The transition between the Final Bronze and Early Iron Age remains one of the least understood pe... more The transition between the Final Bronze and Early Iron Age remains one of the least understood periods in the archaeology of southern Central Asia. In this paper, we introduce the newly discovered site of Kimirek-kum-1 (floruit ca. 1250-1050 CAL B.C.) in the old delta of the Zerafshan River in present-day Uzbekistan. Combined pedestrian survey, geomagnetic prospection, hand augering, and stratigraphic excavation, conducted between 2021 and 2023, demonstrate the site's unique potential to improve our understanding of the Final Bronze/Early Iron Age transition and the interface between the Central Eurasian steppes to the north and the Indo-Iranian world to the south. Notably, our investigations yielded nearly 400 objects in copper alloys, lead, gold, and semiprecious stone. These findings strongly suggest that Kimirek-kum-1 represents a substantial new Final Bronze/Early Iron Age center with extensive external links. It raises critical questions about the continuity of long-distance exchanges and elite networks after the end of the Oxus civilization.
Glass manufacturing processes and recipes changed fundamentally after the 8th century CE. The ear... more Glass manufacturing processes and recipes changed fundamentally after the 8th century CE. The earlier centralised production system diversified, primary production sites multiplied, and the scale of individual productions contracted. Mineral soda was no longer used and instead replaced by plant ash as the main fluxing agent, affecting the chemical composition and properties of the glass. In this work, LA-ICP-MS and Raman spectroscopy were used to investigate the compositional and structural characteristics of 68 glass fragments recovered during recent excavations at Bukhara in Uzbekistan, dating to the 9th to early 11th centuries CE. This is the most extensive systematically collected and studied glass assemblage from Central Asia to date. The glass can be attributed to different origins, confirming on the one hand the diversification of glass production during the early Islamic period and, on the other hand, regional variations in the chemical compositions and network structure of soda-rich plant ash glasses. As clear archaeological evidence for early Islamic glass production sites in Central Asia is rare, regional production groups are distinguished primarily on relative concentrations of Mg, K, P, Cl, Li and Cs in relation to the plant ash component, while variabilities in Al, Ti, Cr, Y, Zr, Th and REEs and their ratios indicate different silica sources. Raman spectra suggest variations in network connectivity and Q n speciation that confirm compositional groupings and suggest structural differences between regional productions of plant ash glass. The results demonstrate a clear dominance of local or regional glass groups, while revealing the importation of Mesopotamian glass, notably a high-end colourless glass type from the region around Samarra in Iraq. The new analytical data allow further separation and characterisation of novel early Islamic plant-ash glass types and their production areas.
The Silk Road is a modern name for a globalization phenomenon that marked an extensive network of... more The Silk Road is a modern name for a globalization phenomenon that marked an extensive network of communication and exchange in the ancient world; by the turn of the second millennium AD, commercial trade linked Asia and supported the development of a string of large urban centers across Central Asia. One of the main arteries of the medieval trade routes followed the middle and lower Zarafshan River and was connected by mercantile cities, such as Samarkand and Bukhara. Bukhara developed into a flourishing urban center between the fourth and sixth centuries AD, served as the capital of the Samanid court between AD 893 and 999, and remained prosperous into the Qarakhanid period (AD 999-1220), until the Mongol invasion in AD 1220. We present the first archaeobotanical study from this ancient center of education, craft production, artistic development, and commerce. Radiocarbon dates and an archaeological chronology that has been developed for the site show that our samples cover a range between the third and eleventh centuries AD. These samples from Bukhara represent the richest systematically collected archaeobotanical assemblage thus far recovered in Central Asia. The assemblage includes spices and both annual and perennial crops, which allowed Sogdians and Samanids to feed large cities in river oases surrounded by desert and arid steppe and supported a far-reaching commercial market in the first millennium AD.
Rice is one of the most culturally valued and widely grown crops in the world today, and extensiv... more Rice is one of the most culturally valued and widely grown crops in the world today, and extensive research over the past decade has clarified much of the narrative of its domestication and early spread across East and South Asia. However, the timing and routes of its dispersal into West Asia and Europe, through which rice eventually became an important ingredient in global cuisines, has remained less clear. In this article, we discuss the piecemeal, but growing, archaeobotanical data for rice in West Asia. We also integrate written sources, linguistic data, and ethnohistoric analogies, in order to better understand the adoption of rice outside its regions of origin. The human-mediated westward spread of rice proceeded gradually, while its social standing and culinary uses repeatedly changing over time and place. Rice was present in West Asia and Europe by the tail end of the first millennium BC, but did not become a significant crop in West Asia until the past few centuries. Complementary historical, linguistic, and archaeobotanical data illustrate two separate and roughly contemporaneous routes of westward dispersal, one along the South Asian coast and the other through Silk Road trade. By better understanding the adoption of this water-demanding crop in the arid regions of West Asia, we explore an important chapter in human adaptation and agricultural decision making.
The pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) is commercially cultivated in semi-arid regions around the globe... more The pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) is commercially cultivated in semi-arid regions around the globe. Archaeobotanical, genetic, and linguistic data suggest that the pistachio was brought under cultivation somewhere within its wild range, spanning southern Central Asia, northern Iran, and northern Afghanistan. Historically, pistachio cultivation has primarily relied on grafting, suggesting that, as with many Eurasian tree crops, domestication resulted from genetically locking hybrids or favored individuals in place. Plant domestication and dispersal research has largely focused on weedy, highly adaptable, self-compatible annuals; in this discussion, we present a case study that involves a dioecious long-lived perennial-a domestication process that would have required a completely different traditional ecological knowledge system than that utilized for grain cultivation. We argue that the pistachio was brought under cultivation in southern Central Asia, spreading westward by at least 2000 years ago (maybe a few centuries earlier to the mountains of modern Syria) and moved eastward only at the end of the first millennium AD. The seeds remain rare in archaeological sites outside its native range, even into the mid-second millennium AD, and may not have been widely cultivated until the past few hundred years.
Note: The volume was published in black-and-white, which rendered the maps all but unreadable. Th... more Note: The volume was published in black-and-white, which rendered the maps all but unreadable. This PDF contains the original color figures of the maps.
On the Question of Sasanian Presence in Sogdiana. Recent Results of Excavations at Paykand, 2016
The article covers the results of new excavations at the citadel of Paikend, an ancient city in t... more The article covers the results of new excavations at the citadel of Paikend, an ancient city in the south of Bukhara oasis (modern Uzbekistan). The data obtained demonstrated that an extensive construction work was performed in the 2nd half of the 3rd – 4th cc. A.D. New protective walls, garrison’s barracks were built and the Fire temple was rebuilt. The details of the temple’s layout find parallels in Iranian cult architecture. The mural paintings were found as well. It is possible that they were influenced by Sasanian art. Coins, pottery, small products had also undergone changes and are similar to the Kushano-Sasanian material assemblage of Bactria-Tokharistan. The hypothesis proposed that the phenomenon related with the expansion of Sasanian Iran into the Bukhara oasis.
Until relatively recently, the centuries between Xiongnu and Türk domination in the Mongolian st... more Until relatively recently, the centuries between Xiongnu and Türk domination in the Mongolian steppelands (both north and south of the Gobi Desert) appeared as an archaeological »dark age«. At the same time, the steppe empire of the Rouran has, compared to the polities of the Xiongnu and the Türks, received relatively little attention by modern historians. In recent years however, archaeological discoveries have started to throw new light on this period, shattering long-held assumptions and, at the same time, generating new questions. Among the most important of these recent discoveries are five 5th century elite tombs found at Yihe-nur in southeastern Inner Mongolia. Previous studies dealing with these sumpotously furnished tombs have been focused on detailing connections with the contemporary Northern Wei court culture, labeling the tomb owners either as »Xianbei« or as »Gaoche«. However, a closer look at a set of two exquisite parade belts and a peculiar type of pectoral found at Yihe-nur, suggests that the tomb owners of Yihe-nur also adhered to fashions that were much more common in the steppes and in the »Western Regions« than in the Chinese heartland, pointing to elite networks spanning far across Central Eurasia. Finally, this paper will inquire into the question how a better understanding of the Rouran polity and its elites can shed additional light on these elite networks in the northern Chinese frontier and beyond during the 5th and early 6th century.
The present article argues that the earliest attestation of the city of Paykand in Bukhārān Soghd... more The present article argues that the earliest attestation of the city of Paykand in Bukhārān Soghd is to be found in the memoirs of the ‘Western regions’ of the Beishi and the extant Weishu (both going back to the now lost original ‘Xiyu zhuan’ of the Weishu). This identification has so far been overlooked due to a scribal error. This earliest mentioning of Paykand goes in all likelihood back to information gathered by the Northern Wei embassy of the years 436-437, which visited the various countries of the ‘Western regions’ up to Chāch. Although the passage in question is relatively short, it nonetheless provides us with important details regarding the urbanization process in Paykand, the mercantile atmosphere already at this early stage of the development of the city, and the earliest attestation of rice in Sogdiana. It is quite possible that these details were provided to the Chinese emissaries by an informant from Bukhārān Sogd.
Brief report on excavations of kurgans and kurgan ensembles at Lyavandak and Kyzyl-tepa in Bukhar... more Brief report on excavations of kurgans and kurgan ensembles at Lyavandak and Kyzyl-tepa in Bukharan Sogdiana, dating between the 3rd cent. BCE and the 2nd/3rd cent. CE.
A brief report on the results of works at Bashtepa and Tali-Surkh in Bukharan Soghd in 2018, incl... more A brief report on the results of works at Bashtepa and Tali-Surkh in Bukharan Soghd in 2018, including new finds of terracotta figurines, imitations of 'Megarian bowls', and loom weights.
Results of the 2015-2016 seasons of excavations at the main north-eastern gate of the Divar-i Kan... more Results of the 2015-2016 seasons of excavations at the main north-eastern gate of the Divar-i Kanpirak – the famous oasis wall of Bukhara
The transition between the Final Bronze and Early Iron Age remains one of the least understood pe... more The transition between the Final Bronze and Early Iron Age remains one of the least understood periods in the archaeology of southern Central Asia. In this paper, we introduce the newly discovered site of Kimirek-kum-1 (floruit ca. 1250-1050 CAL B.C.) in the old delta of the Zerafshan River in present-day Uzbekistan. Combined pedestrian survey, geomagnetic prospection, hand augering, and stratigraphic excavation, conducted between 2021 and 2023, demonstrate the site's unique potential to improve our understanding of the Final Bronze/Early Iron Age transition and the interface between the Central Eurasian steppes to the north and the Indo-Iranian world to the south. Notably, our investigations yielded nearly 400 objects in copper alloys, lead, gold, and semiprecious stone. These findings strongly suggest that Kimirek-kum-1 represents a substantial new Final Bronze/Early Iron Age center with extensive external links. It raises critical questions about the continuity of long-distance exchanges and elite networks after the end of the Oxus civilization.
Glass manufacturing processes and recipes changed fundamentally after the 8th century CE. The ear... more Glass manufacturing processes and recipes changed fundamentally after the 8th century CE. The earlier centralised production system diversified, primary production sites multiplied, and the scale of individual productions contracted. Mineral soda was no longer used and instead replaced by plant ash as the main fluxing agent, affecting the chemical composition and properties of the glass. In this work, LA-ICP-MS and Raman spectroscopy were used to investigate the compositional and structural characteristics of 68 glass fragments recovered during recent excavations at Bukhara in Uzbekistan, dating to the 9th to early 11th centuries CE. This is the most extensive systematically collected and studied glass assemblage from Central Asia to date. The glass can be attributed to different origins, confirming on the one hand the diversification of glass production during the early Islamic period and, on the other hand, regional variations in the chemical compositions and network structure of soda-rich plant ash glasses. As clear archaeological evidence for early Islamic glass production sites in Central Asia is rare, regional production groups are distinguished primarily on relative concentrations of Mg, K, P, Cl, Li and Cs in relation to the plant ash component, while variabilities in Al, Ti, Cr, Y, Zr, Th and REEs and their ratios indicate different silica sources. Raman spectra suggest variations in network connectivity and Q n speciation that confirm compositional groupings and suggest structural differences between regional productions of plant ash glass. The results demonstrate a clear dominance of local or regional glass groups, while revealing the importation of Mesopotamian glass, notably a high-end colourless glass type from the region around Samarra in Iraq. The new analytical data allow further separation and characterisation of novel early Islamic plant-ash glass types and their production areas.
The Silk Road is a modern name for a globalization phenomenon that marked an extensive network of... more The Silk Road is a modern name for a globalization phenomenon that marked an extensive network of communication and exchange in the ancient world; by the turn of the second millennium AD, commercial trade linked Asia and supported the development of a string of large urban centers across Central Asia. One of the main arteries of the medieval trade routes followed the middle and lower Zarafshan River and was connected by mercantile cities, such as Samarkand and Bukhara. Bukhara developed into a flourishing urban center between the fourth and sixth centuries AD, served as the capital of the Samanid court between AD 893 and 999, and remained prosperous into the Qarakhanid period (AD 999-1220), until the Mongol invasion in AD 1220. We present the first archaeobotanical study from this ancient center of education, craft production, artistic development, and commerce. Radiocarbon dates and an archaeological chronology that has been developed for the site show that our samples cover a range between the third and eleventh centuries AD. These samples from Bukhara represent the richest systematically collected archaeobotanical assemblage thus far recovered in Central Asia. The assemblage includes spices and both annual and perennial crops, which allowed Sogdians and Samanids to feed large cities in river oases surrounded by desert and arid steppe and supported a far-reaching commercial market in the first millennium AD.
Rice is one of the most culturally valued and widely grown crops in the world today, and extensiv... more Rice is one of the most culturally valued and widely grown crops in the world today, and extensive research over the past decade has clarified much of the narrative of its domestication and early spread across East and South Asia. However, the timing and routes of its dispersal into West Asia and Europe, through which rice eventually became an important ingredient in global cuisines, has remained less clear. In this article, we discuss the piecemeal, but growing, archaeobotanical data for rice in West Asia. We also integrate written sources, linguistic data, and ethnohistoric analogies, in order to better understand the adoption of rice outside its regions of origin. The human-mediated westward spread of rice proceeded gradually, while its social standing and culinary uses repeatedly changing over time and place. Rice was present in West Asia and Europe by the tail end of the first millennium BC, but did not become a significant crop in West Asia until the past few centuries. Complementary historical, linguistic, and archaeobotanical data illustrate two separate and roughly contemporaneous routes of westward dispersal, one along the South Asian coast and the other through Silk Road trade. By better understanding the adoption of this water-demanding crop in the arid regions of West Asia, we explore an important chapter in human adaptation and agricultural decision making.
The pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) is commercially cultivated in semi-arid regions around the globe... more The pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) is commercially cultivated in semi-arid regions around the globe. Archaeobotanical, genetic, and linguistic data suggest that the pistachio was brought under cultivation somewhere within its wild range, spanning southern Central Asia, northern Iran, and northern Afghanistan. Historically, pistachio cultivation has primarily relied on grafting, suggesting that, as with many Eurasian tree crops, domestication resulted from genetically locking hybrids or favored individuals in place. Plant domestication and dispersal research has largely focused on weedy, highly adaptable, self-compatible annuals; in this discussion, we present a case study that involves a dioecious long-lived perennial-a domestication process that would have required a completely different traditional ecological knowledge system than that utilized for grain cultivation. We argue that the pistachio was brought under cultivation in southern Central Asia, spreading westward by at least 2000 years ago (maybe a few centuries earlier to the mountains of modern Syria) and moved eastward only at the end of the first millennium AD. The seeds remain rare in archaeological sites outside its native range, even into the mid-second millennium AD, and may not have been widely cultivated until the past few hundred years.
Note: The volume was published in black-and-white, which rendered the maps all but unreadable. Th... more Note: The volume was published in black-and-white, which rendered the maps all but unreadable. This PDF contains the original color figures of the maps.
On the Question of Sasanian Presence in Sogdiana. Recent Results of Excavations at Paykand, 2016
The article covers the results of new excavations at the citadel of Paikend, an ancient city in t... more The article covers the results of new excavations at the citadel of Paikend, an ancient city in the south of Bukhara oasis (modern Uzbekistan). The data obtained demonstrated that an extensive construction work was performed in the 2nd half of the 3rd – 4th cc. A.D. New protective walls, garrison’s barracks were built and the Fire temple was rebuilt. The details of the temple’s layout find parallels in Iranian cult architecture. The mural paintings were found as well. It is possible that they were influenced by Sasanian art. Coins, pottery, small products had also undergone changes and are similar to the Kushano-Sasanian material assemblage of Bactria-Tokharistan. The hypothesis proposed that the phenomenon related with the expansion of Sasanian Iran into the Bukhara oasis.
Until relatively recently, the centuries between Xiongnu and Türk domination in the Mongolian st... more Until relatively recently, the centuries between Xiongnu and Türk domination in the Mongolian steppelands (both north and south of the Gobi Desert) appeared as an archaeological »dark age«. At the same time, the steppe empire of the Rouran has, compared to the polities of the Xiongnu and the Türks, received relatively little attention by modern historians. In recent years however, archaeological discoveries have started to throw new light on this period, shattering long-held assumptions and, at the same time, generating new questions. Among the most important of these recent discoveries are five 5th century elite tombs found at Yihe-nur in southeastern Inner Mongolia. Previous studies dealing with these sumpotously furnished tombs have been focused on detailing connections with the contemporary Northern Wei court culture, labeling the tomb owners either as »Xianbei« or as »Gaoche«. However, a closer look at a set of two exquisite parade belts and a peculiar type of pectoral found at Yihe-nur, suggests that the tomb owners of Yihe-nur also adhered to fashions that were much more common in the steppes and in the »Western Regions« than in the Chinese heartland, pointing to elite networks spanning far across Central Eurasia. Finally, this paper will inquire into the question how a better understanding of the Rouran polity and its elites can shed additional light on these elite networks in the northern Chinese frontier and beyond during the 5th and early 6th century.
The present article argues that the earliest attestation of the city of Paykand in Bukhārān Soghd... more The present article argues that the earliest attestation of the city of Paykand in Bukhārān Soghd is to be found in the memoirs of the ‘Western regions’ of the Beishi and the extant Weishu (both going back to the now lost original ‘Xiyu zhuan’ of the Weishu). This identification has so far been overlooked due to a scribal error. This earliest mentioning of Paykand goes in all likelihood back to information gathered by the Northern Wei embassy of the years 436-437, which visited the various countries of the ‘Western regions’ up to Chāch. Although the passage in question is relatively short, it nonetheless provides us with important details regarding the urbanization process in Paykand, the mercantile atmosphere already at this early stage of the development of the city, and the earliest attestation of rice in Sogdiana. It is quite possible that these details were provided to the Chinese emissaries by an informant from Bukhārān Sogd.
Brief report on excavations of kurgans and kurgan ensembles at Lyavandak and Kyzyl-tepa in Bukhar... more Brief report on excavations of kurgans and kurgan ensembles at Lyavandak and Kyzyl-tepa in Bukharan Sogdiana, dating between the 3rd cent. BCE and the 2nd/3rd cent. CE.
A brief report on the results of works at Bashtepa and Tali-Surkh in Bukharan Soghd in 2018, incl... more A brief report on the results of works at Bashtepa and Tali-Surkh in Bukharan Soghd in 2018, including new finds of terracotta figurines, imitations of 'Megarian bowls', and loom weights.
Results of the 2015-2016 seasons of excavations at the main north-eastern gate of the Divar-i Kan... more Results of the 2015-2016 seasons of excavations at the main north-eastern gate of the Divar-i Kanpirak – the famous oasis wall of Bukhara
Using Structure from Motion (SfM) software and low-cost UAVs equipped with digital camera systems... more Using Structure from Motion (SfM) software and low-cost UAVs equipped with digital camera systems, archaeologists record high-resolution image series of sites and produce orthoimages, elevation models and textured 3D models. In practice, however, one of the biggest challenges in image-based 3D reconstruction remains ensuring that the image series contains sufficient overlap and full coverage of the site. In this respect, video streams are an intriguing alternative (or complementary) source of image data. Although each individual video frame has a relatively low resolution, the enormous number of frames and the almost complete overlap between consecutive frames provide ideal input for SfM reconstruction algorithms. Another attractive aspect is the sheer speed at which distortion free HD video can be recorded by current consumer cameras. Our primary aim is the development of truly rapid and robust 3D recording technologies. We constrain ourselves to freely available software and low-cost consumer hardware. In October 2014 we put our ambitions to the test by documenting 13 monumental medieval fortresses in the harsh climate of Uzbekistan. The results are encouraging not only because they show how much can be achieved with very limited resources and in adverse environmental conditions, but also that current SfM and surface reconstruction algorithms are capable of handling the low-contrast, sparsely structured remains of typical mud brick architecture. This paper discusses a number of key aspects and techniques to consider on the way to establishing a best-practice routine for SfM-based reconstruction using UAV-mounted cameras and video streams (as well as mixed video and image-based reconstructions). We discuss aspects ranging from pre-flight planning (weather and light conditions, operational safety, legal restrictions, etc.) to hardware selection, modification and maintenance (always focused on low-cost and sturdy consumer hardware), flight control software (including mobile applications) and data processing. Regarding the latter, we consider both on-site data processing of sparse preview models and off-site processing of complete, fully textured models.
Preview from S. Stark, "Xianbei, Tegreg, and Rouran-Abar: Yihe-nur and the Nomadic World of Inner... more Preview from S. Stark, "Xianbei, Tegreg, and Rouran-Abar: Yihe-nur and the Nomadic World of Inner Asia between the 2nd and the 5th /early 6th cent. CE," in: Juliano/Lerner (eds.), Before Pingcheng. The Xianbei in Inner Mongolia 4th-6th century (forthcoming)
Preview from S. Stark, "Xianbei, Tegreg, and Rouran-Abar: Yihe-nur and the Nomadic World of Inner... more Preview from S. Stark, "Xianbei, Tegreg, and Rouran-Abar: Yihe-nur and the Nomadic World of Inner Asia between the 2nd and the 5th /early 6th cent. CE," in: Juliano/Lerner (eds.), Before Pingcheng. The Xianbei in Inner Mongolia 4th-6th century (forthcoming)
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Papers by Sören W Stark
In recent years however, archaeological discoveries have started to throw new light on this period, shattering long-held assumptions and, at the same time, generating new questions. Among the most important of these recent discoveries are five 5th century elite tombs found at Yihe-nur in southeastern Inner Mongolia.
Previous studies dealing with these sumpotously furnished tombs have been focused on detailing connections with the contemporary Northern Wei court culture, labeling the tomb owners either as »Xianbei« or as »Gaoche«. However, a closer look at a set of two exquisite parade belts and a peculiar type of pectoral found at Yihe-nur, suggests that the tomb owners of Yihe-nur also adhered to fashions that were much more
common in the steppes and in the »Western Regions« than in the Chinese heartland, pointing to elite networks spanning far across Central Eurasia. Finally, this paper will inquire into the question how a better understanding of the Rouran polity and its elites can shed additional light on these elite networks in the northern Chinese frontier and beyond during the 5th and early 6th century.
Although the passage in question is relatively short, it nonetheless provides us with important details regarding the urbanization process in Paykand, the mercantile atmosphere already at this early stage of the development of the city, and the earliest attestation of rice in Sogdiana. It is quite possible that these details were provided to the Chinese emissaries by an informant from Bukhārān Sogd.
Keywords
Paykand, Sogdiana, Weishu, rice.
In recent years however, archaeological discoveries have started to throw new light on this period, shattering long-held assumptions and, at the same time, generating new questions. Among the most important of these recent discoveries are five 5th century elite tombs found at Yihe-nur in southeastern Inner Mongolia.
Previous studies dealing with these sumpotously furnished tombs have been focused on detailing connections with the contemporary Northern Wei court culture, labeling the tomb owners either as »Xianbei« or as »Gaoche«. However, a closer look at a set of two exquisite parade belts and a peculiar type of pectoral found at Yihe-nur, suggests that the tomb owners of Yihe-nur also adhered to fashions that were much more
common in the steppes and in the »Western Regions« than in the Chinese heartland, pointing to elite networks spanning far across Central Eurasia. Finally, this paper will inquire into the question how a better understanding of the Rouran polity and its elites can shed additional light on these elite networks in the northern Chinese frontier and beyond during the 5th and early 6th century.
Although the passage in question is relatively short, it nonetheless provides us with important details regarding the urbanization process in Paykand, the mercantile atmosphere already at this early stage of the development of the city, and the earliest attestation of rice in Sogdiana. It is quite possible that these details were provided to the Chinese emissaries by an informant from Bukhārān Sogd.
Keywords
Paykand, Sogdiana, Weishu, rice.
Our primary aim is the development of truly rapid and robust 3D recording technologies. We constrain ourselves to freely available software and low-cost consumer hardware. In October 2014 we put our ambitions to the test by documenting 13 monumental medieval fortresses in the harsh climate of Uzbekistan. The results are encouraging not only because they show how much can be achieved with very limited resources and in adverse environmental conditions, but also that current SfM and surface reconstruction algorithms are capable of handling the low-contrast, sparsely structured remains of typical mud brick architecture.
This paper discusses a number of key aspects and techniques to consider on the way to establishing a best-practice routine for SfM-based reconstruction using UAV-mounted cameras and video streams (as well as mixed video and image-based reconstructions). We discuss aspects ranging from pre-flight planning (weather and light conditions, operational safety, legal restrictions, etc.) to hardware selection, modification and maintenance (always focused on low-cost and sturdy consumer hardware), flight control software (including mobile applications) and data processing. Regarding the latter, we consider both on-site data processing of sparse preview models and off-site processing of complete, fully textured models.