Journal of Academic Research in Religious Sciences, 2024
The organized belief systems, temple structures, and religion-state relations that emerged with t... more The organized belief systems, temple structures, and religion-state relations that emerged with the Sumerians in ancient Mesopotamia began to undergo Semiticization with the dominance of Semitic societies in the region. Sumerian cultural elements, which underwent Semiticization during the Old Babylonian period, assumed an Assyrian character with the rise of the Assyrian State in the Ancient Near East and its evolution into an imperial structure. The Assyrian society, known for its religious orientation, operated on a religion-based understanding of state organization and the formulation of state policies. It was believed that divine requests and orders influenced various situations, such as kings' legitimacy, heirs' determination, and decisions regarding wars and peace. The land was perceived as belonging to the gods, and the kings were seen as representatives of the gods on earth. This study aims to uncover the theocratic aspects of Assyrian state administration based on information gleaned from cuneiform sources and modern literature.
Assyrians had a monarchical structure in which a king, who came to power through inheritance from... more Assyrians had a monarchical structure in which a king, who came to power through inheritance from a specific family, held absolute authority. At times, this form of governance manifested as a theocratic monarchy, where every political action found its legitimacy on religious grounds. Regarding succession, it is evident that practices were carried out with divine approval and request as guiding principles. The heir in question could be any of the king's natural children, but children born to kings from their second wives or slaves could not ascend to the throne through conventional means. Periodically, kings appointed their children as administrators in various cities, including Babylon, to gain experience in state affairs. The permanence of the designated heir's position and their ascension to the throne upon the king's death were not guaranteed.Additionally, historical records reveal instances where kings changed the crown prince for various reasons. These changes might be attributed to the inadequacy of the crown prince or could result from the influence of queens, as the mother of the chosen crown prince held a significant position within the Assyrian hierarchy. In this study, which is based on cuneiform texts and modern works, the objective is to comprehensively examine the role of the heir apparent in the Assyrian state system, providing insights through periodic examples. Additionally, it seeks to unveil the complex relationships between heirs, kings, queens, and other princes.
Erzurum Teknik Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2023
Ancient societies and states used rare and skilled materials and products, placing them in highly... more Ancient societies and states used rare and skilled materials and products, placing them in highly valuable positions. Glass, which is thought to have been first produced in Ancient Mesopotamia, was highly prized and held in important positions in Ancient Egypt and Ancient Anatolia due to its d ifficulty i n p roduction a nd r arity. I n t he i nitial s tages, g lass e merged in v arious p roduct models such as glass beads, glass bowls, glass vases, and glass bottles. Although studies have shown that the use of glass was widespread throughout Ancient Mesopotamian society, it was understood that the products with high glass content were mainly used by the high-class people. In Ancient Egyptian society, glass was considered a product for people of high class. In the civilizations of Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, the state monopolized the production activities, export and import of glass by the dynasty. Glass was also exchanged as gifts between states. When we look at the ancient Anatolian geography, it is understood that glass production started i n a later period compared t o Ancient Mesopotamia a nd Ancient Egypt, and i ts role i n society is not fully known.
Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, Apr 28, 2023
Human beings, by nature, have an inclination to believe. The most prominent area where this incli... more Human beings, by nature, have an inclination to believe. The most prominent area where this inclination manifests itself is in religious beliefs. Since the earliest periods of human history, people have attributed supernatural powers to the natural events they have witnessed and felt helpless against, believing that these powers were controlled by a higher authority. Based on this idea, human communities developed polytheistic belief systems and imagined a realm of gods as a family, indexing the functioning of the universe to the decisions and preferences of this family. This belief led to the idea that the destiny of humans and the public order, whether in masculine or feminine forms, are determined by divine authority. With the emergence of the first villages in Ancient Mesopotamia, the management of organized human communities and the provision of social order were achieved within the framework of belief systems. As belief systems became more institutionalized with the transformation of the first villages into cities, they included a religious bureaucracy, and dominated every aspect of life from social to political, spiritual, and economic. The Sumerian City States were a prime example of this. The Sumerians enriched their religious world with mythological narratives, successfully transferring their understanding of religion and the perception of god to the following periods by inventing writing and starting the record-keeping tradition. This transfer is the main reason why Sumerian traces are evident in the cultural accumulation of thousands of years of Ancient Mesopotamian geography. This study will explore the understanding of religion and the perception of god in Sumerian society, based on inferences made from cuneiform sources and information obtained from modern literature.
The Neo-Assyrian State, one of the important states of the ancient Mesopotamian geography, had a ... more The Neo-Assyrian State, one of the important states of the ancient Mesopotamian geography, had a structure based on military economy. The mineral reserves, agricultural potential, textile products and animal population in the country were not self-sufficient. This problem necessitated the acquisition of most of the needs from the military campaigns. Based on this necessity, the Neo-Assyrian State prioritized the policy of exploitation and developed its economy largely with its military power. Various animals constitute an important part of the loot, which is formed by many items from people taken as captives to mines. The most important of these animals were sheep, cattle, camels, mules and horses. The Neo- Assyrian State, which ruled over a wide geography, was able to both strengthen its economy and meet the needs of i ts army with the animals i t took as loot from the new lands it seized and the lands it plundered during the annual campaign organizations. In this study, based on the information obtained from the cuneiform texts, determinations and evaluations were made about the military campaigns of the Neo-Assyrian State, the place of animals in the loot obtained from these campaigns, and the importance of these animals in terms of Neo-Assyrian economy.
Yeni Asur Devleti'nin Güney Politikası ve Elam-Babil İttifakı Asur Devleti MÖ I. binyılın başları... more Yeni Asur Devleti'nin Güney Politikası ve Elam-Babil İttifakı Asur Devleti MÖ I. binyılın başlarından itibaren yeniden güç kazanmaya başlaması ve emperyal bir hüviyete bürünmesiyle uzak bölgelere askeri seferler yapabilme kabiliyeti kazanmıştır. Asur Devleti'nin bu faaliyetleri, komşu bölgelerdeki devletleri tedirgin etmiştir. Yeni Asur Dönemi olarak adlandırılan bu süreçte Asur orduları, Mısır'dan Elam'a, Babil'den Anadolu içlerine kadar uzanan geniş bir coğrafyada faaliyet göstermiştir. Bu dönemde, Asurluların hâkimiyetleri altında tutmak istedikleri en önemli bölge Babil ülkesidir. Bölgenin sahip olduğu ekonomik potansiyel, Asurluların bu bölge ile yakından ilgilenmelerine neden olmuştur. Söz konusu bölge Sumer ülkesinin doğusunda bulunan Yeni-Elamlıların da hâkimiyet kurmak istedikleri bir coğrafyaydı. Babil ülkesinin Asur kontrolüne girmesini istemeyen Yeni-Elamlılar, Asur karşıtı tüm isyan girişimlerini desteklemiştir. Yeni-Elamlıların bu politikadaki temel amaçlarından bir diğeri de Asurlular ile sınırdaş olmak istememeleridir. Asurlular ise bölgeye hâkim olabilmek amacıyla hem Babil ülkesine hem de Elam topraklarına pek çok askeri sefer düzenlemelerinin yanı sıra diplomatik ilişkilerde de bulunmuşlardır. Çalışmamızın konusunu oluşturan bu mücadele ve diplomatik ilişkilerin incelenmesinde Asur ve Babil çivi yazılı metinleri ile modern literatür kullanılmıştır. Bazı bölümlerde çivi yazılı metindeki bilgilerden doğrudan, bazı bölümlerde ise dolaylı olarak faydalanılmıştır. Asur, Elam ve Babil eksenindeki siyasi, askeri, kısmen de ekonomik yönlerinin ele alınacağı bu çalışmada elde edilen bilgilerden hareketle, MÖ I. binyılda Asur Devleti'nin hegemonik yayılmasına karşı Elam ve Babil ülkeleri tarafından yürütülen faaliyetler ve Asurluların bu faaliyetlere karşılık aldığı tedbirler ele alınmış ve değerlendirilmiştir.
Assyrian State, one of the imperial powers of Ancient Mesopotamia, organized numerous military ca... more Assyrian State, one of the imperial powers of Ancient Mesopotamia, organized numerous military campaign over the different region due to the limited conditions brought by its geographical location. In this context, the said voyages to Anatolia, where raw material sand mineral resources are abundant, to today's Syria and Palestinian lands, where there is sufficient human potential in terms of providing free labor, and to the Eastern Mediterranean ports where commercial activities are carried out clearly show that a largepart of the country's economy is based on the military economy. As a result of the imperial policies carried out in this context, the Assyrian State provided the source of the development and construction activities in the country, and as a result, it achieved many agricultural and economic gains. The Assyrian State, which organized many military campaigns against potential enemies that would endanger these gains, thus aimed to protect its economic interests. In this study, it will be examined about the economic gains achieved by the Assyrian State as a result of the military expeditions and the activities carried out for the protection of these gains by using the information in the Assyrian king's annals.
Assyrian State, one of the imperial powers of Ancient Mesopotamia, organized numerous military ca... more Assyrian State, one of the imperial powers of Ancient Mesopotamia, organized numerous military campaign over the different region due to the limited conditions brought by its geographical location. In this context, the said voyages to Anatolia, where raw material sand mineral resources are abundant, to today's Syria and Palestinian lands, where there is sufficient human potential in terms of providing free labor, and to the Eastern Mediterranean ports where commercial activities are carried out clearly show that a largepart of the country's economy is based on the military economy. As a result of the imperial policies carried out in this context, the Assyrian State provided the source of the development and construction activities in the country, and as a result, it achieved many agricultural and economic gains. The Assyrian State, which organized many military campaigns against potential enemies that would endanger these gains, thus aimed to protect its economic interests. In this study, it will be examined about the economic gains achieved by the Assyrian State as a result of the military expeditions and the activities carried out for the protection of these gains by using the information in the Assyrian king's annals.
Eskiçağ Önasya Tarihinde Gutiler / Gutians in Ancient Near Eastern History, 2020
Gutians, Lullubies, Elamites and Kassites constitute the main ones of the Asian nomadic societies... more Gutians, Lullubies, Elamites and Kassites constitute the main ones of the Asian nomadic societies, which have a great political and cultural importance in the history of Near East throughout the third millennium BC. These societies in the end of the third millennium BC they came to the lands of Near East and settled the western regions of today's Iran. According to the information obtained from the cuneiform texts, Gutians, who lived in the Zagros Mountains in the third millennium BC, was destroyed the Akkadians. In addition to many researches on the origin of this tribe, different theses have been put forward. The strongest of these claims is that the people of Guti are Turk origin. According to the information in cuneiform sources, the area between the Small Zap River and Diyala River, as it is known today, was called Gutium, or Gutian country. According to the information in the cuneiform texts dating back to the third millennium BC, Gutians, who did not perform appropriate religious rites, is described as a people who harm the people living in the country of Babylon and they removed wife from his husband and childs from his family. In some texts dating before 2400 BC, it is stated that Gutian country is composed of land surrounded by Subartu in the north and Elam country in the south. According to the information obtained from the Akkadian texts, this warrior tribe went down to the western plains from the Zagros Mountains between 2150 and 2050 BC, came to Mesopotamia and dominated these lands for about a hundred years. Gutians, who lives in the Zagros Highlands, which surrounds the southern and southwestern regions of Azerbaijan, is a tribe comprising of nomadic clans with different rulers. The administrative structuring of the peoples, called Gutians, was a confederation, just like the Scythians, the Alans, the Tatars and the Oghuzes. In cuneiform documents, only groups of Gutians that interact with neighboring communities are mentioned. It established a central political structure with Semitic Akkadians who came to Mesopotamia by migrating in 2500 BC and the political integrity of the region was ensured. Sargon is the founder of Akkadian State. Describing himself as the "King of Sumer and Akkad" after achievements in the political and military sphere, Sargon is the first known emperor in history. After Sargon, his sons Rimush and Manishtusu came to the throne of Akkad, respectively. During these kings, exploitative state policy based on exploitation was maintained. The Akad Empire reached the peak of its power during the rule of Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin, who came to the throne after these kings. The Akkadians, who organize military expeditions to distant regions, also raided the Gutians who lived in the lands between the Tigris River and Urmiye lake and looted all the economic assets of the region. This rapid growth realized by the Akkadian State brought along some problems. The inner peace in the country has deteriorated and the level of life has decreased in proportion to the increase in the population. In addition, a large class of civil servants was created to tackle the problems encountered in collecting taxes, which paved the way for the economic collapse of the state. Taking advantage of this turmoil environment where Akkadians are, Gutians came to the region from Zagros Mountains. After the collapse of Akkadians, the Third Dynasty of Ur reestablished the political unity of Mesopotamia. In a text remaining from this period, Gutians coming to the region and the destruction of the Akkad State is conveyed for divine reasons in the text named “The Curse of Agade”. According to the information in this text, Naram-Sin, accused of committing a crime against Enlil, the chief god of the city of Nippur, defeats the ruler who was brought to the throne of Nippur as a rival by the gods and plunders the Ekur temple of the god Enlil in the city of Nippur. Upon these developments, the gods assigned the Gutians Naram- Sin, who lived in the Zagros Mountains, to punish them. However, the reality of the information in this text is controversial. Written documents giving information about the political presence of the Gutians in the Ancient Mesopotamia begin to be seen from the period of Šar-kali-šarri. Gutian king Sharlak was taken prisoner by Šar-kali-šarri and the threat of Gutian was temporarily repelled. As a result of the Gutians victory over the Akkadians and gaining control in the cities of Mesopotamia, Gutians domination started in the region in question for 91 years and 40 days. According to the Sumerian king list between the Uruk V and VI dynasties, the total 21 Gutian kings are mentioned. According to the Sumer Kings List, the last king of the Gutians was Tirigan, who only remained on the throne for 40 days. The Gutian domination in Mesopotamia has ended as a result of this king's being taken prisoner by being defeated by the king of Uruk, Utuhegal. Gutian effect in the Mesopotamia After the Third Dynasty of Ur, also continued during the time of the Babylonians, the new ruler of the region.
Öz: İnsanlığın ortaya çıkışından beri dini inanışlar, insan topluluklarının örgütlü bir yapı hali... more Öz: İnsanlığın ortaya çıkışından beri dini inanışlar, insan topluluklarının örgütlü bir yapı haline dönüşmesinde önemli bir yere sahip olmuştur. Bu doğrultuda, insanlığın en örgütlü yapısı olan devletin de dini unsurlardan etkilenmesi kaçınılmazdır. Sumer Şehir Devletleri ile ortaya çıkan devlet sistemi, Babil Dönemi ile daha kurumsal bir hal almıştır. Bu kurumsallaşma, dönemin dini inanışlarını referans alan krallar tarafından şekillendirilmiştir. Babillilerde kralların tahta çıkması ve yürütmüş oldukları her tür faaliyet tanrıların desteği ile açıklanmıştır. Elde etmiş oldukları yönetim erkini tanrısal destekle meşrulaştırmayı hedefleyen krallar, bu amaç doğrultusunda dini ritüelleri etkin bir araç olarak kullanmışlardır. Abstract: Since the emergence of humanity, religious beliefs have been important in the transformation of human communities into an organized structure. In this direction, It is inevitable for the state, which is the most organized structure of humanity, to be influenced by religious elements. The state system that emerged with Sumer City States became more institutionalized with Babylonian period. This institutionalization has been shaped by the kings who refer to the religious beliefs of the time. The king's ascendancy to the throne and all activities that they have carried out are explained by the support of the gods in Babylonia. The kings who aimed to legitimize the man who they have obtained with divine support, have used religious rituals as an effective means towards this purpose.
Öz: Bu makale eski Mezopotamya'da din ve savaş arasındaki ilişkinin gelişimini incelemektedir. Es... more Öz: Bu makale eski Mezopotamya'da din ve savaş arasındaki ilişkinin gelişimini incelemektedir. Eski Mezopotamya'da yerleşik hayata geçişin ardından tapınaklar etrafında şekillendirilen kentlerde sosyal düzenin en üstünde bulunan ruhban sınıfı ve yönetici sınıfı, dinsel inançları kendi siyasi ve askeri amaçları için kullanmışlardır. Sumer kent devleti yöneticileri savaşları tanrı adına ve tanrıların emri ile yaptıklarını ilan ederek kitlesel destek sağlamışken; Akad, III. Ur, Babil ve Asur dönemlerinde yöneticilerin kendilerini tanrılaştırmasıyla bu anlayış en ileri boyuta ulaşmıştır. Abstract: This artice examines the religion and war relationship in ancient Mesopotamia. After the transition to settled life in Mesopotamia cities were shaped around the temples and the clergy and ruling class used religion as a tool to serve their political and military goals. While Sumerian city-state rulers declared that they waged wars with the orders of gods on behalf of gods, Akkadian, Ur III and Babylonian and Assyrian rulers declared themselves gods.
Anadolu'nun Eski Çağlarında İnanç Olgusu ve Yönetim Anlayışı, 2021
Despite some changes from the Sumerians to the Semites, the ancient
Mesopotamian belief system ha... more Despite some changes from the Sumerians to the Semites, the ancient Mesopotamian belief system has survived in general terms. The most important goddess that preserved its existence during the mentioned period is Inanna/Ištar. The goddess, who was associated with fertility in the Sumerian belief system, began to acquire warrior characteristics with the Semites. The goddess, known as Ša(w)uška in the Hurrians, found a place for herself in the Hittite pantheon as a result of the Hurri-Hittite relations. The goddess, who had both masculine and feminine features in the Hittite pantheon, had the greatest importance during the reign of Ḫattušili III - Puduḫepa couple. In this study, by making use of cuneiform sources, the transfer of the goddess Inanna / Ištar / Ša(w)uška from Mesopoamian societies to the Hurrians and from the Hurrians to the Hittites will be examined and determinations will be made about the importance of this goddess in the Hittites.
Mezopotamya’nın Eski Çağlarında İnanç Olgusu ve Yönetim Anlayışı, 2019
Human communities moved to settled life with the Neolithic revolution.
This innovation in social ... more Human communities moved to settled life with the Neolithic revolution. This innovation in social life brought about social organization. This organization was formed within the framework of religious beliefs. The head of the temple-centered governing mechanism was the clergy class. With the Sumerian City States period in ancient Mesopotamia, temples and its rulers have been the most effective establishment in all areas of life. The management power of the clergy was passed step by step into the hands of the soldiers. However, even if the temple's effect on society decreased, it remained. This effect is also evident in the central states formed with the Semitic migrations to Mesopotamia. The temples were thought to be the houses of the gods in the period of the Semitic States just like in the period of Sumerian City States. The kings, who were thought to be the vice-regent on earth of the gods, had to give importance to the repair of temples and the construction of new temples, as they ensured the legitimacy of their power thanks to religion. The temples had an impact on many aspects of society, such as the conduct of economics, law, and rituals. In order to carry out all these responsibilities, an organized hierarchical structure was established in the temples. Within this structure, there are officials consisting of managers and civil servants. In this study, we will examine the religious, political, jurally and economic effects of temples in the Semitic states in ancient Mesopotamia.
Journal of Academic Research in Religious Sciences, 2024
The organized belief systems, temple structures, and religion-state relations that emerged with t... more The organized belief systems, temple structures, and religion-state relations that emerged with the Sumerians in ancient Mesopotamia began to undergo Semiticization with the dominance of Semitic societies in the region. Sumerian cultural elements, which underwent Semiticization during the Old Babylonian period, assumed an Assyrian character with the rise of the Assyrian State in the Ancient Near East and its evolution into an imperial structure. The Assyrian society, known for its religious orientation, operated on a religion-based understanding of state organization and the formulation of state policies. It was believed that divine requests and orders influenced various situations, such as kings' legitimacy, heirs' determination, and decisions regarding wars and peace. The land was perceived as belonging to the gods, and the kings were seen as representatives of the gods on earth. This study aims to uncover the theocratic aspects of Assyrian state administration based on information gleaned from cuneiform sources and modern literature.
Assyrians had a monarchical structure in which a king, who came to power through inheritance from... more Assyrians had a monarchical structure in which a king, who came to power through inheritance from a specific family, held absolute authority. At times, this form of governance manifested as a theocratic monarchy, where every political action found its legitimacy on religious grounds. Regarding succession, it is evident that practices were carried out with divine approval and request as guiding principles. The heir in question could be any of the king's natural children, but children born to kings from their second wives or slaves could not ascend to the throne through conventional means. Periodically, kings appointed their children as administrators in various cities, including Babylon, to gain experience in state affairs. The permanence of the designated heir's position and their ascension to the throne upon the king's death were not guaranteed.Additionally, historical records reveal instances where kings changed the crown prince for various reasons. These changes might be attributed to the inadequacy of the crown prince or could result from the influence of queens, as the mother of the chosen crown prince held a significant position within the Assyrian hierarchy. In this study, which is based on cuneiform texts and modern works, the objective is to comprehensively examine the role of the heir apparent in the Assyrian state system, providing insights through periodic examples. Additionally, it seeks to unveil the complex relationships between heirs, kings, queens, and other princes.
Erzurum Teknik Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2023
Ancient societies and states used rare and skilled materials and products, placing them in highly... more Ancient societies and states used rare and skilled materials and products, placing them in highly valuable positions. Glass, which is thought to have been first produced in Ancient Mesopotamia, was highly prized and held in important positions in Ancient Egypt and Ancient Anatolia due to its d ifficulty i n p roduction a nd r arity. I n t he i nitial s tages, g lass e merged in v arious p roduct models such as glass beads, glass bowls, glass vases, and glass bottles. Although studies have shown that the use of glass was widespread throughout Ancient Mesopotamian society, it was understood that the products with high glass content were mainly used by the high-class people. In Ancient Egyptian society, glass was considered a product for people of high class. In the civilizations of Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, the state monopolized the production activities, export and import of glass by the dynasty. Glass was also exchanged as gifts between states. When we look at the ancient Anatolian geography, it is understood that glass production started i n a later period compared t o Ancient Mesopotamia a nd Ancient Egypt, and i ts role i n society is not fully known.
Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, Apr 28, 2023
Human beings, by nature, have an inclination to believe. The most prominent area where this incli... more Human beings, by nature, have an inclination to believe. The most prominent area where this inclination manifests itself is in religious beliefs. Since the earliest periods of human history, people have attributed supernatural powers to the natural events they have witnessed and felt helpless against, believing that these powers were controlled by a higher authority. Based on this idea, human communities developed polytheistic belief systems and imagined a realm of gods as a family, indexing the functioning of the universe to the decisions and preferences of this family. This belief led to the idea that the destiny of humans and the public order, whether in masculine or feminine forms, are determined by divine authority. With the emergence of the first villages in Ancient Mesopotamia, the management of organized human communities and the provision of social order were achieved within the framework of belief systems. As belief systems became more institutionalized with the transformation of the first villages into cities, they included a religious bureaucracy, and dominated every aspect of life from social to political, spiritual, and economic. The Sumerian City States were a prime example of this. The Sumerians enriched their religious world with mythological narratives, successfully transferring their understanding of religion and the perception of god to the following periods by inventing writing and starting the record-keeping tradition. This transfer is the main reason why Sumerian traces are evident in the cultural accumulation of thousands of years of Ancient Mesopotamian geography. This study will explore the understanding of religion and the perception of god in Sumerian society, based on inferences made from cuneiform sources and information obtained from modern literature.
The Neo-Assyrian State, one of the important states of the ancient Mesopotamian geography, had a ... more The Neo-Assyrian State, one of the important states of the ancient Mesopotamian geography, had a structure based on military economy. The mineral reserves, agricultural potential, textile products and animal population in the country were not self-sufficient. This problem necessitated the acquisition of most of the needs from the military campaigns. Based on this necessity, the Neo-Assyrian State prioritized the policy of exploitation and developed its economy largely with its military power. Various animals constitute an important part of the loot, which is formed by many items from people taken as captives to mines. The most important of these animals were sheep, cattle, camels, mules and horses. The Neo- Assyrian State, which ruled over a wide geography, was able to both strengthen its economy and meet the needs of i ts army with the animals i t took as loot from the new lands it seized and the lands it plundered during the annual campaign organizations. In this study, based on the information obtained from the cuneiform texts, determinations and evaluations were made about the military campaigns of the Neo-Assyrian State, the place of animals in the loot obtained from these campaigns, and the importance of these animals in terms of Neo-Assyrian economy.
Yeni Asur Devleti'nin Güney Politikası ve Elam-Babil İttifakı Asur Devleti MÖ I. binyılın başları... more Yeni Asur Devleti'nin Güney Politikası ve Elam-Babil İttifakı Asur Devleti MÖ I. binyılın başlarından itibaren yeniden güç kazanmaya başlaması ve emperyal bir hüviyete bürünmesiyle uzak bölgelere askeri seferler yapabilme kabiliyeti kazanmıştır. Asur Devleti'nin bu faaliyetleri, komşu bölgelerdeki devletleri tedirgin etmiştir. Yeni Asur Dönemi olarak adlandırılan bu süreçte Asur orduları, Mısır'dan Elam'a, Babil'den Anadolu içlerine kadar uzanan geniş bir coğrafyada faaliyet göstermiştir. Bu dönemde, Asurluların hâkimiyetleri altında tutmak istedikleri en önemli bölge Babil ülkesidir. Bölgenin sahip olduğu ekonomik potansiyel, Asurluların bu bölge ile yakından ilgilenmelerine neden olmuştur. Söz konusu bölge Sumer ülkesinin doğusunda bulunan Yeni-Elamlıların da hâkimiyet kurmak istedikleri bir coğrafyaydı. Babil ülkesinin Asur kontrolüne girmesini istemeyen Yeni-Elamlılar, Asur karşıtı tüm isyan girişimlerini desteklemiştir. Yeni-Elamlıların bu politikadaki temel amaçlarından bir diğeri de Asurlular ile sınırdaş olmak istememeleridir. Asurlular ise bölgeye hâkim olabilmek amacıyla hem Babil ülkesine hem de Elam topraklarına pek çok askeri sefer düzenlemelerinin yanı sıra diplomatik ilişkilerde de bulunmuşlardır. Çalışmamızın konusunu oluşturan bu mücadele ve diplomatik ilişkilerin incelenmesinde Asur ve Babil çivi yazılı metinleri ile modern literatür kullanılmıştır. Bazı bölümlerde çivi yazılı metindeki bilgilerden doğrudan, bazı bölümlerde ise dolaylı olarak faydalanılmıştır. Asur, Elam ve Babil eksenindeki siyasi, askeri, kısmen de ekonomik yönlerinin ele alınacağı bu çalışmada elde edilen bilgilerden hareketle, MÖ I. binyılda Asur Devleti'nin hegemonik yayılmasına karşı Elam ve Babil ülkeleri tarafından yürütülen faaliyetler ve Asurluların bu faaliyetlere karşılık aldığı tedbirler ele alınmış ve değerlendirilmiştir.
Assyrian State, one of the imperial powers of Ancient Mesopotamia, organized numerous military ca... more Assyrian State, one of the imperial powers of Ancient Mesopotamia, organized numerous military campaign over the different region due to the limited conditions brought by its geographical location. In this context, the said voyages to Anatolia, where raw material sand mineral resources are abundant, to today's Syria and Palestinian lands, where there is sufficient human potential in terms of providing free labor, and to the Eastern Mediterranean ports where commercial activities are carried out clearly show that a largepart of the country's economy is based on the military economy. As a result of the imperial policies carried out in this context, the Assyrian State provided the source of the development and construction activities in the country, and as a result, it achieved many agricultural and economic gains. The Assyrian State, which organized many military campaigns against potential enemies that would endanger these gains, thus aimed to protect its economic interests. In this study, it will be examined about the economic gains achieved by the Assyrian State as a result of the military expeditions and the activities carried out for the protection of these gains by using the information in the Assyrian king's annals.
Assyrian State, one of the imperial powers of Ancient Mesopotamia, organized numerous military ca... more Assyrian State, one of the imperial powers of Ancient Mesopotamia, organized numerous military campaign over the different region due to the limited conditions brought by its geographical location. In this context, the said voyages to Anatolia, where raw material sand mineral resources are abundant, to today's Syria and Palestinian lands, where there is sufficient human potential in terms of providing free labor, and to the Eastern Mediterranean ports where commercial activities are carried out clearly show that a largepart of the country's economy is based on the military economy. As a result of the imperial policies carried out in this context, the Assyrian State provided the source of the development and construction activities in the country, and as a result, it achieved many agricultural and economic gains. The Assyrian State, which organized many military campaigns against potential enemies that would endanger these gains, thus aimed to protect its economic interests. In this study, it will be examined about the economic gains achieved by the Assyrian State as a result of the military expeditions and the activities carried out for the protection of these gains by using the information in the Assyrian king's annals.
Eskiçağ Önasya Tarihinde Gutiler / Gutians in Ancient Near Eastern History, 2020
Gutians, Lullubies, Elamites and Kassites constitute the main ones of the Asian nomadic societies... more Gutians, Lullubies, Elamites and Kassites constitute the main ones of the Asian nomadic societies, which have a great political and cultural importance in the history of Near East throughout the third millennium BC. These societies in the end of the third millennium BC they came to the lands of Near East and settled the western regions of today's Iran. According to the information obtained from the cuneiform texts, Gutians, who lived in the Zagros Mountains in the third millennium BC, was destroyed the Akkadians. In addition to many researches on the origin of this tribe, different theses have been put forward. The strongest of these claims is that the people of Guti are Turk origin. According to the information in cuneiform sources, the area between the Small Zap River and Diyala River, as it is known today, was called Gutium, or Gutian country. According to the information in the cuneiform texts dating back to the third millennium BC, Gutians, who did not perform appropriate religious rites, is described as a people who harm the people living in the country of Babylon and they removed wife from his husband and childs from his family. In some texts dating before 2400 BC, it is stated that Gutian country is composed of land surrounded by Subartu in the north and Elam country in the south. According to the information obtained from the Akkadian texts, this warrior tribe went down to the western plains from the Zagros Mountains between 2150 and 2050 BC, came to Mesopotamia and dominated these lands for about a hundred years. Gutians, who lives in the Zagros Highlands, which surrounds the southern and southwestern regions of Azerbaijan, is a tribe comprising of nomadic clans with different rulers. The administrative structuring of the peoples, called Gutians, was a confederation, just like the Scythians, the Alans, the Tatars and the Oghuzes. In cuneiform documents, only groups of Gutians that interact with neighboring communities are mentioned. It established a central political structure with Semitic Akkadians who came to Mesopotamia by migrating in 2500 BC and the political integrity of the region was ensured. Sargon is the founder of Akkadian State. Describing himself as the "King of Sumer and Akkad" after achievements in the political and military sphere, Sargon is the first known emperor in history. After Sargon, his sons Rimush and Manishtusu came to the throne of Akkad, respectively. During these kings, exploitative state policy based on exploitation was maintained. The Akad Empire reached the peak of its power during the rule of Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin, who came to the throne after these kings. The Akkadians, who organize military expeditions to distant regions, also raided the Gutians who lived in the lands between the Tigris River and Urmiye lake and looted all the economic assets of the region. This rapid growth realized by the Akkadian State brought along some problems. The inner peace in the country has deteriorated and the level of life has decreased in proportion to the increase in the population. In addition, a large class of civil servants was created to tackle the problems encountered in collecting taxes, which paved the way for the economic collapse of the state. Taking advantage of this turmoil environment where Akkadians are, Gutians came to the region from Zagros Mountains. After the collapse of Akkadians, the Third Dynasty of Ur reestablished the political unity of Mesopotamia. In a text remaining from this period, Gutians coming to the region and the destruction of the Akkad State is conveyed for divine reasons in the text named “The Curse of Agade”. According to the information in this text, Naram-Sin, accused of committing a crime against Enlil, the chief god of the city of Nippur, defeats the ruler who was brought to the throne of Nippur as a rival by the gods and plunders the Ekur temple of the god Enlil in the city of Nippur. Upon these developments, the gods assigned the Gutians Naram- Sin, who lived in the Zagros Mountains, to punish them. However, the reality of the information in this text is controversial. Written documents giving information about the political presence of the Gutians in the Ancient Mesopotamia begin to be seen from the period of Šar-kali-šarri. Gutian king Sharlak was taken prisoner by Šar-kali-šarri and the threat of Gutian was temporarily repelled. As a result of the Gutians victory over the Akkadians and gaining control in the cities of Mesopotamia, Gutians domination started in the region in question for 91 years and 40 days. According to the Sumerian king list between the Uruk V and VI dynasties, the total 21 Gutian kings are mentioned. According to the Sumer Kings List, the last king of the Gutians was Tirigan, who only remained on the throne for 40 days. The Gutian domination in Mesopotamia has ended as a result of this king's being taken prisoner by being defeated by the king of Uruk, Utuhegal. Gutian effect in the Mesopotamia After the Third Dynasty of Ur, also continued during the time of the Babylonians, the new ruler of the region.
Öz: İnsanlığın ortaya çıkışından beri dini inanışlar, insan topluluklarının örgütlü bir yapı hali... more Öz: İnsanlığın ortaya çıkışından beri dini inanışlar, insan topluluklarının örgütlü bir yapı haline dönüşmesinde önemli bir yere sahip olmuştur. Bu doğrultuda, insanlığın en örgütlü yapısı olan devletin de dini unsurlardan etkilenmesi kaçınılmazdır. Sumer Şehir Devletleri ile ortaya çıkan devlet sistemi, Babil Dönemi ile daha kurumsal bir hal almıştır. Bu kurumsallaşma, dönemin dini inanışlarını referans alan krallar tarafından şekillendirilmiştir. Babillilerde kralların tahta çıkması ve yürütmüş oldukları her tür faaliyet tanrıların desteği ile açıklanmıştır. Elde etmiş oldukları yönetim erkini tanrısal destekle meşrulaştırmayı hedefleyen krallar, bu amaç doğrultusunda dini ritüelleri etkin bir araç olarak kullanmışlardır. Abstract: Since the emergence of humanity, religious beliefs have been important in the transformation of human communities into an organized structure. In this direction, It is inevitable for the state, which is the most organized structure of humanity, to be influenced by religious elements. The state system that emerged with Sumer City States became more institutionalized with Babylonian period. This institutionalization has been shaped by the kings who refer to the religious beliefs of the time. The king's ascendancy to the throne and all activities that they have carried out are explained by the support of the gods in Babylonia. The kings who aimed to legitimize the man who they have obtained with divine support, have used religious rituals as an effective means towards this purpose.
Öz: Bu makale eski Mezopotamya'da din ve savaş arasındaki ilişkinin gelişimini incelemektedir. Es... more Öz: Bu makale eski Mezopotamya'da din ve savaş arasındaki ilişkinin gelişimini incelemektedir. Eski Mezopotamya'da yerleşik hayata geçişin ardından tapınaklar etrafında şekillendirilen kentlerde sosyal düzenin en üstünde bulunan ruhban sınıfı ve yönetici sınıfı, dinsel inançları kendi siyasi ve askeri amaçları için kullanmışlardır. Sumer kent devleti yöneticileri savaşları tanrı adına ve tanrıların emri ile yaptıklarını ilan ederek kitlesel destek sağlamışken; Akad, III. Ur, Babil ve Asur dönemlerinde yöneticilerin kendilerini tanrılaştırmasıyla bu anlayış en ileri boyuta ulaşmıştır. Abstract: This artice examines the religion and war relationship in ancient Mesopotamia. After the transition to settled life in Mesopotamia cities were shaped around the temples and the clergy and ruling class used religion as a tool to serve their political and military goals. While Sumerian city-state rulers declared that they waged wars with the orders of gods on behalf of gods, Akkadian, Ur III and Babylonian and Assyrian rulers declared themselves gods.
Anadolu'nun Eski Çağlarında İnanç Olgusu ve Yönetim Anlayışı, 2021
Despite some changes from the Sumerians to the Semites, the ancient
Mesopotamian belief system ha... more Despite some changes from the Sumerians to the Semites, the ancient Mesopotamian belief system has survived in general terms. The most important goddess that preserved its existence during the mentioned period is Inanna/Ištar. The goddess, who was associated with fertility in the Sumerian belief system, began to acquire warrior characteristics with the Semites. The goddess, known as Ša(w)uška in the Hurrians, found a place for herself in the Hittite pantheon as a result of the Hurri-Hittite relations. The goddess, who had both masculine and feminine features in the Hittite pantheon, had the greatest importance during the reign of Ḫattušili III - Puduḫepa couple. In this study, by making use of cuneiform sources, the transfer of the goddess Inanna / Ištar / Ša(w)uška from Mesopoamian societies to the Hurrians and from the Hurrians to the Hittites will be examined and determinations will be made about the importance of this goddess in the Hittites.
Mezopotamya’nın Eski Çağlarında İnanç Olgusu ve Yönetim Anlayışı, 2019
Human communities moved to settled life with the Neolithic revolution.
This innovation in social ... more Human communities moved to settled life with the Neolithic revolution. This innovation in social life brought about social organization. This organization was formed within the framework of religious beliefs. The head of the temple-centered governing mechanism was the clergy class. With the Sumerian City States period in ancient Mesopotamia, temples and its rulers have been the most effective establishment in all areas of life. The management power of the clergy was passed step by step into the hands of the soldiers. However, even if the temple's effect on society decreased, it remained. This effect is also evident in the central states formed with the Semitic migrations to Mesopotamia. The temples were thought to be the houses of the gods in the period of the Semitic States just like in the period of Sumerian City States. The kings, who were thought to be the vice-regent on earth of the gods, had to give importance to the repair of temples and the construction of new temples, as they ensured the legitimacy of their power thanks to religion. The temples had an impact on many aspects of society, such as the conduct of economics, law, and rituals. In order to carry out all these responsibilities, an organized hierarchical structure was established in the temples. Within this structure, there are officials consisting of managers and civil servants. In this study, we will examine the religious, political, jurally and economic effects of temples in the Semitic states in ancient Mesopotamia.
Anadolu'nun Eski Çağlarında İktisadi ve Zirai Hayat, 2018
Due to its economic and agricultural potential, Anatolian lands have become a region where differ... more Due to its economic and agricultural potential, Anatolian lands have become a region where different nations want to establish sovereignty in every period of history. In this context, the Assyrians, who had established a big state in the Near East after the Aegean Emigration, wanted to keep Anatolia under control. For this purpose, Assyrian kings, who organized many campaigns to Anatolian lands, carried out many looting activities as well as tax and tribute loading to the local kingdoms and tribes in the region. These activities were the greatest source of funding for the Assyrian State, which had an imperial ideology. The mineral reserves, herds of animals, agricultural products and human resources of Anatolian lands were the most important factors that bring the Assyrian kings to the region. The Assyrian Kings, which strengthened the economy and the army of the Assyrian State with mineral reserves, herds of animals and agricultural products of Anatolia, also gained a free workforce for the reconstruction and construction of Assyrian country with their ensembles. However, these exploitation activities of the Assyrian kings towards the Anatolian lands led to a lot of rebellion in the region and the establishment of local alliances against the Assyrians. In this study, we will touch upon the Assyrian campaigns made to the region by mentioning the importance of the economic and agricultural potential of Anatolia for Assyria economy according to the annuals of the Assyrian kings.
Following the transformation of the Assyrian Empire to an imperial appearance, the Assyrian kings... more Following the transformation of the Assyrian Empire to an imperial appearance, the Assyrian kings organized military expeditions in remote areas in line with their economic needs. One of the most important spreading regions for this purpose was the Anatolian lands. After the Aegean Migrations, the political fragmentation resulting from the corruption of the political union in the Ancient Anatolia constituted one of the decisive factors in spreading the Assyrian state to the region. The roads used by these Assyrian kings in the Anatolian lands, which have a rough geographical structure compared to Mesopotamia, constitute an important part of the transportation network of the Ancient Anatolia. In the Anatolian lands where there are steep mountains, passageways and riverbeds have been important in determining the road routes. The cuneiform texts giving information about the military expeditions of the Assyrian kings are the first hand resources in terms of identifying these road routes, passageways and cities in the Ancient Anatolia. In this work, we aim to give information about the military campaigns of the Assyrian kings to the Anatolian lands, road network of this military campaigns and cities in the southern part of the Ancient Anatolia according to the cuneiform texts containing the annuals and military campaigns records belonging to the Assyrian Kings.
After the beginning of settled life in the administrative organization of the societies and in th... more After the beginning of settled life in the administrative organization of the societies and in the emergence of the ruling class, the notion of religion and the concept of divinity have a power that is unprecedented. With the first cities seen in Mesopotamia the managers of military origin who use the king title have taken the place of the priests, who have a privileged place in the society and use the power on the society in all respects. Every member of this new class, who has obtained administrative power, intended to base their rulings on legitimate grounds using the unique power of the gods on society like members of the clergy class. In this context, the kings claimed that the gods chose themselves while they were in their mother's womb and that they were appointed as a holy representatives by the gods. It is seen that this practice has reached a further dimension with the Assyrian kings. The Assyrian kings have made it a traditional practice in the annuals about military expeditions and other text to emphasize that they were chosen and appointed by the gods. It is seen that the Assyrian kings, who aim to secure their legitimacy on the society by means of this method, counted the names of their ancestors in the texts and emphasized that they were too the kings chosen by the gods. Another thing that draws attention in the texts of Assyrian kings is that gods are consulted in order to determine the crown prince. The Assyrian kings took care to obtain the approval of the gods when determining their crown prince. One of the most important activities of the kings is to legitimize themselves is the various religious rituals and ceremonies. Through these religious rituals, the kings aimed to emphasize that they have gained the appreciation of the gods and kings have a sacred mission. In this study, we will evaluate the efforts of the to establish legitimacy of the Assyrian kings by emphasizing that they were chosen and appointed by the gods in the texts they had written and by taking them practices in the religious ceremonies.
At the beginning of the Iron Age it appears that the Assyrian State has become one of the most po... more At the beginning of the Iron Age it appears that the Assyrian State has become one of the most powerful states of the ancient Ages of Near East. The Assyrian State, which had a very large territory in the framework of imperial policy which had been followed since the beginning of the fırst millennium BC, has also organized expeditions on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean on this expanding policy axis. The main objective of these expeditions is to dominate the trade routes to the eastern coasts of the Mediterranean. For this purpose, Tiglath Pileser III is the king of Assyria, who for the first time organized military campaign to this region with regular army. It is known that the Tiglath-Pileser III, who organized a military campaign to the Urartu and Late Hittite City States, walked on the kingdom of Israel in the return of the military campaign, and that he received tax from that kingdom. Shalmaneser V, who was successor of Tiglath- Pilaser III,, destroyed the kingdom in question and exiled some of his people to capital Asur, with military campaign to the kingdom of Israel, which did not pay the promised tax. During the Sargon II and Sennacherib periods following the Shalmaneser V, various rebellions occurred in the territory of Israel. The kings have organized military campaigns to suppress the rebellions, as Shalmaneser V did earlier, and have sent some of Israel's people to exile to Assyria. However, the collapse of the Kingdom of Judah as a result of the military campaign of Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II in 587 BC and the sending of some Jewish groups to exile to the city of Babylon made a bigger place in the memory of the Jews. In this study, the reasons and the consequences of the exiles imposed on the Jews by the Assyrian and Babylonian kings will be examined and the importance of these exiles in terms of Jewish society will be emphasized.
The belief system, which is the most important element of social life, has a unique role in the w... more The belief system, which is the most important element of social life, has a unique role in the wars that have emerged as a result of the security need, which is the greatest cause of states' existence. Mesopotamia became the first geography where the idea of fighting on behalf of the gods in the military activities carried out under the organized political structure. With the Neolithic Age alongside the Nil River agricultural villagers gradually transformed into towns known as "Nom", the geography around the Nile River was governed by the regional kings, which emerged much earlier in Mesopotamia and brought together all of Egypt. Although I did not know whether the wars were made in the name of the gods because of the lack of writing before these kings, the kings themselves, who declared themselves as god after ruling over the entire Egyptian geography, claimed that they carried wars on behalf of the gods. The Egyptian kings, who proclaimed themselves as gods and aimed at their inquiry, aimed to receive mass support from the governed societies, claiming that they fulfilled the wishes of other gods and destroyed the enemies of the gods. This understanding has been used to motivate the soldiers who participated in the wars by the ruling class in the Roman Civilization and to provide the support of the city people. The real reason behind the conception of war and holy warrior on behalf of the gods seen in the Ancient Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Roman societies is economic, and this understanding continues even in today's political and military struggles.
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Papers by Okay Pekşen
valuable positions. Glass, which is thought to have been first produced in Ancient Mesopotamia,
was highly prized and held in important positions in Ancient Egypt and Ancient Anatolia due to
its d ifficulty i n p roduction a nd r arity. I n t he i nitial s tages, g lass e merged in v arious p roduct
models such as glass beads, glass bowls, glass vases, and glass bottles. Although studies have
shown that the use of glass was widespread throughout Ancient Mesopotamian society, it was
understood that the products with high glass content were mainly used by the high-class people.
In Ancient Egyptian society, glass was considered a product for people of high class. In the
civilizations of Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, the state monopolized the production
activities, export and import of glass by the dynasty. Glass was also exchanged as gifts between
states. When we look at the ancient Anatolian geography, it is understood that glass production
started i n a later period compared t o Ancient Mesopotamia a nd Ancient Egypt, and i ts role i n
society is not fully known.
Akkad State is conveyed for divine reasons in the text named “The Curse of Agade”. According to the information in this text, Naram-Sin, accused of committing a crime against Enlil, the chief god of the city of Nippur, defeats the ruler who was brought to the throne of Nippur as a rival by the gods and plunders the Ekur temple of the god Enlil in the city of Nippur. Upon these developments, the gods assigned the Gutians Naram- Sin, who lived in the Zagros Mountains, to punish them. However, the reality of the information in this text is controversial. Written documents giving information about the political presence of the Gutians in the Ancient Mesopotamia begin to be seen from the period of Šar-kali-šarri. Gutian king Sharlak was taken prisoner by Šar-kali-šarri and the threat of Gutian was temporarily repelled. As a result of the Gutians victory over the Akkadians and gaining control in the cities of Mesopotamia, Gutians domination started in the region in question for 91 years and 40 days. According to the Sumerian king list between the Uruk V and VI dynasties, the total 21 Gutian kings are mentioned. According to the Sumer Kings List, the last king of the Gutians was Tirigan, who only remained on the throne for 40 days. The Gutian domination in Mesopotamia has ended as a result of this king's being taken prisoner by being defeated by the king of Uruk, Utuhegal. Gutian effect in the Mesopotamia After the Third Dynasty of Ur, also continued during the time of the Babylonians, the new ruler of the region.
Abstract: This artice examines the religion and war relationship in ancient Mesopotamia. After the transition to settled life in Mesopotamia cities were shaped around the temples and the clergy and ruling class used religion as a tool to serve their political and military goals. While Sumerian city-state rulers declared that they waged wars with the orders of gods on behalf of gods, Akkadian, Ur III and Babylonian and Assyrian rulers declared themselves gods.
Books by Okay Pekşen
Mesopotamian belief system has survived in general terms. The most
important goddess that preserved its existence during the mentioned period is Inanna/Ištar. The goddess, who was associated with fertility in the Sumerian belief system, began to acquire warrior characteristics with the Semites. The goddess, known as Ša(w)uška in the Hurrians, found a place for herself in the Hittite pantheon as a result of the Hurri-Hittite relations. The goddess, who had both masculine and feminine features in the Hittite pantheon, had the greatest importance during the reign of Ḫattušili III - Puduḫepa couple. In this study, by making use of cuneiform sources, the transfer of the goddess Inanna / Ištar / Ša(w)uška from Mesopoamian societies to the Hurrians and from the Hurrians to the Hittites will be examined and determinations will be made about the importance of this goddess in the Hittites.
This innovation in social life brought about social organization. This
organization was formed within the framework of religious beliefs. The head of the temple-centered governing mechanism was the clergy class. With the Sumerian City States period in ancient Mesopotamia, temples and its rulers have been the most effective establishment in all areas of life. The management power of the clergy was passed step by step into the hands of the soldiers. However, even if the temple's effect on society decreased, it remained. This effect is also evident in the central states formed with the Semitic migrations to Mesopotamia. The temples were thought to be the houses of the gods in the period of the Semitic States just like in the period of Sumerian City States. The kings, who were thought to be the vice-regent on earth of the gods, had to give importance to the repair of temples and the construction of new temples, as they ensured the legitimacy of their power thanks to religion. The temples had an impact on many aspects of society, such as the conduct of economics, law, and rituals. In order to carry out all these responsibilities, an organized hierarchical structure was established in the temples. Within this structure, there are officials consisting of managers and civil servants. In this study, we will examine the religious, political, jurally and economic effects of temples in the Semitic states in ancient Mesopotamia.
valuable positions. Glass, which is thought to have been first produced in Ancient Mesopotamia,
was highly prized and held in important positions in Ancient Egypt and Ancient Anatolia due to
its d ifficulty i n p roduction a nd r arity. I n t he i nitial s tages, g lass e merged in v arious p roduct
models such as glass beads, glass bowls, glass vases, and glass bottles. Although studies have
shown that the use of glass was widespread throughout Ancient Mesopotamian society, it was
understood that the products with high glass content were mainly used by the high-class people.
In Ancient Egyptian society, glass was considered a product for people of high class. In the
civilizations of Ancient Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, the state monopolized the production
activities, export and import of glass by the dynasty. Glass was also exchanged as gifts between
states. When we look at the ancient Anatolian geography, it is understood that glass production
started i n a later period compared t o Ancient Mesopotamia a nd Ancient Egypt, and i ts role i n
society is not fully known.
Akkad State is conveyed for divine reasons in the text named “The Curse of Agade”. According to the information in this text, Naram-Sin, accused of committing a crime against Enlil, the chief god of the city of Nippur, defeats the ruler who was brought to the throne of Nippur as a rival by the gods and plunders the Ekur temple of the god Enlil in the city of Nippur. Upon these developments, the gods assigned the Gutians Naram- Sin, who lived in the Zagros Mountains, to punish them. However, the reality of the information in this text is controversial. Written documents giving information about the political presence of the Gutians in the Ancient Mesopotamia begin to be seen from the period of Šar-kali-šarri. Gutian king Sharlak was taken prisoner by Šar-kali-šarri and the threat of Gutian was temporarily repelled. As a result of the Gutians victory over the Akkadians and gaining control in the cities of Mesopotamia, Gutians domination started in the region in question for 91 years and 40 days. According to the Sumerian king list between the Uruk V and VI dynasties, the total 21 Gutian kings are mentioned. According to the Sumer Kings List, the last king of the Gutians was Tirigan, who only remained on the throne for 40 days. The Gutian domination in Mesopotamia has ended as a result of this king's being taken prisoner by being defeated by the king of Uruk, Utuhegal. Gutian effect in the Mesopotamia After the Third Dynasty of Ur, also continued during the time of the Babylonians, the new ruler of the region.
Abstract: This artice examines the religion and war relationship in ancient Mesopotamia. After the transition to settled life in Mesopotamia cities were shaped around the temples and the clergy and ruling class used religion as a tool to serve their political and military goals. While Sumerian city-state rulers declared that they waged wars with the orders of gods on behalf of gods, Akkadian, Ur III and Babylonian and Assyrian rulers declared themselves gods.
Mesopotamian belief system has survived in general terms. The most
important goddess that preserved its existence during the mentioned period is Inanna/Ištar. The goddess, who was associated with fertility in the Sumerian belief system, began to acquire warrior characteristics with the Semites. The goddess, known as Ša(w)uška in the Hurrians, found a place for herself in the Hittite pantheon as a result of the Hurri-Hittite relations. The goddess, who had both masculine and feminine features in the Hittite pantheon, had the greatest importance during the reign of Ḫattušili III - Puduḫepa couple. In this study, by making use of cuneiform sources, the transfer of the goddess Inanna / Ištar / Ša(w)uška from Mesopoamian societies to the Hurrians and from the Hurrians to the Hittites will be examined and determinations will be made about the importance of this goddess in the Hittites.
This innovation in social life brought about social organization. This
organization was formed within the framework of religious beliefs. The head of the temple-centered governing mechanism was the clergy class. With the Sumerian City States period in ancient Mesopotamia, temples and its rulers have been the most effective establishment in all areas of life. The management power of the clergy was passed step by step into the hands of the soldiers. However, even if the temple's effect on society decreased, it remained. This effect is also evident in the central states formed with the Semitic migrations to Mesopotamia. The temples were thought to be the houses of the gods in the period of the Semitic States just like in the period of Sumerian City States. The kings, who were thought to be the vice-regent on earth of the gods, had to give importance to the repair of temples and the construction of new temples, as they ensured the legitimacy of their power thanks to religion. The temples had an impact on many aspects of society, such as the conduct of economics, law, and rituals. In order to carry out all these responsibilities, an organized hierarchical structure was established in the temples. Within this structure, there are officials consisting of managers and civil servants. In this study, we will examine the religious, political, jurally and economic effects of temples in the Semitic states in ancient Mesopotamia.
behalf of the gods in the military activities carried out under the organized political structure. With the Neolithic Age alongside the Nil River agricultural villagers gradually transformed into towns known as "Nom", the geography around the Nile River was governed by the regional kings, which emerged much earlier in Mesopotamia and brought together all of Egypt. Although I did not know whether the wars were made in the name of the gods because of the lack of writing before these kings, the kings themselves, who declared themselves as god after ruling over the entire Egyptian geography, claimed that they carried wars on behalf of the gods. The Egyptian kings, who proclaimed themselves as gods and aimed at their inquiry, aimed to receive mass support from the governed societies, claiming that they fulfilled the wishes of other gods and destroyed the enemies of the gods. This understanding has been used to motivate the soldiers who participated in the wars by the ruling class in the Roman Civilization and to provide the support of the city people. The real reason behind the conception of war and holy warrior on behalf of the gods seen in the Ancient Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Roman societies is economic, and this understanding continues even in today's political and military struggles.