Virtual teams and other online groups can find it challenging to establish norms that allow them ... more Virtual teams and other online groups can find it challenging to establish norms that allow them to effectively balance task and relational aspects of their discussions. Yet, in our reliance on organizational and team theories, small group scholars have overlooked the potential for learning from examples offered by online communities.Theories of deliberation in small groups offer scholars a way to assess such discussion-centered self-governance in online groups.The study operationalizes the conceptual definition of deliberative discussion offered by Gastil and Black (2008) to examine the small group discussions that undergird policy-making processes in a well-established online community, Wikipedia. Content analysis shows that these discus- sions demonstrated a relatively high level of problem analysis and provid- ing of information, but results were mixed in the group’s demonstration of respect, consideration, and mutual comprehension. Network visualizations reveal structural patterns that can be useful in examining equality, influence, and group member roles.The combination of measures has implications for future research in deliberative discussion and virtual teamwork.
Dialogue: Theorizing Difference in Communication Studies, 2004
2 Relationships Among Philosophies of Dialogue Iohn Stewart, Karen E. Zediker, and Laura Black Al... more 2 Relationships Among Philosophies of Dialogue Iohn Stewart, Karen E. Zediker, and Laura Black Although the term dialogue has been commonly used in dramatic and literary theory and practice, philosophy, and ordinary language since at least Plato's time, it took on special ...
Qualitative Research Reports in Communication, 2005
Dialogue is often advocated as a way to engage students in active learning. Yet, most studies of ... more Dialogue is often advocated as a way to engage students in active learning. Yet, most studies of dialogic teaching focus on small classes where discussion is relatively easy to encourage. Additionally, very little is known about students' perceptions of dialogue and its ...
A Study of Ideology, Attitude Change, and Deliberation in Small Face-to-Face Groups ... John Gast... more A Study of Ideology, Attitude Change, and Deliberation in Small Face-to-Face Groups ... John Gastil Department of Communication University of Washington Box 353415, Seattle, WA 98195 Ph: (206) 543-4860, Fax: (206) 616-3762 Email: jgastil@washington.edu
Dialogue theory promotes communication practices that help groups understand and productively man... more Dialogue theory promotes communication practices that help groups understand and productively manage their differences. Yet, by conceptualizing dialogue as a distinct way of communicating, scholars tend to overlook how dialogue can co-occur with other ways groups deal with difference. This conceptual separation can also limit groups’ abilities to see the potential for dialogue while they are engaged in discussion. This essay argues that personal storytelling can be a bridge between dialogue and discussion by inviting group members to experience dialogic moments in the midst of deliberative conversation. Stories invite dialogic moments because they help group members negoti- ate the tension of self–other. This negotiation occurs because through telling and responding to personal stories, group members craft their identities and take on others’ perspectives. This argument is illustrated through the analysis of a storytelling interac- tion that occurred in an online deliberative group discussing how to rebuild the former World Trade Center site after its destruction on September 11, 2001. Conceptualizing storytelling as an invitation for dialogic moments has implications for dialogue theory, research, and practice
This essay provides an overview of what is currently being done in the discipline of communicatio... more This essay provides an overview of what is currently being done in the discipline of communication studies that can advance deliberative democracy, particularly in terms of student learning, and explores how those connections could be strengthened and extended. The essay is divided into three main sections. First, a brief history of the field of communication studies is provided. Next, four questions relevant to deliberative theory and practice are introduced and the teaching and research of communication scholars that provides significant responses are examined: (1) how do we improve how citizens process information and exercise judgment?, (2) how do we best deal the differences in our increasingly diverse communities?, (3) how can we better understand the processes and outcomes of deliberation?, and (4) what are the key future directions for deliberative theory and practice? Within this section, a number of the sub-fields within communication studies that connect directly or indirectly to deliberative work are introduced. The essay concludes with a review of the limitations to these connections and a “call to action” for increased public engagement. (LINK TO PAPER IS ABOVE THROUGH THE JOURNAL OF PUBLIC DELIBERATION WEBSITE)
This study analyzes the testimony given by Fort Worth City Councilman Joel Burns in response to t... more This study analyzes the testimony given by Fort Worth City Councilman Joel Burns in response to the suicides of bullied teens. Like other tes- timonies included in the ‘‘It Gets Better’’ project, Burns’s speech included his personal story of being bullied because of his sexual ori- entation, considering suicide, and persevering to lead a successful adult life. His speech was given in a city council meeting in Texas, but his message reached a much wider audience. Drawing on the public modalities framework, this study employs narrative and discourse analysis to examine his story and the public reactions to it. The analysis focuses on the discursive invocation of emotion, multiple audiences, and the role of technology to engage publics. This analysis furthers research on how personal stories function in public meetings and serve as a modality to engage broader publics.
This article introduces the special "State of the Field" issue of the Journal of Public Deliberat... more This article introduces the special "State of the Field" issue of the Journal of Public Deliberation. The essay highlights some of the key tensions that our field is wrestling with at the moment, and advocates that we think carefully about the terms we use to describe our work. It previews the articles in this special issue and urges future work in the field to take up the ideas, questions, and challenges posed by these essays. See the full special issue at: http://www.publicdeliberation.net/jpd/vol10/iss1/
This case study investigates how participants in public dialogue sessions engaged in what they te... more This case study investigates how participants in public dialogue sessions engaged in what they term “civil disagreement.” These sessions encouraged participants to explore a wide range of policy options on a public issue and consider diverse perspectives and possibilities for action. Using Action Implicative Discourse Analysis, we examine civil disagreement as a discursive problem. We argue that “civil disagreement” in public dialogue sessions is temporally bound, involves extended engagement in disagreement, and is viewed as productive by group members. Group members use discursive strategies such as challenging through questions, rearticulating claims while acknowledging other perspectives, and editing or reframing. Group members also use silence to demonstrate listening or to indicate their assessment of the situation as finalized. These discursive strategies demonstrate aspects of participants’ situated ideals about public dialogue, which are related to their role in the disagreement and their construals of time. We offer practical implications for facilitators’ use of guidelines, discussion of timing, and awareness of the multiple meanings of silence during disagreement.
This study uses discourse analysis from a Language and Social Interaction (LSI) perspective to an... more This study uses discourse analysis from a Language and Social Interaction (LSI) perspective to analyze the personal stories that were told during the North Omaha Development Project(NODP) public meeting. Personal stories may not intuitively seem to be important in public meetings because they center on individual, personal experience, rather than discussing issues in public terms. However, stories help people to create and negotiate their identities, demonstrate their values, and indicate what actions ought to be taken to enact those values in meaningful ways. In the NODP public meeting, presenters and audience members told stories that demonstrated the important distinction between community members and outsiders, and offered competing notions of the community values and appropriate actions that should be taken to address neighborhood poverty. This analysis offers insights into how public participation scholars can view stories told in public meetings as well as practical implications for officials convening public meetings.
Disagreement is a fundamental part of deliberative discussion, but how group members understand t... more Disagreement is a fundamental part of deliberative discussion, but how group members understand their disagreement can profoundly inuence their actions. These conflict frames have implications for members’ perception of both the issue and as their relationships. Drawing on Putnam’s (1990, Brummans et al., 2008) work on conflict frames, this study examines how members of an online deliberative group framed and re-framed their conflicts through personal storytelling. Members drew on different models of democracy in their stories. Some managed their disagreements through re-framing their conflicts and relationships as collaborative, even in response to adversarially-framed stories. This study advances research in conflict, group discussion, and deliberative discussion and offers practical suggestions for facilitators on how to recognize,interrogate, and help groups develop productive conflict frames
Page 346. 17 Methods for Analyzing and Measuring Group Deliberation Laura W. Black School of Comm... more Page 346. 17 Methods for Analyzing and Measuring Group Deliberation Laura W. Black School of Communication Studies Ohio University Stephanie Burkhalter Department of Politics Humboldt State University John Gastil Department ...
This special issue of the International Journal of Public Participation attempts to build linkage... more This special issue of the International Journal of Public Participation attempts to build linkages between public participation scholarship and communication research that emphasizes close attention to naturally-occurring interaction. The essays all investigate different aspects of the communication that occurs during one public meeting: a public forum that focused on issues of economic development in Omaha, Nebraska. Through their investigation of this common case, the essays in this issue provide detailed description of some communication processes common to public meetings such as nonverbal communication, question and answer behavior, storytelling, the use of the term “community,” and the terms people use to talk about their own communication. These studies highlight how such interactive practices function in important ways to build or challenge notions of community, frame the purpose and outcome of the meeting, display power differences among participants, and clarify key community values. This collection of essays highlights how close attention to what happens during public meetings can have important implications for both the theory and practice of public participation.
"Re-thinking Group Development in Adventure Programing: A Qualitative Examination" by Levi Dexel,... more "Re-thinking Group Development in Adventure Programing: A Qualitative Examination" by Levi Dexel, Bruce Martin, Laura Black, & Aiko Yoshino.
The purpose of the study was to re-examine the efficacy of Tuckman's (1965) model of group development in adventure programming. More specifically, the researchers were interested in comparing Tuckman's traditional sequential model to more contemporary non-sequential and integrative models that have emerged as alternative ways to conceptualize the process of group development. The researchers used a case study approach (Merriam. 2001) and techniques characteristic of naturalistic inquiry (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) to explore the nature of group development among participants in a week long sea kayaking expedition. The researchers concluded that more contemporary models of group development more accurately explained the process of group development in this case study than Tuckman's traditional model of group development.
This chapter reviews some of the online tools civic organizations have used to engage adults succ... more This chapter reviews some of the online tools civic organizations have used to engage adults successfully in deliberation and action around public issues. The chapter offers examples of different tools and describes strengths and weaknesses of various technological features.
This chapter of the book Democracy in Motion reviews research on the communication that occurs du... more This chapter of the book Democracy in Motion reviews research on the communication that occurs during deliberative civic engagement events. A modest body of research indicates that deliberators communicate in ways that addresses deliberation’s analytic tasks: providing information, identifying options, and weighing pros and cons of possible solutions. Deliberation events also show evidence of conversations that are respectful, egalitarian, and considerate of diverse views. Deliberators accomplish these tasks by stating opinions, making arguments, telling stories, raising questions, and, at times, disagreeing with each other. Overall, the studies reviewed here indicate that people in deliberative events communicate in productive ways that are relatively consistent with deliberative theory. Moreover, these studies indicate that emotional expressions and identity statements seem relevant to deliberators’ experiences, but are not accounted for in current theory. Future research ought to consider these issues as well as how scholars can observe respect, key values, and comprehension in the communication that occurs in these events.
This study examines the meanings and functions of raising questions in utterances such as ‘‘I’m j... more This study examines the meanings and functions of raising questions in utterances such as ‘‘I’m just raising the question.’’ We examine such phrases as they were used in deliberative public meetings about a water conservation initiative. We show how raising questions is a distinctive mode of talk that draws attention to an issue requiring further discussion. The family of terms, each of which includes some form of the words raise and question, are used as a practical metadiscourse in these meetings. We show how situated use of the terms reveals a distinctive sociality and rhetoric for participants in the meetings.
Although jury research has often investigated foreperson selection and influence, we know very li... more Although jury research has often investigated foreperson selection and influence, we know very little about the subjective experience of leading a jury and the impact it has on forepersons themselves. This multi-method study investigates the experience of jury leadership for forepersons serving on 212 criminal and civil juries.
Virtual teams and other online groups can find it challenging to establish norms that allow them ... more Virtual teams and other online groups can find it challenging to establish norms that allow them to effectively balance task and relational aspects of their discussions. Yet, in our reliance on organizational and team theories, small group scholars have overlooked the potential for learning from examples offered by online communities.Theories of deliberation in small groups offer scholars a way to assess such discussion-centered self-governance in online groups.The study operationalizes the conceptual definition of deliberative discussion offered by Gastil and Black (2008) to examine the small group discussions that undergird policy-making processes in a well-established online community, Wikipedia. Content analysis shows that these discus- sions demonstrated a relatively high level of problem analysis and provid- ing of information, but results were mixed in the group’s demonstration of respect, consideration, and mutual comprehension. Network visualizations reveal structural patterns that can be useful in examining equality, influence, and group member roles.The combination of measures has implications for future research in deliberative discussion and virtual teamwork.
Dialogue: Theorizing Difference in Communication Studies, 2004
2 Relationships Among Philosophies of Dialogue Iohn Stewart, Karen E. Zediker, and Laura Black Al... more 2 Relationships Among Philosophies of Dialogue Iohn Stewart, Karen E. Zediker, and Laura Black Although the term dialogue has been commonly used in dramatic and literary theory and practice, philosophy, and ordinary language since at least Plato's time, it took on special ...
Qualitative Research Reports in Communication, 2005
Dialogue is often advocated as a way to engage students in active learning. Yet, most studies of ... more Dialogue is often advocated as a way to engage students in active learning. Yet, most studies of dialogic teaching focus on small classes where discussion is relatively easy to encourage. Additionally, very little is known about students' perceptions of dialogue and its ...
A Study of Ideology, Attitude Change, and Deliberation in Small Face-to-Face Groups ... John Gast... more A Study of Ideology, Attitude Change, and Deliberation in Small Face-to-Face Groups ... John Gastil Department of Communication University of Washington Box 353415, Seattle, WA 98195 Ph: (206) 543-4860, Fax: (206) 616-3762 Email: jgastil@washington.edu
Dialogue theory promotes communication practices that help groups understand and productively man... more Dialogue theory promotes communication practices that help groups understand and productively manage their differences. Yet, by conceptualizing dialogue as a distinct way of communicating, scholars tend to overlook how dialogue can co-occur with other ways groups deal with difference. This conceptual separation can also limit groups’ abilities to see the potential for dialogue while they are engaged in discussion. This essay argues that personal storytelling can be a bridge between dialogue and discussion by inviting group members to experience dialogic moments in the midst of deliberative conversation. Stories invite dialogic moments because they help group members negoti- ate the tension of self–other. This negotiation occurs because through telling and responding to personal stories, group members craft their identities and take on others’ perspectives. This argument is illustrated through the analysis of a storytelling interac- tion that occurred in an online deliberative group discussing how to rebuild the former World Trade Center site after its destruction on September 11, 2001. Conceptualizing storytelling as an invitation for dialogic moments has implications for dialogue theory, research, and practice
This essay provides an overview of what is currently being done in the discipline of communicatio... more This essay provides an overview of what is currently being done in the discipline of communication studies that can advance deliberative democracy, particularly in terms of student learning, and explores how those connections could be strengthened and extended. The essay is divided into three main sections. First, a brief history of the field of communication studies is provided. Next, four questions relevant to deliberative theory and practice are introduced and the teaching and research of communication scholars that provides significant responses are examined: (1) how do we improve how citizens process information and exercise judgment?, (2) how do we best deal the differences in our increasingly diverse communities?, (3) how can we better understand the processes and outcomes of deliberation?, and (4) what are the key future directions for deliberative theory and practice? Within this section, a number of the sub-fields within communication studies that connect directly or indirectly to deliberative work are introduced. The essay concludes with a review of the limitations to these connections and a “call to action” for increased public engagement. (LINK TO PAPER IS ABOVE THROUGH THE JOURNAL OF PUBLIC DELIBERATION WEBSITE)
This study analyzes the testimony given by Fort Worth City Councilman Joel Burns in response to t... more This study analyzes the testimony given by Fort Worth City Councilman Joel Burns in response to the suicides of bullied teens. Like other tes- timonies included in the ‘‘It Gets Better’’ project, Burns’s speech included his personal story of being bullied because of his sexual ori- entation, considering suicide, and persevering to lead a successful adult life. His speech was given in a city council meeting in Texas, but his message reached a much wider audience. Drawing on the public modalities framework, this study employs narrative and discourse analysis to examine his story and the public reactions to it. The analysis focuses on the discursive invocation of emotion, multiple audiences, and the role of technology to engage publics. This analysis furthers research on how personal stories function in public meetings and serve as a modality to engage broader publics.
This article introduces the special "State of the Field" issue of the Journal of Public Deliberat... more This article introduces the special "State of the Field" issue of the Journal of Public Deliberation. The essay highlights some of the key tensions that our field is wrestling with at the moment, and advocates that we think carefully about the terms we use to describe our work. It previews the articles in this special issue and urges future work in the field to take up the ideas, questions, and challenges posed by these essays. See the full special issue at: http://www.publicdeliberation.net/jpd/vol10/iss1/
This case study investigates how participants in public dialogue sessions engaged in what they te... more This case study investigates how participants in public dialogue sessions engaged in what they term “civil disagreement.” These sessions encouraged participants to explore a wide range of policy options on a public issue and consider diverse perspectives and possibilities for action. Using Action Implicative Discourse Analysis, we examine civil disagreement as a discursive problem. We argue that “civil disagreement” in public dialogue sessions is temporally bound, involves extended engagement in disagreement, and is viewed as productive by group members. Group members use discursive strategies such as challenging through questions, rearticulating claims while acknowledging other perspectives, and editing or reframing. Group members also use silence to demonstrate listening or to indicate their assessment of the situation as finalized. These discursive strategies demonstrate aspects of participants’ situated ideals about public dialogue, which are related to their role in the disagreement and their construals of time. We offer practical implications for facilitators’ use of guidelines, discussion of timing, and awareness of the multiple meanings of silence during disagreement.
This study uses discourse analysis from a Language and Social Interaction (LSI) perspective to an... more This study uses discourse analysis from a Language and Social Interaction (LSI) perspective to analyze the personal stories that were told during the North Omaha Development Project(NODP) public meeting. Personal stories may not intuitively seem to be important in public meetings because they center on individual, personal experience, rather than discussing issues in public terms. However, stories help people to create and negotiate their identities, demonstrate their values, and indicate what actions ought to be taken to enact those values in meaningful ways. In the NODP public meeting, presenters and audience members told stories that demonstrated the important distinction between community members and outsiders, and offered competing notions of the community values and appropriate actions that should be taken to address neighborhood poverty. This analysis offers insights into how public participation scholars can view stories told in public meetings as well as practical implications for officials convening public meetings.
Disagreement is a fundamental part of deliberative discussion, but how group members understand t... more Disagreement is a fundamental part of deliberative discussion, but how group members understand their disagreement can profoundly inuence their actions. These conflict frames have implications for members’ perception of both the issue and as their relationships. Drawing on Putnam’s (1990, Brummans et al., 2008) work on conflict frames, this study examines how members of an online deliberative group framed and re-framed their conflicts through personal storytelling. Members drew on different models of democracy in their stories. Some managed their disagreements through re-framing their conflicts and relationships as collaborative, even in response to adversarially-framed stories. This study advances research in conflict, group discussion, and deliberative discussion and offers practical suggestions for facilitators on how to recognize,interrogate, and help groups develop productive conflict frames
Page 346. 17 Methods for Analyzing and Measuring Group Deliberation Laura W. Black School of Comm... more Page 346. 17 Methods for Analyzing and Measuring Group Deliberation Laura W. Black School of Communication Studies Ohio University Stephanie Burkhalter Department of Politics Humboldt State University John Gastil Department ...
This special issue of the International Journal of Public Participation attempts to build linkage... more This special issue of the International Journal of Public Participation attempts to build linkages between public participation scholarship and communication research that emphasizes close attention to naturally-occurring interaction. The essays all investigate different aspects of the communication that occurs during one public meeting: a public forum that focused on issues of economic development in Omaha, Nebraska. Through their investigation of this common case, the essays in this issue provide detailed description of some communication processes common to public meetings such as nonverbal communication, question and answer behavior, storytelling, the use of the term “community,” and the terms people use to talk about their own communication. These studies highlight how such interactive practices function in important ways to build or challenge notions of community, frame the purpose and outcome of the meeting, display power differences among participants, and clarify key community values. This collection of essays highlights how close attention to what happens during public meetings can have important implications for both the theory and practice of public participation.
"Re-thinking Group Development in Adventure Programing: A Qualitative Examination" by Levi Dexel,... more "Re-thinking Group Development in Adventure Programing: A Qualitative Examination" by Levi Dexel, Bruce Martin, Laura Black, & Aiko Yoshino.
The purpose of the study was to re-examine the efficacy of Tuckman's (1965) model of group development in adventure programming. More specifically, the researchers were interested in comparing Tuckman's traditional sequential model to more contemporary non-sequential and integrative models that have emerged as alternative ways to conceptualize the process of group development. The researchers used a case study approach (Merriam. 2001) and techniques characteristic of naturalistic inquiry (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) to explore the nature of group development among participants in a week long sea kayaking expedition. The researchers concluded that more contemporary models of group development more accurately explained the process of group development in this case study than Tuckman's traditional model of group development.
This chapter reviews some of the online tools civic organizations have used to engage adults succ... more This chapter reviews some of the online tools civic organizations have used to engage adults successfully in deliberation and action around public issues. The chapter offers examples of different tools and describes strengths and weaknesses of various technological features.
This chapter of the book Democracy in Motion reviews research on the communication that occurs du... more This chapter of the book Democracy in Motion reviews research on the communication that occurs during deliberative civic engagement events. A modest body of research indicates that deliberators communicate in ways that addresses deliberation’s analytic tasks: providing information, identifying options, and weighing pros and cons of possible solutions. Deliberation events also show evidence of conversations that are respectful, egalitarian, and considerate of diverse views. Deliberators accomplish these tasks by stating opinions, making arguments, telling stories, raising questions, and, at times, disagreeing with each other. Overall, the studies reviewed here indicate that people in deliberative events communicate in productive ways that are relatively consistent with deliberative theory. Moreover, these studies indicate that emotional expressions and identity statements seem relevant to deliberators’ experiences, but are not accounted for in current theory. Future research ought to consider these issues as well as how scholars can observe respect, key values, and comprehension in the communication that occurs in these events.
This study examines the meanings and functions of raising questions in utterances such as ‘‘I’m j... more This study examines the meanings and functions of raising questions in utterances such as ‘‘I’m just raising the question.’’ We examine such phrases as they were used in deliberative public meetings about a water conservation initiative. We show how raising questions is a distinctive mode of talk that draws attention to an issue requiring further discussion. The family of terms, each of which includes some form of the words raise and question, are used as a practical metadiscourse in these meetings. We show how situated use of the terms reveals a distinctive sociality and rhetoric for participants in the meetings.
Although jury research has often investigated foreperson selection and influence, we know very li... more Although jury research has often investigated foreperson selection and influence, we know very little about the subjective experience of leading a jury and the impact it has on forepersons themselves. This multi-method study investigates the experience of jury leadership for forepersons serving on 212 criminal and civil juries.
For the last five years, we have had the honor of serving as editors of the Journal of Public Del... more For the last five years, we have had the honor of serving as editors of the Journal of Public Deliberation. This issue marks the end of our editorial tenure, and we take this opportunity to both look back and think ahead. In this brief essay, we reflect on what we’ve seen during our time as editors. We begin by describing three important special issues that reflect the state of our field, then provide some details about how we have facilitated JPD’s growth over the past five years, including publication statistics and article download rates. We conclude by discussing where the journal is now and what we anticipate for its future.
This article introduces the special issue on Deliberative Democracy in an Era of Authoritarianism... more This article introduces the special issue on Deliberative Democracy in an Era of Authoritarianism. The essay highlights the relationship between authoritarianism and democracy, and discusses concerns about the current rise in authoritarianism in political systems. It poses questions about how deliberative scholars and practitioners should respond to authoritarian political contexts and how deliberation should relate to more activist forms of civic engagement. Finally, it previews the articles in the special issue and urges future work in the field to take up ideas, questions, and challenges posed by these essays.
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Papers by Laura Black
See the full special issue at: http://www.publicdeliberation.net/jpd/vol10/iss1/
The full special issue is available at: http://www.iap2.org/?403
The purpose of the study was to re-examine the efficacy of Tuckman's (1965) model of group development in adventure programming. More specifically, the researchers were interested in comparing Tuckman's traditional sequential model to more contemporary non-sequential and integrative models that have emerged as alternative ways to conceptualize the process of group development. The researchers used a case study approach (Merriam. 2001) and techniques characteristic of naturalistic inquiry (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) to explore the nature of group development among participants in a week long sea kayaking expedition. The researchers concluded that more contemporary models of group development more accurately explained the process of group development in this case study than Tuckman's traditional model of group development.
See the full special issue at: http://www.publicdeliberation.net/jpd/vol10/iss1/
The full special issue is available at: http://www.iap2.org/?403
The purpose of the study was to re-examine the efficacy of Tuckman's (1965) model of group development in adventure programming. More specifically, the researchers were interested in comparing Tuckman's traditional sequential model to more contemporary non-sequential and integrative models that have emerged as alternative ways to conceptualize the process of group development. The researchers used a case study approach (Merriam. 2001) and techniques characteristic of naturalistic inquiry (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) to explore the nature of group development among participants in a week long sea kayaking expedition. The researchers concluded that more contemporary models of group development more accurately explained the process of group development in this case study than Tuckman's traditional model of group development.
For full special issue, see https://www.publicdeliberation.net/jpd/vol14/iss2/.