a reservoir. A waterfall, which is basically the stormwater runoff from a cliff in the east, is the most obvious contributor to the reservoir. In this paper, I present the discovery that this is an artificially created waterfall, with a semi-circular basin cut out of the top of the cliff to the east of the reservoir, at a point where a large number of the stormwater streams converge. I also examine the possibility that this rock-cut feature was created by the Early Chalukyan builders.
Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology, 2022
The diminutive rock-cut temple at Thal was first reported in 1916, and later described briefly in... more The diminutive rock-cut temple at Thal was first reported in 1916, and later described briefly in 1975. So far, there has been no detailed description or drawings published, for the same. In this paper, we describe this small, but important monument, present measured drawings for the same, and speculate on the possible date of the rock-cut temple, based on comparison with similar monuments in the region and elsewhere.
Vestiges of a prehistoric megalithic culture have been reported from Devidhura, near Almora in th... more Vestiges of a prehistoric megalithic culture have been reported from Devidhura, near Almora in the Kumaon Himalaya, in 1856, and subsequently. We visited Devidhura in December 2019, to study the reported megalithic remains. We have found that several of the features attributed to a megalithic culture are erroneously identified. Rock art features such as petroglyphs and other carvings, previously attributed to this period, were found to be products of stone-working by the builders of a nearby temple to the goddess Ma Varahi Devi, and associated structures, which date to the 8th or 9th century CE. In this paper we critically examine earlier literature on the megalithic remains at Devidhura in the light of our observations and make a case that there is no evidence to suspect the existence, in the prehistoric past, of a megalithic culture at Devidhura. We call for a similar examination of the other centers of megalithic culture reported from Kumaon and Garhwal.
(Upload of full paper on open access platforms is prevented by copyright considerations. Please contact for a PDF of the full paper, if interested.)
Megaliths feature commonly in the folklore of indigenous peoples all over their range of occurren... more Megaliths feature commonly in the folklore of indigenous peoples all over their range of occurrence. At several places in South India, the authorship of megaliths is attributed to a now extinct race of dwarves, who were endowed with superhuman strength to heft the large stones into position, and who subsequently were annihilated in a rain of fire. We have tracked this legend at several megalithic sites and present a comprehensive list of sites in this paper, as well as the local names attributed to this dwarf race. We demonstrate that the appellation "Pandu" often associated with megaliths refer to this dwarf race, and not the Pandavas of Mahabharata, or the Pandyan dynasty, as often assumed. We also conjecture if a cultural memory of an extinct dwarf hominin species could form the basis of this legend.
New Facets of Indian Art, Architecture and Epigraphy (Essays in of honour of Prof. S.L. Shantakumari) edited by Shrinivas V. Padigar , V. Shivananda , C.B. Patil, 2020
The imagery of the mountain that is latent in the form of the shikhara or “tower” of the Indian t... more The imagery of the mountain that is latent in the form of the shikhara or “tower” of the Indian temple is well-known and maybe rather obvious. The superstructure of temples have been likened to mountains real and mythical, such as Kailasa, Meru etc. in literature. It is perhaps no coincidence that certain forms of temple construction have been assigned terms that are names of mountain peaks, in ancient treatises on temple architecture. In this paper, we examine the significance of the mountain in Indian religious philosophy, and how the ancient artisans who pioneered temple construction in the subcontinent came up with architectural solutions to simulate the jagged geometry of mountain peaks with a limited repertoire of architectural elements at their disposal. With the aid of selected examples of temples and relief sculptures on temple walls, we attempt to comprehend what the idea of the temple as mountain meant to the artisans who built these structures.
Rituals, Collapse, and Radical Transformation in Archaic States edited by Joanne Murphy, 2021
Peninsular India has a rich history of monument-building traditions dating back to prehistoric pe... more Peninsular India has a rich history of monument-building traditions dating back to prehistoric periods. Beginning with the enigmatic ashmounds of the Neolithic, which were probably the earliest monumental constructions in the region, and the wide variety of megalithic monuments constructed subsequently, monument-building evolved into the erection of stupas and temples in later periods. There is evidence that stupas, and probably early temples too, were carrying forward commemorative traditions from the period of the megaliths. The first few centuries of the first millennium ce probably saw the construction of temples and stupas alongside megalith-building practices. While the megaliths were presumably erected by entire communities, the erection of stupas and temples were patronized by royalty—emperors as well as local rulers, administrators, and merchant guilds. The construction as well as maintenance of temples and the associated ritual activity entailed considerable expenses, which were met by channeling revenue from land donated for the upkeep of temples, attested to by epigraphical evidence. This paper examines temple-building activity as an expression of stable political power in a given region. With the aid of examples from the medieval period, from regions falling under the geographical limits of the present-day Karnataka State, I demonstrate how monument-building activity flourished when states were stable and declined with the weakening and collapse of these states. I also show how these activities were picked up subsequently, presumably by the same guilds of artisans under the patronage of subsequent states.
Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India, 1999
This paper (my very first one!) reports the results of the site monitoring for the IUCAA 2m teles... more This paper (my very first one!) reports the results of the site monitoring for the IUCAA 2m telescope, conducted during 1996-97, as part of site selection process. It reports seeing, near-ground turbulence, extinction, sky brightness, cloud cover and weather data, and their analysis.
Human and Heritage: An Archaeological Spectrum of Asiatic Countries (Felicitation to Professor Ajit Kumar) Volume – II, Delhi, New Bharatiya Book Corporation, 2019
This paper looks at myths about artisans in general, popular in five states of India as well as a... more This paper looks at myths about artisans in general, popular in five states of India as well as ancient Greece, and looks at the myth of the legendary artisan Jakanachari of Karnataka in detail. While examining the historicity of the myth, it also attempts to understand how the myth could have arisen. Basically, it is an examination of the ancient Indian artisan in myth and history.
The Archaeology of Burials: Examples from Indian Subcontinent, Volume – II, Delhi, New Bharatiya Book Corporation, 2019
Megalithic monuments are found all over the Indian subcontinent, though the vast majority of thes... more Megalithic monuments are found all over the Indian subcontinent, though the vast majority of these are distributed in peninsular India, with sparser distribution in the north. Though generally ascribed to the south Indian Iron Age, their origins could well go back to the Neolithic, and megalith construction might have lasted into the Early Historic period. Megalithic monuments vary widely in form, from simple erect standing stones called menhirs to elaborately conceived and executed dolmens and rock-cut tombs. Certain megalithic forms, such as the boulder circle and the dolmen are found widely distributed throughout the range of occurrence of megaliths, whereas some are endemic to certain regions – like the kodakkals and topikkals of Kerala.
Some Indian megaliths also show remarkable similarity in form to similar monuments elsewhere in the world. However, even within their range of distribution in the subcontinent, megalithic monuments grouped under the same category can exhibit differences in design, detailing, etc. Sundara (1975) has tried to account for these differences by adding the name of a type-site to the names of these megalithic forms. For instance, he differentiates between what he calls “port-holed chambers” of the Hire Benakal type and the Rajan Koluru type, based on dimensions and design of the structures.
In this paper, we will examine the design of five dolmens of the Hire Benakal type found at different places in south India. Though these structures are quite similar in design, they exhibit subtle differences in detailing, orientational preferences etc.
Heritaje: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology, 2019
I report the discovery of a hitherto unreported megalithic site near Pattadakal. The cluster of m... more I report the discovery of a hitherto unreported megalithic site near Pattadakal. The cluster of megalithic monuments, all of them stone circles, are located in a clearing on a hilltop, surrounded by rocky outcrops, at a location called Motara Maradi, which was one of the sandstone quarries of the Early Chalukyan artisans who built the group of temples at Pattadakal. I compare the megaliths with other known megalithic structures in the region, and speculate whether the megaliths belong to the protohistoric period to which the large majority of south Indian megaliths are attributed to, or could they have been the graves of the Early Chalukyan artisans who lived and worked at the quarry.
In a country like India which has a long history of human occupancy and rich cultural heritage, i... more In a country like India which has a long history of human occupancy and rich cultural heritage, identification of potential archaeological sites is essential before they get fully obliterated due to rapid urbanization, large-scale infrastructure development and mechanised agriculture activities. In this study, an important Buddhist site Sannati (which dates back to Maurya period, 3rd century BCE) and its surrounding, is investigated. Earlier investigations have uncovered a fortified mound, Vihara complex, habitation site and 3 stupa mounds in this region. The present study develops simple and cost-effective ways to identify potential buried archaeological sites and mounds using the knowledge of known sites and visual interpretation of remote sensing images of the region. This study has successfully located several archaeologically potential sites in the study area that now require archaeological investigation on ground. The developed approach can be applied to investigate other similar buried/undiscovered potential archaeological sites.
Ancient India: Identities, Boundaries and Cultural Practices (Kadambi, H. and Prasanna, D. A. Eds.), 2019
In the Indian context, megaliths are essentially funerary and memorial structures erected by diff... more In the Indian context, megaliths are essentially funerary and memorial structures erected by different cultures over vast swathes of time, from the Neolithic to the Iron Age, and in later periods too. Megaliths represent some of the oldest monuments in the subcontinent, of which only traces survive today. Though early scholarship attributed the phenomenon of the erection of megalithic structures over the entire range of its occurrence to a single "megalithic culture", today it is seen as a means of interring the dead, or erecting memorials, which was adopted by different cultures during different periods. The early part of the first millennium (and indeed a few centuries prior to that) is an important period in the history of monumental architecture in the subcontinent. During this time, the diminishing practice of erecting megaliths co-existed alongside the construction of some of the earliest religious monuments in stone which would, over a millennium and a half, evolve into the richly diverse traditions of monumental architecture which characterize the subcontinent. In this chapter, the possibility that megalithic construction had some influence on the architecture of later monuments, is explored. Instances where megalithic architecture seems to have inspired later monuments both in techniques as well as purpose is presented with the aid of examples from the Malaprabha Valley and the megalithic site at Mallasandram. Megaliths are not confined to the Indian subcontinent. Megalithic construction is encountered in various parts of the world during different periods. Though very early attempts to explain this by resorting to the "diffusion theories"-which involved the origin of megalithism in one part of the world and its subsequent dispersion, have been discredited, there has been no clear understanding of why cultures widely separated in space and time have been erecting monuments with nearly identical form. Is it possible that the adoption of this cultural trait by cultures in different geographical regions could be the result of the movement of ideas, or even people? In the conclusion, I will present a case for studying megaliths on a wider geographical canvas to better understand this phenomenon, especially considering the impact it seems to have had on later monument-building traditions in India.
Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Architecture, 2018
We report the discovery of a hitherto unreported rock art site in the neighbourhood of a recently... more We report the discovery of a hitherto unreported rock art site in the neighbourhood of a recently uncovered single-celled shrine at Benakanawari, near Aihole. The shrine is located deep inside a cleft of the sandstone ranges near Benakanawari, between Pattadakal and Aihole, at the foot of an escarpment. The painted rock shelter, which is roughly at a height of 25m in the cliffs above the temple, is formed by two large slabs of sandstone, collapsed and resting against a natural overhang, and contains a painted image as well as painted inscriptions in ochre and white. The inscriptions are in 8th century Kannada script as well as modern Kannada script, the former being definitely of Early Chalukyan provenance. In this paper, we describe the newly discovered site as well as the context in which it is located, and attempt to understand the possible use(s) it might have been put to.
Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology, 2018
The Malaprabha Valley in north Karnataka, with the well-known sites of Badami, Aihole, Pattadakal... more The Malaprabha Valley in north Karnataka, with the well-known sites of Badami, Aihole, Pattadakal etc. are regarded as some of the earliest sites of temple architecture in stone in southern India. At the sites of the temples itself, as well as the quarries from which the stone for the temples were sourced, wedge marks created by the Early Medieval stonecutters can be noticed. These wedge marks, created by hammering in steel wedges to split the stone, are noticeably different from the wedge marks of the Late Medieval stonecutters of the Vijayanagara Empire at Hampi and surrounding areas. In this paper, we develop a method to characterize the shape of wedge marks, and suggest that it can be used to differentiate between monuments created by successive dynasties in regions which have architectural interventions of different periods. We demonstrate this in the case of Badami, by attempting to differentiate parts of the fort wall constructed by the Early Chalukyas from the interventions of Vijayanagara artisans, on the basis of the shape of wedge marks on split stones which form part of the wall.
Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology, 2018
Badami, along with Aihole, Pattadakal and some other sites in and around the Malaprabha Valley in... more Badami, along with Aihole, Pattadakal and some other sites in and around the Malaprabha Valley in northern Karnataka, contain some of the earliest stone monuments of southern India, beginning with the constructions of the Early Chalukyan dynasty, which ruled from their capital at Badami (ancient Vatapi) during the 6th to 8th centuries CE. The purpose of two open mantapas which stand prominently on a large sandstone boulder in the North Fort at Badami and accessed via a stepped path through a very narrow gap, is hitherto unknown. We hypothesize that the mantapas, which stand on partly rock-cut bases, had their structural components fashioned entirely from rock quarried from the very boulder they stand on. We further hypothesize that they are unfinished, and not partly demolished during the Pallava occupation of Vatapi, as assumed earlier. Finally, based on the documentation of the rock cut plinth and analysis of similar monuments built under the patronage of the Early Chalukyas, we attempt a conjectural restoration of the structure as possibly imagined by its builders and put forward possible reasons why the structure remained unfinished.
Orchiston, W., Sule, A., and Vahia, M.N. (eds.), 2018. Growth and Development of Astronomy and Astrophysics in India and the Asia-Pacific Region. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Oriental Astronomy. Mumbai, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research., 2018
India has a long history of monuments built in stone—from prehistoric megaliths to later religiou... more India has a long history of monuments built in stone—from prehistoric megaliths to later religious monuments like stupas, temples etc. covering a period of nearly four millennia. In this paper we discuss the influence of astronomy on the design and layout of some of these monuments, as well as depiction and incorporation of astronomical objects and phenomena in several of these or their components. In several instances, prehistoric rock art features Sun and Moon motifs, which are also seen in later sculptural art in temples, hero stones, etc. Megaliths, which are mostly the sepulchral and commemorative monuments of the Iron Age, have a variety of forms, ranging from the simple upright stone to relatively complex constructions like dolmens etc. We demonstrate that at least some megaliths have sightlines to astronomical phenomena on the local horizon deliberately incorporated into their layout. It is quite possible that these early monuments evolved into later monumental structures like stupas and temples. Temple architecture in southern India followed two main evolutionary trajectories that spanned roughly 800 years. Temples often feature sculptural panels of deities, myths and legends on their outer walls. We examine some of the legends, such as the Tripurantaka legend of Shiva, commonly depicted on temple walls, for astronomical symbolism. Heavenly bodies, such as the Sun, Moon and planets, are deified in traditions of the Indic religions, and we examine some of these deities depicted in temple sculptures. We also discuss the Dikpalas—guardians of the directions—often depicted to safeguard temple precincts. The phenomena of Sun Temples, depictions of eclipses, zodiacal stones and navagraha worship are also dealt with. Finally, we examine Sun-facing structures, such as rock-cut temples and structural temples, which are designed to interact with the rising or setting Sun on given days of the year.
Beyond Stones and More Stones, Vol. II, edited by Ravi Korisettar (Mythic Society, Bangalore), 2018
Despite nearly two centuries of academic attention focused on Indian megaliths, there remain seve... more Despite nearly two centuries of academic attention focused on Indian megaliths, there remain several aspects of the monuments themselves and the cultures that authored them, that defy a clear understanding. While paucity of clear cut dates is certainly one of the major problems plaguing research on megaliths, lack of consistency in terminology and classification according to morphology, uncertainty in the understanding about the origins and possible spread of megalithism, evolution of detailing of various components of the monuments and possible links with later religious monumental architecture, are all aspects that call for attention. In this paper, the issues outlined above are discussed with specific examples. A case is made for a comprehensive classification scheme, based only on the form of the monuments. It is argued that the absence of wedge marks on the stones comprising megalithic monuments could point to their origin in a period when metal tools were not used in the extraction of stone. With specific reference to megaliths in the Malaprabha Valley in northern Karnataka, it is demonstrated that megaliths are linked to later religious monumental architecture in this region.
This popular article looks at "out-of-place" images of monkeys on temples at Aihole, Annigeri etc... more This popular article looks at "out-of-place" images of monkeys on temples at Aihole, Annigeri etc. and investigates the possible intent behind creating such images which are not part of a regular sculptural programme.
This article describes two Hoysala temples from the 13th century, near Turuvekere, in Karnataka, ... more This article describes two Hoysala temples from the 13th century, near Turuvekere, in Karnataka, which have a unique feature. These temples, though aligned east-west, have entries through mukhamantapas in the south, and an aperture carved in the blank eastern wall to permit the rays of the rising sun during equinoxes, to fall on the Shiva lingas enshrined in the sanctum. In Pashupata Saivism, Surya is usually enshrined in dvikuta Siva temples. It is likely that the architects of these temples intended the actual sun to replaces an icon of the Sun God.
This article looks at a unique temple at Mahakuta, near Badami in Karnataka, where a small single... more This article looks at a unique temple at Mahakuta, near Badami in Karnataka, where a small single-celled temple has been designed with a natural cliff as its shikhara, or superstructure. The article also examines the importance of this temple from the viewpoint of Early Chalukyan History.
This article is an elegy for a megalithic stone alignment at a place called Hanamsagar in north K... more This article is an elegy for a megalithic stone alignment at a place called Hanamsagar in north Karnataka. The alignment, which originally consisted of more than 2500 menhirs laid out in a pattern, unfortunately has been completely destroyed in recent times. The article describes what was known about the stone alignment, and wonders what it must have been erected for.
This article discusses a small rock-cut cave at the base of a boulder, near the Bhutnath group of... more This article discusses a small rock-cut cave at the base of a boulder, near the Bhutnath group of temples at Badami, where the rays of the rising sun fall, every day. The evidence from nearby sculptures is analyzed to arrive at the hypothesis that the cave pays homage to the sun for curing a royal personage, who is commemorated in a sculpture known as Koshtaraya, and who stayed here - bathing in Agastya Tirtha and praying to Surya, of leprosy.
The musical pillars of the mahamantapa of the Vitthala Temple at Hampi are well known. In this po... more The musical pillars of the mahamantapa of the Vitthala Temple at Hampi are well known. In this popular article, I investigate the possibility that the musicality of the pillars are intentional, with evidence from a detailed documentation.
How did early artisans work? It is obvious that the creators of the rock-cut temples at Badami we... more How did early artisans work? It is obvious that the creators of the rock-cut temples at Badami were constrained to work on living rock, hence could not afford to make mistakes. But could sculptors working on structural temples relax in the knowledge that they would get second chances if the image they were working on would not turn out well? This article looks at working techniques of artisans from Chalukya and Hoysala contexts to attempt answers to these questions.
Continuing on the theme of camel imagery, this popular article looks at engravings of camels obs... more Continuing on the theme of camel imagery, this popular article looks at engravings of camels observed in the Early Chalukyan sandstone quarries near Pattadakal, in Karnataka and hypothesizes that artisans from northern India might have been involved in erecting the Nagara temples in the Malaprabha Valley.
This popular article examines camel depictions in the sculptural art of the Buddhist stupa at Kan... more This popular article examines camel depictions in the sculptural art of the Buddhist stupa at Kanaganahalli, and discusses the identities of artisans who worked on the carvings. All four instances of camel depictions exclusively portray the Bactrian camel, fueling speculation whether artisans from Gandhara might have been involved in carving or instructing sculptors at Kanaganahalli.
This popular article is a description of Hire Benakal - a prehistoric megalithic site, near Hampi... more This popular article is a description of Hire Benakal - a prehistoric megalithic site, near Hampi, in north Karnataka to celebrate the occasion of it making the shortlist for UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
This article, written for the International Day for Monuments and Sites, celebrated on 18 April, ... more This article, written for the International Day for Monuments and Sites, celebrated on 18 April, addresses the theme for 2021 - "Complex Pasts, Diverse Futures" by examining the prehistoric pasts of several historic monuments.
This popular article examines the Hoysala temples built in the Nagara idiom, and the possible mig... more This popular article examines the Hoysala temples built in the Nagara idiom, and the possible migrations of northern Indian artisans to Hoysala land, in search of patronage.
The second part of a series on ancient artisans of India, this article looks at how the architect... more The second part of a series on ancient artisans of India, this article looks at how the architects of Vijayanagara blended their creations into the dramatic landscape of Hampi.
I have been in the thrall of the architects of Vatapi, for well over twelve years now. In this ar... more I have been in the thrall of the architects of Vatapi, for well over twelve years now. In this article in Deccan Herald Spectrum, I pay homage to these intrepid artisans who created a built landscape I can never tire of returning to.
The techniques used by early and late medieval stonecutters to split stone are examined in this a... more The techniques used by early and late medieval stonecutters to split stone are examined in this article. Drawing on our paper published in 2018, it is shown how the wedge holes used in the early medieval period were oval in shape, and those in the late medieval were rectangular. The wedge marks resulting from these after the stone is split, are U-shaped and angular, respectively. It is shown how this can be used to decipher authorship of monuments where many dynasties have contributed over time. Full article at: https://www.deccanherald.com/spectrum/stories-that-stones-tell-us-918152.html
This article discusses a newly discovered megalithic site near Pattadakal. The site, consisting o... more This article discusses a newly discovered megalithic site near Pattadakal. The site, consisting of 19 megaliths - boulder circles as well as cairns, is situated in an 8th century CE Early Chalukyan sandstone quarry. Because of this, and the nature of the boulder circles, which use worked stone, rather than unmodified boulders, this article argues that they could be the graves of Early Chalukyan artisans who worked on the Pattadakal temples.
The legend of the artisan Jakanachari is a popular one in Karnataka. Many temples, especially tho... more The legend of the artisan Jakanachari is a popular one in Karnataka. Many temples, especially those built during the periods of Kalyani Chalukya and Hoysala rule, are attributed to this legendary artisan, who, however,does not find mention in the inscriptional record in the state. This article examines this myth, compares it with other similar myths in India, and postulates that the artisan is a fictional construct, with his name being a corruption of the term for a style of architecture.
This popular article discusses the unique inscribed portrait of Emperor Ashoka found at the Buddh... more This popular article discusses the unique inscribed portrait of Emperor Ashoka found at the Buddhist Stupa site at Kanaganahalli, in north Karnataka, as part of a series called "The Story of Karnataka in 15 Objects".
This is a brief look at the menhirs of the megalithic site at Byse, as part of a series on "The S... more This is a brief look at the menhirs of the megalithic site at Byse, as part of a series on "The Story of Karnataka in 15 Objects." The megalithic site at Byse is a complex one, with cairns and megaliths, and also hero stones from late medieval period overlaid on a part of the site. The menhirs have intentional sightlines to the solstice sunrises incorporated in their layout.
This popular article discusses the Keshava Temple at Somanathapura, near Mysore in Karnataka and ... more This popular article discusses the Keshava Temple at Somanathapura, near Mysore in Karnataka and shows how it is the last sizeable monument in the evolution of the Karnata Dravida tradition.
This is awork of fiction. Ten stories inspired by archaeological sites and monuments. In a remote... more This is awork of fiction. Ten stories inspired by archaeological sites and monuments. In a remote village in the Deccan, impoverished villagers resort to human sacrifice to coax treasures out of prehistoric dolmens; over the ages, an ancient menhir commemorating a dead hero is transformed into the deity in an imposing temple; the caretaker of a medieval tank makes the ultimate sacrifice to safeguard its bund from breaching; a one-armed sculptor carves a masterpiece in a Himalayan village in one night; a modern-day researcher comes face-to-face with characters from the distant past, during a field trip; the sculptor of an ancient stupa revisits it two-thousand years later…
This book is an introduction to the fascinating but less-known monuments called megaliths in the ... more This book is an introduction to the fascinating but less-known monuments called megaliths in the context of the Indian subcontinent. These enigmatic constructions of ancient man are believed to be erected by our ancestors from the Iron Age, though recent investigations suggest that their origins may date even further back in time. The book seeks to present the current understanding among archaeologists and other researchers in a lucid manner to the general reader, while stimulating thought on the many questions that linger about these remnants from our distant past and the people and cultures that built them. It also discusses recent research about the knowledge systems possessed by the megalith builders, including the possibility that some of these monuments were erected to observe celestial cycles.
Srikumar M. Menon is an architect with a keen interest in astronomy as well as the archaeology of the Indian subcontinent. After working in research and architectural practice for 6 years he joined Manipal University where he has been teaching since 1999. He has, in the past, worked on a project to set up a modern observatory for an astronomy research institute in India and is now working on a research project to identify possible ancient observatories among the megalithic monuments of southern India. He has received the Prof. D. S. Achyutha Rao Memorial History Research Fellowship for the year 2007 for research on megaliths and has recently been awarded a Homi Bhabha Fellowship to work on “Ancient Landscapes in South India”.
This booklet introduces the general reader to comets, which are visitors from the outer solar sys... more This booklet introduces the general reader to comets, which are visitors from the outer solar system that occasionally put up spectacular shows in the night sky. Currently the world is gearing up for the possibility that Comet ISON – which, if the “guesstimates” of astronomers are proved right, is all set to become the “Comet of the Century” in late 2013. According to some astronomers, ISON is expected to outshine the full moon in December 2013, after its closest approach to the Sun, with a tail that stretches out in the sky rivalling that of the Great Comet of 1680! To address the interest in comets bound to be sparked by this celestial spectacle, this booklet aims to informing those interested about what comets are, historical anecdotes about comet discoveries and myths about comets, their origin etc. and is replete with titbits about famous comets in the history of mankind, special cometary events like Comet Shoemaker-Levy crashing into Jupiter etc. It provides tips on how to observe the “Great Comet of 2013” – even if it fizzles out and does not live up to its billing! Divided into bite-sized sections rather than chapters, this book also deals with the relevance and importance of amateur observations of comets even in this age of large professional telescopes and sophisticated instrumentation.
About the author:
Srikumar M. Menon is an architect with a keen interest in astronomy. After working in research and architectural practice for six years, he joined Manipal University, where he has been teaching at the Faculty of Architecture since 1999. To follow up his passion for the subject, he has in the past worked on a project to set up an astronomical observatory in the Sahyadri ranges of the Western Ghats, where incidentally he saw his first comet. He currently is obsessed with the quest to find possible observatories among the prehistoric monuments of southern India. He is the author of the book “Ancient Stone Riddles: megaliths of the Indian Subcontinent” which is a primer for this quest.
This book, published by the National Council of Science Museums (Ministry of Culture, Govt. of In... more This book, published by the National Council of Science Museums (Ministry of Culture, Govt. of India), takes a look at the beginnings of astronomy in the Indian subcontinent.
This PhD thesis examines the megalithic monuments of peninsular India – commonly accepted as belo... more This PhD thesis examines the megalithic monuments of peninsular India – commonly accepted as belonging to the south Indian Iron Age (roughly 1200BC – 500BC), for intentional alignments of the whole monuments or design components to points of astronomical interest on the local horizon. This is in order to understand the level of intellectual development and status of knowledge systems extant among the cultures that authored these monuments, which is not revealed by conventional archaeological examination of the material culture of these peoples. The methodology employed was to arrive at a shortlist of megalithic monuments/sites to be visited from extensive survey of the available literature and conduct reconnaissance surveys of these. In all 33 sites (20 in Karnataka, 8 in Kerala, 3 in Vidarbha region of Maharashtra and 1 in Tamil Nadu) were visited. Of these, orientation surveys were carried out at 12 sites, partial surveys at 4 sites and complete surveys at another 4 sites. The sepulchral/memorial megaliths were found to have different orientational practices in different regions. We have recorded sites with no preferred orientation, exclusively south-facing monuments and others that showed a preference for east/west facing orientations. We have proposed, based on stylistic chronology of the monuments, that the earliest megalithic types had no preferred orientations to cardinal directions or were exclusively north-south oriented. The later, architecturally more developed monuments preferred east-west orientations. However, it is the study of the non-sepulchral megalith type called menhirs/alignments (or avenues) that yielded the main result of this investigation. We have found that there is a unique megalithic “avenue” type monument in southern coastal Karnataka consisting of several menhirs (either quarried slabs or natural boulders of elongated cross-sections) that are erected on end in specific patterns that are aligned to the extreme rising/setting points of the Sun and Moon on the local horizon. This megalithic type, that we have named the “Nilaskal type” after the extensive type site south of Hosanagara, is represented by 5 sites – Nilaskal, Byse, Heragal, Mumbaru and Aaraga Gate. We have also studied Nagbhid – a similar site in Vidarbha, which extends the geographical range of this type. Two hitherto unrecorded sites were discovered during this study.
The megalithic monuments of peninsular India, believed to have been erected in the Iron Age (1500... more The megalithic monuments of peninsular India, believed to have been erected in the Iron Age (1500BC–200AD), can be broadly categorized into sepulchral and non-sepulchral in purpose. Though a lot of work has gone into the study of these monuments ...
This presentation sums up the status of understanding about the prehistoric megaliths of peninsul... more This presentation sums up the status of understanding about the prehistoric megaliths of peninsular India and explores the possibility that some of them were used to observe celestial cycles. Though archaeologists believe that the Indian megaliths were the product of Iron Age cultures (1200-500BCE), recent research suggests that megalith building could have begun as early as 2000BCE, in the Neolithic. Though the first Indian megalith was reported way back in 1823 and subsequently nearly 3000 megalithic sites have been recorded, there is no detailed understanding about the cultures that produced them – especially of the knowledge systems possessed by their builders. A large fraction of the Indian megaliths are sepulchral or memorial but there exist certain megalith types that defy a complete understanding of their purpose. We have studied nearly 40 megalithic sites comprising of nearly every category of megalith types encountered in the subcontinent and show that at least one type – the stone alignment, makes a strong case that they incorporated deliberate sightlines to the rising and setting point of the Sun on the longest and shortest days. The possibility that at least some of these stone alignments were sepulchral adds another dimension to the enigma and we conclude by conjecturing of the importance of astronomy to the cultures that authored these monuments.
The Megalithic Culture of South India (Published by: The Indian Archaeological Society, New Delhi), Jan 1, 2014
Nilaskal and Byse are two megalithic sites located close to each other in the Malnad area of sout... more Nilaskal and Byse are two megalithic sites located close to each other in the Malnad area of south-western Karnataka. Though noticed initially for their prominent menhirs, at least Byse reveals the presence of other megalith types – mainly cairns of varying sizes. Studies of the menhirs at both sites have shown that the layout of the menhirs conform to a pattern consistent with alignments to sunrise and sunset during both solstices. The site at Byse appears to be a complex megalithic site, with signatures of being an extensive field of sepulchral megaliths like cairns, of which a small portion is occupied by menhirs and evidence that suggests re-use as a cemetery even in medieval times. Nilaskal on the other hand has more of dressed stones, an elevated horizon which is interestingly exploited with greater emphasis on accuracy of sight-lines. The presence of three other sites with menhirs that exhibit similar characteristics within a short distance of these sites is also of significance. In this paper, we discuss these two megalithic sites with a special emphasis on astronomical alignments and their potential importance to several vexing questions about megalithic culture in southern India in general. We suggest that there is a whole class of megaliths in South India which possibly were the earliest astronomical observatories in the subcontinent and suggest re-visiting other sites to assess their possible astronomical importance.
The word “megalith” has been a source of confusion in Indian prehistory. The very first megalith ... more The word “megalith” has been a source of confusion in Indian prehistory. The very first megalith in India was reported way back in 1823 by Babington from Kerala and since then, though extensively studied, a lot still remains to be understood about these monuments from our prehistoric past. For instance, the chronology of these monuments is uncertain even today. Though it was believed that these monuments were constructed in the south Indian Iron Age, the time-frame of which itself (between 1000-500BCE) is hotly debated, recent research has indicated that megalith-building might have started way back in the middle of the Neolithic, around 2000BCE, even if this cultural trait peaked in the Iron Age. Similarly, even the geographic distribution of megaliths as understood currently may need to be drastically revised as more and more reports of megaliths from regions other than southern India keep coming in. Though by far the largest concentration of megalithic monuments occur in peninsular India, not insignificant concentrations occur in other parts of the country – especially in Rajasthan, Jharkand, Bihar etc.
Megalithic monuments exhibit a wide variety in form and design and presumably performed different functions. A large fraction of megaliths are sepulchres, or memorials. But there are several megalithic types, the purposes of which remain poorly understood today. In this paper, we sum up the overview of the current understanding of megaliths, especially the so called “south Indian megalithic complex” and explore the possibility that at least some of these monuments could have been used to observe celestial cycles.
In general, studying the orientations of megaliths can give clues about the astronomical knowledge of their builders. For instance, a consistent alignment to any of the cardinal points (or a consistent alignment to any point on the compass, for that matter) can indicate that the builders knew how to determine the cardinal directions, which indicates a knowledge of at least solar positional astronomy. On the other hand, there could also be other monuments that could have functioned as instruments used to acquire this knowledge.
In this paper, we present results of extensive fieldwork over seven years focused on surveying a wide variety of megalithic types and which includes both categories of monuments mentioned above. We present a variety of results from different sites – varying from clusters of megalithic monuments that exhibit no preferential orientation to those with very definite and consistent orientation. We also present results from a group of stone-alignment sites in southern coastal Karnataka that, though some of them do have sepulchral connotations, seem to show definite intentional astronomical alignments and viable sightlines to astronomical phenomena on the local horizon, and compare these with a similar site in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra which unfortunately was destroyed before a detailed survey could be made.
To round off the discussion on megaliths, we present evidence from a few sites to show definite correlation between the locations of prehistoric megaliths and early temples. Vestiges of cultural memory about megaliths seem to have persisted well into historic times and even into post-Vijayanagara period in south India. It would seem that the currently observed total lack of knowledge about what a megalith represents is a relatively recent phenomenon.
To sum up, not all megalithic types had anything to do with astronomy, but there seem to be a definite class of monuments (the stone alignment) which had definite astronomical sightlines inbuilt in their design. What this meant to the cultures that built them and whether these sightlines were used to mark time or observe celestial cycles or were of an unknown symbolic importance to them is a matter for conjecture, though.
The megaliths of the “South Indian Megalithic Complex” have been conventionally assigned to the S... more The megaliths of the “South Indian Megalithic Complex” have been conventionally assigned to the South Indian Iron Age. Though by all accounts the chronology of these monuments are not very reliable, with very few authentic dates for the 3000-plus sites where megaliths have been found, they have been assigned a period of roughly 1500BCE – 200CE. It is believed that the mortuary practices of the south Indian Iron Age are what gave rise to the large surface markers in stone that gave megaliths their name. Though undoubtedly the cultural practice of erecting megaliths enjoyed widespread popularity during the Iron Age, as evidenced by the presence of iron objects as grave goods among a large majority of excavated megalithic monuments, it is by no means certain that this practice did not have its origins in earlier times. The recent dating of a charcoal fragment from one of the Brahmagiri megaliths excavated by Mortimer Wheeler yields a date that fits into the middle of the South Indian Neolithic. In this paper, it is argued that we need to seriously re-examine the origins and evolution of megalithism. It is possible that several of the megalithic sites could have originated in the Neolithic and continued to be used in the Iron Age. It is significant that hardly any megalithic monument sport chisel marks or wedge holes and even an extensive site like Hire Benakal does not show signs of extraction of rock by wedges, as one would expect in a culture that had the use of iron. To end with, suggestions for dating megaliths by measurements of weathering products like tafoni both on exposed surfaces at prehistoric source quarries for the megaliths as well as the monuments themselves is given. It is highly pertinent that we examine the megalithic tradition on either side of the assumed date bracket to understand its origins as well as evolution into later monumental architecture.
Climatology, or rather Climate Responsive Design is a key subject to be taught to students of arc... more Climatology, or rather Climate Responsive Design is a key subject to be taught to students of architecture. Usually taught in the 3 rd semester, it is arguably more effective when taught in the 5 th semester, after the students have acquired the basic qualities of thinking in three dimensions, understanding and drafting complex sections etc., as well as a fair amount of ability in design manipulation. The best way to lay out the curriculum and classroom instruction, as well as "hands on" sessions to understand certain aspects better, is outlined in this paper. The topics to be covered under this subject can be broadly grouped under three modules-Basics of Weather and Climate; Human Thermal (and Visual) Comfort; and Climate Responsive Design. Under Basics of Weather and Climate, a grounding of what parameters constitute climate, and how these can be measured, analyzed to classify climatic zones should be provided. This is to understand broadly what kind of climate to expect in a given geographic region, and what deviations are to be expected at the microclimatic or site-climatic scales. Human beings have evolved to function efficiently under a limited range of climatic conditions, irrespective of which part of the globe they occupy, though this envelope of comfortable conditions can be stretched by factors such as acclimatization etc. The second module should impart an understanding of what constitutes human thermal, as well as visual, comfort. Unified indices as a measure of thermal comfort should be explored. Visual comfort, and the lighting ranges under which it can be achieved, needs to be explored. Finally, in the module Climate Responsive Design, how the conditions at a given location can be moderated by considered manipulation of the building envelope, choice of material etc. should be outlined. The use of physical modeling devices like wind tunnels, solarscopes etc. as well as the use of computer-modeling software can be initiated under this, with the support of relevant laboratories at an ideal institution. Despite the availability of a slew of modern textbooks in the field, this paper is aimed at communicating the subject using the classic by Otto Koenigsberger et al, which is easily available, affordable and extremely relevant even in this era of modelling software and visualizations.
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Papers by Srikumar M Menon
The 2nd century BCE – 3rd century CE stupa features numerous sculptures of elephants on its different components, such as the slabs which veneer the upper and lower drums, pilasters, friezes, copings and finials. Elephants are depicted in contexts such as war, pageantry, veneration of relics of the Buddha and birth-stories of the Buddha, as well as general embellishment of stupa components. Interestingly, several of the Kanaganahalli depictions are typical of the classical Indian ideal of the war elephant, including them being in a state of musth, to be even more effective in battle. Kanaganahalli boasts of some of the most accurate depictions of elephant anatomy and behaviour in Indian art, as well as aspects of elephant-handling, from harnesses and saddles, to use of goads etc. Most of the sculptures are in shallow relief, on limestone, and are excellent examples of the quality of early Indian art. These reliefs offer a unique insight on the relationship between humans and the Asiatic elephant in the early centuries of the Common Era, and the various uses that captive elephants were put to.
(Upload of full paper on open access platforms is prevented by copyright considerations. Please contact for a PDF of the full paper, if interested.)
Megalithic monuments vary widely in form, from simple erect standing stones called menhirs to elaborately conceived and executed dolmens and rock-cut tombs. Certain megalithic forms, such as the boulder circle and the dolmen are found widely distributed throughout the range of occurrence of megaliths, whereas some are endemic to certain regions – like the kodakkals and topikkals of Kerala.
Some Indian megaliths also show remarkable similarity in form to similar monuments elsewhere in the world. However, even within their range of distribution in the subcontinent, megalithic monuments grouped under the same category can exhibit differences in design, detailing, etc. Sundara (1975) has tried to account for these differences by adding the name of a type-site to the names of these megalithic forms. For instance, he differentiates between what he calls “port-holed
chambers” of the Hire Benakal type and the Rajan Koluru type, based on
dimensions and design of the structures.
In this paper, we will examine the design of five dolmens of the Hire Benakal type found at different places in south India. Though these structures are quite similar in design, they exhibit subtle differences in detailing, orientational preferences etc.
The 2nd century BCE – 3rd century CE stupa features numerous sculptures of elephants on its different components, such as the slabs which veneer the upper and lower drums, pilasters, friezes, copings and finials. Elephants are depicted in contexts such as war, pageantry, veneration of relics of the Buddha and birth-stories of the Buddha, as well as general embellishment of stupa components. Interestingly, several of the Kanaganahalli depictions are typical of the classical Indian ideal of the war elephant, including them being in a state of musth, to be even more effective in battle. Kanaganahalli boasts of some of the most accurate depictions of elephant anatomy and behaviour in Indian art, as well as aspects of elephant-handling, from harnesses and saddles, to use of goads etc. Most of the sculptures are in shallow relief, on limestone, and are excellent examples of the quality of early Indian art. These reliefs offer a unique insight on the relationship between humans and the Asiatic elephant in the early centuries of the Common Era, and the various uses that captive elephants were put to.
(Upload of full paper on open access platforms is prevented by copyright considerations. Please contact for a PDF of the full paper, if interested.)
Megalithic monuments vary widely in form, from simple erect standing stones called menhirs to elaborately conceived and executed dolmens and rock-cut tombs. Certain megalithic forms, such as the boulder circle and the dolmen are found widely distributed throughout the range of occurrence of megaliths, whereas some are endemic to certain regions – like the kodakkals and topikkals of Kerala.
Some Indian megaliths also show remarkable similarity in form to similar monuments elsewhere in the world. However, even within their range of distribution in the subcontinent, megalithic monuments grouped under the same category can exhibit differences in design, detailing, etc. Sundara (1975) has tried to account for these differences by adding the name of a type-site to the names of these megalithic forms. For instance, he differentiates between what he calls “port-holed
chambers” of the Hire Benakal type and the Rajan Koluru type, based on
dimensions and design of the structures.
In this paper, we will examine the design of five dolmens of the Hire Benakal type found at different places in south India. Though these structures are quite similar in design, they exhibit subtle differences in detailing, orientational preferences etc.
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Srikumar M. Menon is an architect with a keen interest in astronomy as well as the archaeology of the Indian subcontinent. After working in research and architectural practice for 6 years he joined Manipal University where he has been teaching since 1999. He has, in the past, worked on a project to set up a modern observatory for an astronomy research institute in India and is now working on a research project to identify possible ancient observatories among the megalithic monuments of southern India. He has received the Prof. D. S. Achyutha Rao Memorial History Research Fellowship for the year 2007 for research on megaliths and has recently been awarded a Homi Bhabha Fellowship to work on “Ancient Landscapes in South India”.
About the author:
Srikumar M. Menon is an architect with a keen interest in astronomy. After working in research and architectural practice for six years, he joined Manipal University, where he has been teaching at the Faculty of Architecture since 1999. To follow up his passion for the subject, he has in the past worked on a project to set up an astronomical observatory in the Sahyadri ranges of the Western Ghats, where incidentally he saw his first comet. He currently is obsessed with the quest to find possible observatories among the prehistoric monuments of southern India. He is the author of the book “Ancient Stone Riddles: megaliths of the Indian Subcontinent” which is a primer for this quest.
Megalithic monuments exhibit a wide variety in form and design and presumably performed different functions. A large fraction of megaliths are sepulchres, or memorials. But there are several megalithic types, the purposes of which remain poorly understood today. In this paper, we sum up the overview of the current understanding of megaliths, especially the so called “south Indian megalithic complex” and explore the possibility that at least some of these monuments could have been used to observe celestial cycles.
In general, studying the orientations of megaliths can give clues about the astronomical knowledge of their builders. For instance, a consistent alignment to any of the cardinal points (or a consistent alignment to any point on the compass, for that matter) can indicate that the builders knew how to determine the cardinal directions, which indicates a knowledge of at least solar positional astronomy. On the other hand, there could also be other monuments that could have functioned as instruments used to acquire this knowledge.
In this paper, we present results of extensive fieldwork over seven years focused on surveying a wide variety of megalithic types and which includes both categories of monuments mentioned above. We present a variety of results from different sites – varying from clusters of megalithic monuments that exhibit no preferential orientation to those with very definite and consistent orientation. We also present results from a group of stone-alignment sites in southern coastal Karnataka that, though some of them do have sepulchral connotations, seem to show definite intentional astronomical alignments and viable sightlines to astronomical phenomena on the local horizon, and compare these with a similar site in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra which unfortunately was destroyed before a detailed survey could be made.
To round off the discussion on megaliths, we present evidence from a few sites to show definite correlation between the locations of prehistoric megaliths and early temples. Vestiges of cultural memory about megaliths seem to have persisted well into historic times and even into post-Vijayanagara period in south India. It would seem that the currently observed total lack of knowledge about what a megalith represents is a relatively recent phenomenon.
To sum up, not all megalithic types had anything to do with astronomy, but there seem to be a definite class of monuments (the stone alignment) which had definite astronomical sightlines inbuilt in their design. What this meant to the cultures that built them and whether these sightlines were used to mark time or observe celestial cycles or were of an unknown symbolic importance to them is a matter for conjecture, though.