Nasir Khusraw, the Ismaili Persian traveller, spent about three years and three months in Egypt (... more Nasir Khusraw, the Ismaili Persian traveller, spent about three years and three months in Egypt (Safar 439 – Jumadi I 442/August 1047 – October 1050). He set out on his journey from Marw in the East in Rabi’ II 437/October 1045 and returned to Balkh in Khurasan in Jumadi II 444/October 1052 (see map). Khusraw registered important observations or strange things he had heard about, sometimes in detail, according to his impressions of the phenomenon. Through Khusraw’s descriptions, one can notice his concern to mention the routes and of travel, the distances, the dangers and hardships on the way, the qualities of the different spheres of the cities and countries he visited. Through his accounts, Khusraw tried to lighten the description of what he observed thus enabling those who read or listen to his description gain a picture of his stories. It seems that he mostly wanted people in Persia to believe what he had described; therefore he often compared his observations with similar phenomena in the Eastern regions.
Islam - Introduction to the History of Religion/ האסלאם מבוא להיסטוריה של הדת, 2018
חיבור זה, כפי שניתן להבין מהכותרת הראשית, הוא הדגש על ההיסטוריה של הדת, שהיא שונה מן ההיסטוריה הפ... more חיבור זה, כפי שניתן להבין מהכותרת הראשית, הוא הדגש על ההיסטוריה של הדת, שהיא שונה מן ההיסטוריה הפוליטית או החברתית שבהן דנים בדרך כלל ספרי ההיסטוריה. לאסלאם, כמו לכל דת, יש נטייה לשמר את אשר התקדש ולהתנגד לשינוי. מכאן הנטייה לתאר את הדת כתופעה קבועה. החיבור הזה ידגיש את הדינמיות שבדת, ויעקוב אחר התמורות שחלו במוסדות וברעיונות דתיים בתוקף תנאים היסטוריים משתנים, על פני רצף המן ובמרחב הגיאוגרפי. יחידה 1 – לידתה של דת: נביא וקהילת מאמינים יחידה 2 – ירושת הנביא, בעיית החַ 'לִיפוּת והפילוג באסלאם יחידה 3 – מערביות לאסלאם: התאסלמות העמים הנכבשים ומשמעויותיה
CHRONICA: Nomads and their Neighbours in the Middle Ages, 2023
This paper deals with the relations between nomads (Bedouins) and the pilgrimage caravans from Sy... more This paper deals with the relations between nomads (Bedouins) and the pilgrimage caravans from Syria to the Hijaz (Rakb al-Ḥajj al-Shāmī) in the Late Middle Ages and the early Ottoman period. It tries to follow the changes and developments in the relations between nomads and pilgrims on the road between Syria and Mecca. Before Islam, agreements and alliances (īlāf) were made between rulers of Mecca and Bedouin tribes in Arabia to preserve security and safety in the area. In Islamic times, these norms continued and even developed. In the Mamluk era and then under the Ottomans, many arrangements for securing the pilgrimage routes and the pilgrims' stay in Mecca were renewed. The Bedouins' dealings with pilgrims ranged from peace and security to aggression and looting, according to the political and economic arrangements that prevailed between the Bedouins and the ruling authorities.
تزخر المصادر التاريخية والتربوية الإسلامية من العصور الوسطى بعرض سير الأحداث التاريخية والدينية، ... more تزخر المصادر التاريخية والتربوية الإسلامية من العصور الوسطى بعرض سير الأحداث التاريخية والدينية، بالإضافة إلى تراجم العلماء والمشاهير في التاريخ الإسلامي. ومن ضمن هذه الظواهر التاريخيّة والحضاريّة العربيّة والإسلاميّة ذِكْر المجالس على اختلاف أنواعها ذات الأهداف والأساليب المتنوّعة، والتي تميّزت بحضور شعبيّ خارج نطاق حلقات العلم الرسميّة والمحدودة من حيث عدد المشاركين بها. وقد تعدّدت أسماء هذه المجالس تبعاً للأهداف التي عُقدت من أجلها، فمنها ما عُرف بإسم "مجالس السَّمَر والشِّعر والقصص"، "مجالس الوَعظ"، "مجالس العِلم/ مجالس الحِكْمَة"، "مجالس الدَّعوة"، وكذلك "مجالس الذِّكْر" وغيرها. وكان الطّابع العامّ والمسيطر على هذه المجالس في التاريخ الإسلامي هو الطابع الدّيني، ولكن دخلت عليها أحياناً تأثيرات مختلفة حسب أهداف الجهة القائمة على عقد مثل هذه المجالس ومواعيدها، مثل رفع المكانة لشخصيّات دينيّة معيّنة أو سياسيّة، أو الدّعوة لمصلحة طائفة أو فئة معيّنة للترويج لأفكار دينيّة لخدمتها، أو للترفيه والإحتفالات بمناسبات دينيّة، ومنها لإحياء حفلات الذِّكْر والأوراد والتسابيح الدينيّة من قبل المجموعات الصّوفيّة، ومنها أيضاً ما أخذ طابع التنافس الأدبي والشّعري أو العِلميّ. تركت المجالس أثرها بين المشاركين من أجواء ثقافية عامّة أو التعليمية والمعرفة، إضافة إلى دوافع التسلية والترفيه. هذا الإنطباع من التجمّعات والمجالس والمواعيد، يعزّز الرغبة والفضول في استكشاف ومناقشة هذه الظاهرة، التي كانت شائعة في الثقافة الإسلامية في فترات مختلفة من العصور الوسطى، وما زالت حتى يومنا هذا باشكال حديثة ومتعدّدة.
The madrasa began to spread in Syria (Bilad al-Sham) as a higher institution for religious educat... more The madrasa began to spread in Syria (Bilad al-Sham) as a higher institution for religious education since the Zangid rule (521H./1127 to 569H./ 1173). During the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods, main cities of Syria were characterized by many madrasas, especially the major cities that served the political rule like, Damascus, Aleppo, Jerusalem and others. By the late Mamluk period, various factors had a direct effect on the fall of the madrasa function in Syria. Although a number of attempts were made to renovate and redevelop the waqf of madrasas, the adverse circumstances had such a strong impact that the eventual result was extensive disintegration of the waqf and madrasas in Syria. This paper discussed the motives of endowing madrasas in Syria during the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods, despite the difficulty in separating one motive to another. During the Zangid and Ayyubid periods, it is noticeable that religious motives were stronger, while the political factor was underscored during the Mamluk era.
International Journal of Social Science And Human Research , Jul 22, 2023
This article focusses on the role of Muslim scholars (ʿulamaʾ) as educational leadership in medie... more This article focusses on the role of Muslim scholars (ʿulamaʾ) as educational leadership in medieval Islamic era. It deals with the ideal educational leadership in Islam, its etiquette, and optimal means of teaching. Therefore, the research attempts to answer the central question about the extent to which teachers (scholars) have the characteristics of leadership and apply them in practice with students, and methods of educational process. This paper relied on primary sources, biographies of scholars, their educational role, and writings, to conclude the main characteristics of educational Islamic leadership features: charisma, authority, and knowledge. Derived from the Qur’an and Sunna.
Local governors in Central Asia persecuted Ismaʿili missionaries (dāʿis) since the early years of... more Local governors in Central Asia persecuted Ismaʿili missionaries (dāʿis) since the early years of Ismaʿili activity there. The rise of the Fatimid State, from the tenth century onwards, encouraged the activity of those missionaries who were receiving support from the Fatimids, leading to increased persecutions of Ismaʿilis in Iraq and the eastern provinces of the Abbasid Caliphate. This study will deal with the activity of those missionaries and the difficulties and persecutions that they faced, with a focus on the case of the dāʿi Nāser Khosrow (1004–1088/394–481) in Central Asia. At the time, Nāser was considered as a model dāʿi representing the activity of Ismaʿili missionaries. Throughout his life, he suffered bitterly in his role as the main dāʿi of the Fatimids. Despite the hostile atmosphere and insecurity, Nāser Khosrow succeeded in becoming a highly significant philosopher and poet, but died in a sorrowful situation, isolated in the valley of Yomgān.
This study focuses on the religious policy of the Mamluk Sultan Rukn al-Din Baybars (d. 1277), an... more This study focuses on the religious policy of the Mamluk Sultan Rukn al-Din Baybars (d. 1277), and its application throughout his rule in Egypt and Syria (Bilād al-Shām). This study also discusses the impact of this policy and its benefit for Muslims and Islam in general in the region. Dealing with the character of Baybars of Mamluk origin is very important in this study to obtain the required answers to the questions related to the Islamic character of Mamluk rule in the regions of the Middle East in the Middle Ages. Although Baybars’ background was as a slave (mamlūk), who was not familiar with the religion of Islam, he had to prove his ability to act as a leader of an Islamic state. Baybars worked to implement the principles of Islam according to the Quran and the tradition of the Prophet (sunna), thus exploiting his status as an Islamic leader and as Sultan during his reign. Baybars was strict in his religious policy toward those who committed forbidden acts according to the Isl...
This study inspects the impact of neoliberalism on the directions of higher education and on the ... more This study inspects the impact of neoliberalism on the directions of higher education and on the changes ensued in higher education policies transforming from traditional education to education that services globalization and neoliberalism control over market's capabilities and requirements. Despite the increase in higher education institutions and the emergence of private colleges and their branches in different countries, there are several negative aspects in the approach of higher education. Among these effects are the vicissitudes in the
CHRONICA: Nomads and their Neighbours in the Middle Ages, 2023
This paper deals with the relations between nomads (Bedouins) and the pilgrimage caravans from Sy... more This paper deals with the relations between nomads (Bedouins) and the pilgrimage caravans from Syria to the Hijaz (Rakb al-Ḥajj al-Shāmī) in the Late Middle Ages and the early Ottoman period. It tries to follow the changes and developments in the relations between nomads and pilgrims on the road between Syria and Mecca. Before Islam, agreements and alliances (īlāf) were made between rulers of Mecca and Bedouin tribes in Arabia to preserve security and safety in the area. In Islamic times, these norms continued and even developed. In the Mamluk era and then under the Ottomans, many arrangements for securing the pilgrimage routes and the pilgrims' stay in Mecca were renewed. The Bedouins' dealings with pilgrims ranged from peace and security to aggression and looting, according to the political and economic arrangements that prevailed between the Bedouins and the ruling authorities.
تتمحور هذه الدراسة حول البحث بعلاقة المسلمين باليهود وتطوّراتها وميّزاتها على مدار الفترات التاري... more تتمحور هذه الدراسة حول البحث بعلاقة المسلمين باليهود وتطوّراتها وميّزاتها على مدار الفترات التاريخيّة المختلفة مِن وجهة نظر الباحثين ورجال الفكر والسياسة والدين مِن اليهود. فمِن خلال فحص دراسات هؤلاء الباحثين وآرائهم، حول العلاقات اليهوديّ الإسلاميّة في ظلّ الحكم الإسلامي، يمكن ملاحظة وجود فجوة واسعة بين وجهات نظرهم ومواقفهم. فمثلا يتبيّن مِن أبحاث ودراسات عديدة للباحث دافيد فاسرشتاين (David Wasserstein)، منها: "كيف أنقذ الإسلام اليهود؟"، على أنّ العلاقة بين المسلمين واليهود كانت جيّدة تحت الحكم الإسلامي، وخاصّة في الأندلس، ومنهم مَنْ أسماها ب "العصر الذهبي". ومِن ناحية أخرى، تظهر آراء بعض الباحثين وغيرهم مِن رجال السياسة بإدّعائهم أنَّ ذلك "العصر الذهبي" مِن العلاقات بين اليهود والمسلمين، ما كان إلّا مجرّد أسطورة وهميّة..
تبحث هذه الدراسة في وجهات النظر المتباينة بين الباحثين اليهود حول العلاقات، اليهوديّة الإسلاميّة ومحاولات الاستقراء والاستنتاجات في أسباب هذا الاختلاف والمؤثّرات التي تركت آثارها على نتائجهم ما بين الموضوعيّة والإيجابيّة، وما بين محاولة إضفاء الصبغة السلبيّة على هذه العلاقة تجاه معاملة اليهود تحت الحكم الإسلامي أو العربي. اعتمد بعض المفكّرين اليهود على الكتابات اليهوديّة الأرشيفيّة والمحفوظة منذ العصور الوسطى، مقارنة بالمصادر العربيّة والإسلاميّة للحصول على استنتاجاتهم. بينما تأثّر آخرون بالآراء الاستشراقية والأفكار المتناقضة، والتي تأثّرت بالإيديولوجيّات الحديثة والقوميّة. وهكذا، مِن خلال هذه الدراسة، يُلاحظ التبايُن في وجهات النظر والاتجاهات الفكريّة للباحثين اليهود مع اختلاف مواقفهم واستنتاجاتهم، ممّا يستدعي البحث عن أسباب مواقف هؤلاء الباحثين حول هذه العلاقة وتبايناتها في وجهة
نظرهم.
الكلمات المفتاحيّة: اليهود تحت الحُكم الإسلامي، رجال الفكر اليهود، الآراء الاستشراقية، الحركات اليهوديّة المعاصرة.
Research Aspects in Arts and Social Studies Vol. 8, 2023
This study focuses on dealing with the rise and spread of the madrasa, in terms of motives and me... more This study focuses on dealing with the rise and spread of the madrasa, in terms of motives and methods, as an institution of higher education in religious sciences in the Ayyubid and Mamluk Syria (Bilād al-Shām) (1187-1516) by relying on endowments (waqf) as charitable acts. The madrasa began to appear and spread in Syria, as a higher institution for religious education, since the Zengids' rule (1127-1174), then it grew during the Ayyubid and Mamluk eras in the main cities in Syria, especially that served the political centers, such as Damascus, Aleppo, Jerusalem, and others. In his study, G. Makdisi dealt with such topics, but he focused on the rise of the madrasa as an institution of learning in Eleventh Century Baghdad [1,2]. In the second half of the Mamluk era, various factors emerged that directly affected the decline in the madrasa's work and its maintenance in Syria, even though, several attempts were made to renew and redevelop endowments (waqf) and madrasas. Through the discussion in this paper, it is concluded that the motives for contributing waqf and madrasas in Syria during the Mamluk era were apparent as political motives, while during the Zangid and Ayyubid periods, it was noticeable that religious motives were stronger.
This research aims to show the role of Sultan Baybars (d. 1277CE), in contributing to the support... more This research aims to show the role of Sultan Baybars (d. 1277CE), in contributing to the support and consolidation of the Mamluk state in Egypt and the Levant on Islamic foundations, which gave Baybars an Islamic leader who bears the appropriate titles like the senior Muslim leaders who preceded him. This study will examine Baybars' political characteristics and leadership in light of Islamic norms of conduct and culture. Baybars proved his military abilities through his victory and success in two decisive battles: al-Manṣūra against the Crusaders (Franks) in 1249 and ʿAyn Jālūt against the Mongols in 1260. In 1261, he came to power by force after the assassination of Sultan Quṭuz. This aspect of Baybars' rule (r. 1260-1277) is referred to by Muslim scholars as wilāya jabriyya or istīlā' (ruling by force). Baybars acted in various fields of religion and politics (sharīʿa and siyāsa) until he managed to achieve stability, security, and a powerful Islamic regime. Therefore, the Baybars deserved the title qasīm amīr al-mu'minīn" (partner of the Commander of the Faithful, i.e., the Caliph), which was given to him by the restored Caliph in Cairo, in addition to other titles that testify to his high-ranking religious status as a defender of Islam. This research relied on the method of literary research on the personality of Sultan Baybars, through comparison and analysis of his characteristics and approach to governance, as mentioned in contemporary historians' works who documented Baybars' biography and the sources of the Mamluk era. This paper also relied on conclusions and extrapolations of Baybars' personality through official documents and letters received from him or issued for him, in addition to recent historical literature and research on Baybars and the Mamluk era. 1
This study discusses the emigration of Muslim Andalusians and Maghribis to the major cities in Sy... more This study discusses the emigration of Muslim Andalusians and Maghribis to the major cities in Syria, such as Damascus and Jerusalem (al-Quds), focusing on the upper class of ulama and other intellectuals, and the various factors affecting this process and their absorption in the area. Political and economic reasons were the main factors motivating Maghribis to move to Syria and Egypt during the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods, while others moved to areas within the Ottoman domain. 1 Factors, such as seeking religious knowledge (al-rihla fi talab al-'ilm) were also important. Stability prevailed, relatively speaking, in late medieval Syria, and numerous favorable political, financial, and educational conditions served to attract many Maghribis and Andalusians from different regions, who left their impact on various aspects of life in Syrian cities, particularly in the educational and religious fields.
Abstract
This study deals with the issue of incompatibility with reason and transmission (al-‘aql... more Abstract This study deals with the issue of incompatibility with reason and transmission (al-‘aql wal-naql), which created doctrinal and intellectual conflicts between Sunni and hadith scholars (transmission) and between people of rational opinion (reason) and their impact on Islamic sciences in the Middle Ages. These conflicts appeared mainly after the openness of Muslims to other cultures, and translation of books of logic and philosophy of the Greeks, Persians and of other ancient cultures. Some Muslim intellectuals and scholars were influenced by that philosophy by venerating the mind and making it the basic criterion for the concept of science in Islam. This controversy resulted in number of trends and schools of thought that dealt with transmission and reason on different foundations and approaches. After the emergence of Ash‘ariyya and the attempts to reconcile between transmission and reason, and the victory of the Sunna and hadith over people of opinion and philosophy, the argument ended that everything that was mentioned in the Holy Qur’an and what was authenticated on the Prophet do not conflict with reason.
This research shows that the victory of the hadith scholars over people of opinion, since early eleventh century on, resulted in the spread and diversification of religious sciences by establishing religious institutions, such as the madrasa. The matter that contributed to the revival of various religious sciences and the Sunna, but the door remained open, and controversy existed between scholars and intellectuals over the extent to which action is defined by opinion and reason in religious matters and its various activities to these days.
Summary:
The processes of change and their effects on establishing the various kinds of Islamic e... more Summary: The processes of change and their effects on establishing the various kinds of Islamic educational institutions in Jerusalem during the medieval period began with the city’s liberation from Crusader rule by the Sultan Salah al-Dîn al-Ayyubî in the year 583/1187. However, records show that the pace of building these institutions was relatively slow in Ayyubid Jerusalem, compared with that occurring in the other cities of Syria and Egypt during the same period. Two key factors had a negative impact on the dedication of educational facilities: the continued Crusader threat in the region, and particularly in Jerusalem, and the struggles for succession within the Ayyubid regime itself. A turning point came with the rise to power of the Mamelukes. Through their victories in the Syrian territories over the Mongols, the Crusaders and the Shi‘i remnants, the Mamelukes gained and consolidated great political power and legitimacy for their rule. In addition to stabilizing their political and governmental power, the Mamelukes strived to entrench their social and religious standing through the allocation of financial endowments and the construction of educational and religious institutions in all the cities of their domain, in proportion to these cities’ centrality. Jerusalem was one of the most significant cities in Syria, attracting special attention from Mameluke rulers of all levels, both for its holiness and its position in the Mameluke scheme of reinforcing the security and stability of Greater Syria’s southern regions (Palestine and the coastal area). The rate of increased building of educational institutions in Mameluke Jerusalem was similar to the rate of building in the other cities under Mameluke dominion. However, the implications of historical circumstances were somewhat different, and favorable, in the case of Jerusalem. This was primarily the case after the last Mongol incursion into Syrian regions in the year 803/1400, and the political and economic crises that occurred during the 15th century and until the Ottoman conquest. As a result, Jerusalem’s educational institutions appeared to be better preserved and maintained through the end of the Mameluke period, when compared to those institutions in the cities of Northern Syria, such as Damascus and Aleppo. It may likewise be concluded that Jerusalem attracted the attention of foreign powers, notably Ottomans and various Anatolian rulers, who also took part in the process of constructing educational institutions in Jerusalem during the 15th century. This raises a question for a later study: Did the Ottomans see to the development of education and its institutions in Jerusalem after assuming the hegemony there from the year 1516, as the Mamelukes had done in their time? The endowments system, waqf deeds, practices and conditions of the educational institutions of Jerusalem were similar to those of other such institutions elsewhere in the Ayyubid State and subsequently in the Mameluke Empire. The developments and changes in considerations regarding the building of such institutions throughout those regions were likewise similar. As with other educational institutions in the Mameluke domain, those in Jerusalem underwent processes of change both in their architecture and in the function designated for them. Thus, by the late Mameluke period, these institutions were perceived as comprehensive facilities with diverse educational, religious, Sufi, social and charitable functions, as exemplified by the al-Tankiziyya madrasa, the al-Ashrafiyya, and others.
מחקר זה מנסה להציג את המנהיגות, ובעיקר החינוכית, מנקודת מבט תרבות האסלאם. המאמרמנסה גם לערוך הש... more מחקר זה מנסה להציג את המנהיגות, ובעיקר החינוכית, מנקודת מבט תרבות האסלאם. המאמרמנסה גם לערוך השוואה בין מנהיגות בתרבות האסלאם לבין תאוריות של מנהיגות מערבית מודרנית. רעיון המנהיגות עבר שינויים לאור משתנים רבים למיניהם ועל פי מדדים מטריאליסטיים. מנקודת מבט אסלאמ ית, המנהיגות מתבססת על עקרונות חברתיים ורו חניים ומושפעים מעקרונות הדת. ובכן, המנהיגות האסלאמית חוותה שינויים לאורך ההיסטוריה המוסלמית בהתאם לשינויים הפוליטיים, אבל בכל זאת נשארה מקושרת לעקרונות הדת בהסבריו השונים. חלק משינויים אלה הושפעו מהתרבות הערבית שהסתמכה על מנהגים, מסורת וערכים חברתיים. מצד שני, הושפע גם מערכים דתיים, דבר שהביא לשינויים במובן המנהיגות כבשאר התרבויות. בכך תפקידה של המנהיגות באסלאם הינו חשוב כדי לשמור על אחדות האומה המוסלמית וערכיה.
רבים מהעולמא ומשכילים מוסלמים של ימי הביניים דנו בעניין המאפיינים של המנהיגות באסלאם, ובמרכיביה השונים: ידע, ובעיקר דתי, גם סמכות וצדק, כוח וכריזמה ובריאות. בשונה מהתיאוריות המודרניות הקשורות לנושא המנהיגות, נחשבת המנהיגות באסלאם כחובה דתית השואפת לשלימות, ולהשגת מטרות מקיפות. לעומת זאת, המנהיגות על פי תרבות המערב המודרני הינה גמישה, מסתמכת על מטריאליזם ואינטרסים המשתנים לאורך הזמן וללא רעיונות קבועים, דבר שמחייב לערוך עדכונים תמידיים בתאוריות של מנהיגות מודרנית.
מאמר זה בוחן את השינויים וההתפתחויו ת שהתרחש ו במערכת החינו ך
בירושלים במהל ך התקופו ת האיובית וה... more מאמר זה בוחן את השינויים וההתפתחויו ת שהתרחש ו במערכת החינו ך בירושלים במהל ך התקופו ת האיובית והממלוכית. כפי שעולה מהמחקר , בתקופ ה האיובי ת פעל ו בירושלי ם מספ ר מצומצ ם של מוסדות חינוך , אש ר הוקמו ברובם ע ל ידי הסֻלטאני ם האיובי ם בשנים שלאחר שחרו ר העי ר ) 1187/583 (. בסו ף התקופה הממלוכי ת לעומ ת זאת, הסתכ ם מספ ר מוסדות החינוך בעיר )מסוגי ם שוני ם — מַדרַסָה, חָ’אנקָאה, רִבָאט ו–זאָוִיָה ( ביותר משבעים. המאמר מנסה להתחקו ת אח ר הסיבו ת והגורמים אש ר הביא ו לפריחה הגדולה בהקמת מוסדו ת חינוך בירושלי ם בתקופ ה הממלוכית, תוך הדגש ת הנסיבות הפוליטיו ת, הכלכליות, החברתיו ת והדתיות בתקופה הנדונה . קדושתה וחשיבות ה הדתי ת של ירושלי ם הביאו את השליטים השונים , כמו ג ם נסיכי ם ואנש י שררה אחרים, להשקי ע מאמצים וכספים רבי ם בבניי ת מוסדו ת חינוך מפוארים בעי ר. בנייה זו נועד ה להטביע את חותמ ם ולהאדי ר א ת שמ ם ואת יוקרתם, ולכ ן הרבו השליטים בהקמת מוסדו ת בעלי אופ י דתי–פילנטרופ י. בשנים ש ל יציבו ת כלכלית וביטחונית ניכר ה מאו ד הפריחה בבניית המוסדות הלל ו, אולם גם בתקופה הממלוכי ת האחרונה )ובמיוח ד במשך המאה התשיעי ת/החמש–עשרה(, בה התערער ו היציבות והבטחו ן באזו ר, המשיכה מערכת החינוך בירושלים להנו ת משגשוג יחסי; אמנם, ג ם בירושלי ם ניכר ו חולש ה וירידה בהקמת ובהפעל ת מוסדות חינו ך בתקופה ז ו, אולם בהשוואה לערי ם אחרות בסורי ה — של א זכו למעמד ש ל קדושה דתית — חולש ה זו היית ה מצומצמת .
يتمحور هذا البحث حول الآراء التربوية لإبن جماعة التي عرضها حول مفهوم العلم وفضله والقائمين عليه... more يتمحور هذا البحث حول الآراء التربوية لإبن جماعة التي عرضها حول مفهوم العلم وفضله والقائمين عليه من علماء لإكسابه لطالب العلم (المتعلّم) والتعرُّف على القيادة التربوية المثاليّة، والتي يمثّلها المعلّم بأخلاقه وتعامُله مع نفسه ومع الطلاب، وطرق التدريس المُثلى والوسائل التي يستخدمُها المعلّم بعمله للوصول إلى الهدف التربوي وتحقيق غاياته المرجوّة. كذلك، يهدف البحث إلى استنباط وإبراز القيادة التربوية في الإسلام من خلال شخصية ابن جماعة وتاريخه، ثمّ من خلال منظوره الذي وثّقه من تجربته في هذا المجال كعالمٍ ومُدرّس في مؤلّفه "تذكرة السّامع والمتكلّم...". فيُظهر ابن جماعة سلوكيّات المُعلِّم وأخلاقه، والطُّرق والمبادئ التي يجب أن يتعامل بها في إكساب العلم من خلال الحفاظ على الآداب والأخلاق الدينيّة. كلّ ذلك بهدف الإسهام في صياغة القواعد الأساسية لمهنة التعليم، التي تهدفُ المؤسَّسات التربوية إلى اتباعها بالطرق الصّحيحة والسّليمة، وذلك من أجل الاستفادة من آراء العُلماء السابقين، الذين بلوروا آراءهم التربويَّة في هذا المجال، من خلال التجربة العمليّة في ظروف مغايرة، والعمل على الاستفادة منها في هذا الزمن المتجدّد.
Nasir Khusraw, the Ismaili Persian traveller, spent about three years and three months in Egypt (... more Nasir Khusraw, the Ismaili Persian traveller, spent about three years and three months in Egypt (Safar 439 – Jumadi I 442/August 1047 – October 1050). He set out on his journey from Marw in the East in Rabi’ II 437/October 1045 and returned to Balkh in Khurasan in Jumadi II 444/October 1052 (see map). Khusraw registered important observations or strange things he had heard about, sometimes in detail, according to his impressions of the phenomenon. Through Khusraw’s descriptions, one can notice his concern to mention the routes and of travel, the distances, the dangers and hardships on the way, the qualities of the different spheres of the cities and countries he visited. Through his accounts, Khusraw tried to lighten the description of what he observed thus enabling those who read or listen to his description gain a picture of his stories. It seems that he mostly wanted people in Persia to believe what he had described; therefore he often compared his observations with similar phenomena in the Eastern regions.
Islam - Introduction to the History of Religion/ האסלאם מבוא להיסטוריה של הדת, 2018
חיבור זה, כפי שניתן להבין מהכותרת הראשית, הוא הדגש על ההיסטוריה של הדת, שהיא שונה מן ההיסטוריה הפ... more חיבור זה, כפי שניתן להבין מהכותרת הראשית, הוא הדגש על ההיסטוריה של הדת, שהיא שונה מן ההיסטוריה הפוליטית או החברתית שבהן דנים בדרך כלל ספרי ההיסטוריה. לאסלאם, כמו לכל דת, יש נטייה לשמר את אשר התקדש ולהתנגד לשינוי. מכאן הנטייה לתאר את הדת כתופעה קבועה. החיבור הזה ידגיש את הדינמיות שבדת, ויעקוב אחר התמורות שחלו במוסדות וברעיונות דתיים בתוקף תנאים היסטוריים משתנים, על פני רצף המן ובמרחב הגיאוגרפי. יחידה 1 – לידתה של דת: נביא וקהילת מאמינים יחידה 2 – ירושת הנביא, בעיית החַ 'לִיפוּת והפילוג באסלאם יחידה 3 – מערביות לאסלאם: התאסלמות העמים הנכבשים ומשמעויותיה
CHRONICA: Nomads and their Neighbours in the Middle Ages, 2023
This paper deals with the relations between nomads (Bedouins) and the pilgrimage caravans from Sy... more This paper deals with the relations between nomads (Bedouins) and the pilgrimage caravans from Syria to the Hijaz (Rakb al-Ḥajj al-Shāmī) in the Late Middle Ages and the early Ottoman period. It tries to follow the changes and developments in the relations between nomads and pilgrims on the road between Syria and Mecca. Before Islam, agreements and alliances (īlāf) were made between rulers of Mecca and Bedouin tribes in Arabia to preserve security and safety in the area. In Islamic times, these norms continued and even developed. In the Mamluk era and then under the Ottomans, many arrangements for securing the pilgrimage routes and the pilgrims' stay in Mecca were renewed. The Bedouins' dealings with pilgrims ranged from peace and security to aggression and looting, according to the political and economic arrangements that prevailed between the Bedouins and the ruling authorities.
تزخر المصادر التاريخية والتربوية الإسلامية من العصور الوسطى بعرض سير الأحداث التاريخية والدينية، ... more تزخر المصادر التاريخية والتربوية الإسلامية من العصور الوسطى بعرض سير الأحداث التاريخية والدينية، بالإضافة إلى تراجم العلماء والمشاهير في التاريخ الإسلامي. ومن ضمن هذه الظواهر التاريخيّة والحضاريّة العربيّة والإسلاميّة ذِكْر المجالس على اختلاف أنواعها ذات الأهداف والأساليب المتنوّعة، والتي تميّزت بحضور شعبيّ خارج نطاق حلقات العلم الرسميّة والمحدودة من حيث عدد المشاركين بها. وقد تعدّدت أسماء هذه المجالس تبعاً للأهداف التي عُقدت من أجلها، فمنها ما عُرف بإسم "مجالس السَّمَر والشِّعر والقصص"، "مجالس الوَعظ"، "مجالس العِلم/ مجالس الحِكْمَة"، "مجالس الدَّعوة"، وكذلك "مجالس الذِّكْر" وغيرها. وكان الطّابع العامّ والمسيطر على هذه المجالس في التاريخ الإسلامي هو الطابع الدّيني، ولكن دخلت عليها أحياناً تأثيرات مختلفة حسب أهداف الجهة القائمة على عقد مثل هذه المجالس ومواعيدها، مثل رفع المكانة لشخصيّات دينيّة معيّنة أو سياسيّة، أو الدّعوة لمصلحة طائفة أو فئة معيّنة للترويج لأفكار دينيّة لخدمتها، أو للترفيه والإحتفالات بمناسبات دينيّة، ومنها لإحياء حفلات الذِّكْر والأوراد والتسابيح الدينيّة من قبل المجموعات الصّوفيّة، ومنها أيضاً ما أخذ طابع التنافس الأدبي والشّعري أو العِلميّ. تركت المجالس أثرها بين المشاركين من أجواء ثقافية عامّة أو التعليمية والمعرفة، إضافة إلى دوافع التسلية والترفيه. هذا الإنطباع من التجمّعات والمجالس والمواعيد، يعزّز الرغبة والفضول في استكشاف ومناقشة هذه الظاهرة، التي كانت شائعة في الثقافة الإسلامية في فترات مختلفة من العصور الوسطى، وما زالت حتى يومنا هذا باشكال حديثة ومتعدّدة.
The madrasa began to spread in Syria (Bilad al-Sham) as a higher institution for religious educat... more The madrasa began to spread in Syria (Bilad al-Sham) as a higher institution for religious education since the Zangid rule (521H./1127 to 569H./ 1173). During the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods, main cities of Syria were characterized by many madrasas, especially the major cities that served the political rule like, Damascus, Aleppo, Jerusalem and others. By the late Mamluk period, various factors had a direct effect on the fall of the madrasa function in Syria. Although a number of attempts were made to renovate and redevelop the waqf of madrasas, the adverse circumstances had such a strong impact that the eventual result was extensive disintegration of the waqf and madrasas in Syria. This paper discussed the motives of endowing madrasas in Syria during the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods, despite the difficulty in separating one motive to another. During the Zangid and Ayyubid periods, it is noticeable that religious motives were stronger, while the political factor was underscored during the Mamluk era.
International Journal of Social Science And Human Research , Jul 22, 2023
This article focusses on the role of Muslim scholars (ʿulamaʾ) as educational leadership in medie... more This article focusses on the role of Muslim scholars (ʿulamaʾ) as educational leadership in medieval Islamic era. It deals with the ideal educational leadership in Islam, its etiquette, and optimal means of teaching. Therefore, the research attempts to answer the central question about the extent to which teachers (scholars) have the characteristics of leadership and apply them in practice with students, and methods of educational process. This paper relied on primary sources, biographies of scholars, their educational role, and writings, to conclude the main characteristics of educational Islamic leadership features: charisma, authority, and knowledge. Derived from the Qur’an and Sunna.
Local governors in Central Asia persecuted Ismaʿili missionaries (dāʿis) since the early years of... more Local governors in Central Asia persecuted Ismaʿili missionaries (dāʿis) since the early years of Ismaʿili activity there. The rise of the Fatimid State, from the tenth century onwards, encouraged the activity of those missionaries who were receiving support from the Fatimids, leading to increased persecutions of Ismaʿilis in Iraq and the eastern provinces of the Abbasid Caliphate. This study will deal with the activity of those missionaries and the difficulties and persecutions that they faced, with a focus on the case of the dāʿi Nāser Khosrow (1004–1088/394–481) in Central Asia. At the time, Nāser was considered as a model dāʿi representing the activity of Ismaʿili missionaries. Throughout his life, he suffered bitterly in his role as the main dāʿi of the Fatimids. Despite the hostile atmosphere and insecurity, Nāser Khosrow succeeded in becoming a highly significant philosopher and poet, but died in a sorrowful situation, isolated in the valley of Yomgān.
This study focuses on the religious policy of the Mamluk Sultan Rukn al-Din Baybars (d. 1277), an... more This study focuses on the religious policy of the Mamluk Sultan Rukn al-Din Baybars (d. 1277), and its application throughout his rule in Egypt and Syria (Bilād al-Shām). This study also discusses the impact of this policy and its benefit for Muslims and Islam in general in the region. Dealing with the character of Baybars of Mamluk origin is very important in this study to obtain the required answers to the questions related to the Islamic character of Mamluk rule in the regions of the Middle East in the Middle Ages. Although Baybars’ background was as a slave (mamlūk), who was not familiar with the religion of Islam, he had to prove his ability to act as a leader of an Islamic state. Baybars worked to implement the principles of Islam according to the Quran and the tradition of the Prophet (sunna), thus exploiting his status as an Islamic leader and as Sultan during his reign. Baybars was strict in his religious policy toward those who committed forbidden acts according to the Isl...
This study inspects the impact of neoliberalism on the directions of higher education and on the ... more This study inspects the impact of neoliberalism on the directions of higher education and on the changes ensued in higher education policies transforming from traditional education to education that services globalization and neoliberalism control over market's capabilities and requirements. Despite the increase in higher education institutions and the emergence of private colleges and their branches in different countries, there are several negative aspects in the approach of higher education. Among these effects are the vicissitudes in the
CHRONICA: Nomads and their Neighbours in the Middle Ages, 2023
This paper deals with the relations between nomads (Bedouins) and the pilgrimage caravans from Sy... more This paper deals with the relations between nomads (Bedouins) and the pilgrimage caravans from Syria to the Hijaz (Rakb al-Ḥajj al-Shāmī) in the Late Middle Ages and the early Ottoman period. It tries to follow the changes and developments in the relations between nomads and pilgrims on the road between Syria and Mecca. Before Islam, agreements and alliances (īlāf) were made between rulers of Mecca and Bedouin tribes in Arabia to preserve security and safety in the area. In Islamic times, these norms continued and even developed. In the Mamluk era and then under the Ottomans, many arrangements for securing the pilgrimage routes and the pilgrims' stay in Mecca were renewed. The Bedouins' dealings with pilgrims ranged from peace and security to aggression and looting, according to the political and economic arrangements that prevailed between the Bedouins and the ruling authorities.
تتمحور هذه الدراسة حول البحث بعلاقة المسلمين باليهود وتطوّراتها وميّزاتها على مدار الفترات التاري... more تتمحور هذه الدراسة حول البحث بعلاقة المسلمين باليهود وتطوّراتها وميّزاتها على مدار الفترات التاريخيّة المختلفة مِن وجهة نظر الباحثين ورجال الفكر والسياسة والدين مِن اليهود. فمِن خلال فحص دراسات هؤلاء الباحثين وآرائهم، حول العلاقات اليهوديّ الإسلاميّة في ظلّ الحكم الإسلامي، يمكن ملاحظة وجود فجوة واسعة بين وجهات نظرهم ومواقفهم. فمثلا يتبيّن مِن أبحاث ودراسات عديدة للباحث دافيد فاسرشتاين (David Wasserstein)، منها: "كيف أنقذ الإسلام اليهود؟"، على أنّ العلاقة بين المسلمين واليهود كانت جيّدة تحت الحكم الإسلامي، وخاصّة في الأندلس، ومنهم مَنْ أسماها ب "العصر الذهبي". ومِن ناحية أخرى، تظهر آراء بعض الباحثين وغيرهم مِن رجال السياسة بإدّعائهم أنَّ ذلك "العصر الذهبي" مِن العلاقات بين اليهود والمسلمين، ما كان إلّا مجرّد أسطورة وهميّة..
تبحث هذه الدراسة في وجهات النظر المتباينة بين الباحثين اليهود حول العلاقات، اليهوديّة الإسلاميّة ومحاولات الاستقراء والاستنتاجات في أسباب هذا الاختلاف والمؤثّرات التي تركت آثارها على نتائجهم ما بين الموضوعيّة والإيجابيّة، وما بين محاولة إضفاء الصبغة السلبيّة على هذه العلاقة تجاه معاملة اليهود تحت الحكم الإسلامي أو العربي. اعتمد بعض المفكّرين اليهود على الكتابات اليهوديّة الأرشيفيّة والمحفوظة منذ العصور الوسطى، مقارنة بالمصادر العربيّة والإسلاميّة للحصول على استنتاجاتهم. بينما تأثّر آخرون بالآراء الاستشراقية والأفكار المتناقضة، والتي تأثّرت بالإيديولوجيّات الحديثة والقوميّة. وهكذا، مِن خلال هذه الدراسة، يُلاحظ التبايُن في وجهات النظر والاتجاهات الفكريّة للباحثين اليهود مع اختلاف مواقفهم واستنتاجاتهم، ممّا يستدعي البحث عن أسباب مواقف هؤلاء الباحثين حول هذه العلاقة وتبايناتها في وجهة
نظرهم.
الكلمات المفتاحيّة: اليهود تحت الحُكم الإسلامي، رجال الفكر اليهود، الآراء الاستشراقية، الحركات اليهوديّة المعاصرة.
Research Aspects in Arts and Social Studies Vol. 8, 2023
This study focuses on dealing with the rise and spread of the madrasa, in terms of motives and me... more This study focuses on dealing with the rise and spread of the madrasa, in terms of motives and methods, as an institution of higher education in religious sciences in the Ayyubid and Mamluk Syria (Bilād al-Shām) (1187-1516) by relying on endowments (waqf) as charitable acts. The madrasa began to appear and spread in Syria, as a higher institution for religious education, since the Zengids' rule (1127-1174), then it grew during the Ayyubid and Mamluk eras in the main cities in Syria, especially that served the political centers, such as Damascus, Aleppo, Jerusalem, and others. In his study, G. Makdisi dealt with such topics, but he focused on the rise of the madrasa as an institution of learning in Eleventh Century Baghdad [1,2]. In the second half of the Mamluk era, various factors emerged that directly affected the decline in the madrasa's work and its maintenance in Syria, even though, several attempts were made to renew and redevelop endowments (waqf) and madrasas. Through the discussion in this paper, it is concluded that the motives for contributing waqf and madrasas in Syria during the Mamluk era were apparent as political motives, while during the Zangid and Ayyubid periods, it was noticeable that religious motives were stronger.
This research aims to show the role of Sultan Baybars (d. 1277CE), in contributing to the support... more This research aims to show the role of Sultan Baybars (d. 1277CE), in contributing to the support and consolidation of the Mamluk state in Egypt and the Levant on Islamic foundations, which gave Baybars an Islamic leader who bears the appropriate titles like the senior Muslim leaders who preceded him. This study will examine Baybars' political characteristics and leadership in light of Islamic norms of conduct and culture. Baybars proved his military abilities through his victory and success in two decisive battles: al-Manṣūra against the Crusaders (Franks) in 1249 and ʿAyn Jālūt against the Mongols in 1260. In 1261, he came to power by force after the assassination of Sultan Quṭuz. This aspect of Baybars' rule (r. 1260-1277) is referred to by Muslim scholars as wilāya jabriyya or istīlā' (ruling by force). Baybars acted in various fields of religion and politics (sharīʿa and siyāsa) until he managed to achieve stability, security, and a powerful Islamic regime. Therefore, the Baybars deserved the title qasīm amīr al-mu'minīn" (partner of the Commander of the Faithful, i.e., the Caliph), which was given to him by the restored Caliph in Cairo, in addition to other titles that testify to his high-ranking religious status as a defender of Islam. This research relied on the method of literary research on the personality of Sultan Baybars, through comparison and analysis of his characteristics and approach to governance, as mentioned in contemporary historians' works who documented Baybars' biography and the sources of the Mamluk era. This paper also relied on conclusions and extrapolations of Baybars' personality through official documents and letters received from him or issued for him, in addition to recent historical literature and research on Baybars and the Mamluk era. 1
This study discusses the emigration of Muslim Andalusians and Maghribis to the major cities in Sy... more This study discusses the emigration of Muslim Andalusians and Maghribis to the major cities in Syria, such as Damascus and Jerusalem (al-Quds), focusing on the upper class of ulama and other intellectuals, and the various factors affecting this process and their absorption in the area. Political and economic reasons were the main factors motivating Maghribis to move to Syria and Egypt during the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods, while others moved to areas within the Ottoman domain. 1 Factors, such as seeking religious knowledge (al-rihla fi talab al-'ilm) were also important. Stability prevailed, relatively speaking, in late medieval Syria, and numerous favorable political, financial, and educational conditions served to attract many Maghribis and Andalusians from different regions, who left their impact on various aspects of life in Syrian cities, particularly in the educational and religious fields.
Abstract
This study deals with the issue of incompatibility with reason and transmission (al-‘aql... more Abstract This study deals with the issue of incompatibility with reason and transmission (al-‘aql wal-naql), which created doctrinal and intellectual conflicts between Sunni and hadith scholars (transmission) and between people of rational opinion (reason) and their impact on Islamic sciences in the Middle Ages. These conflicts appeared mainly after the openness of Muslims to other cultures, and translation of books of logic and philosophy of the Greeks, Persians and of other ancient cultures. Some Muslim intellectuals and scholars were influenced by that philosophy by venerating the mind and making it the basic criterion for the concept of science in Islam. This controversy resulted in number of trends and schools of thought that dealt with transmission and reason on different foundations and approaches. After the emergence of Ash‘ariyya and the attempts to reconcile between transmission and reason, and the victory of the Sunna and hadith over people of opinion and philosophy, the argument ended that everything that was mentioned in the Holy Qur’an and what was authenticated on the Prophet do not conflict with reason.
This research shows that the victory of the hadith scholars over people of opinion, since early eleventh century on, resulted in the spread and diversification of religious sciences by establishing religious institutions, such as the madrasa. The matter that contributed to the revival of various religious sciences and the Sunna, but the door remained open, and controversy existed between scholars and intellectuals over the extent to which action is defined by opinion and reason in religious matters and its various activities to these days.
Summary:
The processes of change and their effects on establishing the various kinds of Islamic e... more Summary: The processes of change and their effects on establishing the various kinds of Islamic educational institutions in Jerusalem during the medieval period began with the city’s liberation from Crusader rule by the Sultan Salah al-Dîn al-Ayyubî in the year 583/1187. However, records show that the pace of building these institutions was relatively slow in Ayyubid Jerusalem, compared with that occurring in the other cities of Syria and Egypt during the same period. Two key factors had a negative impact on the dedication of educational facilities: the continued Crusader threat in the region, and particularly in Jerusalem, and the struggles for succession within the Ayyubid regime itself. A turning point came with the rise to power of the Mamelukes. Through their victories in the Syrian territories over the Mongols, the Crusaders and the Shi‘i remnants, the Mamelukes gained and consolidated great political power and legitimacy for their rule. In addition to stabilizing their political and governmental power, the Mamelukes strived to entrench their social and religious standing through the allocation of financial endowments and the construction of educational and religious institutions in all the cities of their domain, in proportion to these cities’ centrality. Jerusalem was one of the most significant cities in Syria, attracting special attention from Mameluke rulers of all levels, both for its holiness and its position in the Mameluke scheme of reinforcing the security and stability of Greater Syria’s southern regions (Palestine and the coastal area). The rate of increased building of educational institutions in Mameluke Jerusalem was similar to the rate of building in the other cities under Mameluke dominion. However, the implications of historical circumstances were somewhat different, and favorable, in the case of Jerusalem. This was primarily the case after the last Mongol incursion into Syrian regions in the year 803/1400, and the political and economic crises that occurred during the 15th century and until the Ottoman conquest. As a result, Jerusalem’s educational institutions appeared to be better preserved and maintained through the end of the Mameluke period, when compared to those institutions in the cities of Northern Syria, such as Damascus and Aleppo. It may likewise be concluded that Jerusalem attracted the attention of foreign powers, notably Ottomans and various Anatolian rulers, who also took part in the process of constructing educational institutions in Jerusalem during the 15th century. This raises a question for a later study: Did the Ottomans see to the development of education and its institutions in Jerusalem after assuming the hegemony there from the year 1516, as the Mamelukes had done in their time? The endowments system, waqf deeds, practices and conditions of the educational institutions of Jerusalem were similar to those of other such institutions elsewhere in the Ayyubid State and subsequently in the Mameluke Empire. The developments and changes in considerations regarding the building of such institutions throughout those regions were likewise similar. As with other educational institutions in the Mameluke domain, those in Jerusalem underwent processes of change both in their architecture and in the function designated for them. Thus, by the late Mameluke period, these institutions were perceived as comprehensive facilities with diverse educational, religious, Sufi, social and charitable functions, as exemplified by the al-Tankiziyya madrasa, the al-Ashrafiyya, and others.
מחקר זה מנסה להציג את המנהיגות, ובעיקר החינוכית, מנקודת מבט תרבות האסלאם. המאמרמנסה גם לערוך הש... more מחקר זה מנסה להציג את המנהיגות, ובעיקר החינוכית, מנקודת מבט תרבות האסלאם. המאמרמנסה גם לערוך השוואה בין מנהיגות בתרבות האסלאם לבין תאוריות של מנהיגות מערבית מודרנית. רעיון המנהיגות עבר שינויים לאור משתנים רבים למיניהם ועל פי מדדים מטריאליסטיים. מנקודת מבט אסלאמ ית, המנהיגות מתבססת על עקרונות חברתיים ורו חניים ומושפעים מעקרונות הדת. ובכן, המנהיגות האסלאמית חוותה שינויים לאורך ההיסטוריה המוסלמית בהתאם לשינויים הפוליטיים, אבל בכל זאת נשארה מקושרת לעקרונות הדת בהסבריו השונים. חלק משינויים אלה הושפעו מהתרבות הערבית שהסתמכה על מנהגים, מסורת וערכים חברתיים. מצד שני, הושפע גם מערכים דתיים, דבר שהביא לשינויים במובן המנהיגות כבשאר התרבויות. בכך תפקידה של המנהיגות באסלאם הינו חשוב כדי לשמור על אחדות האומה המוסלמית וערכיה.
רבים מהעולמא ומשכילים מוסלמים של ימי הביניים דנו בעניין המאפיינים של המנהיגות באסלאם, ובמרכיביה השונים: ידע, ובעיקר דתי, גם סמכות וצדק, כוח וכריזמה ובריאות. בשונה מהתיאוריות המודרניות הקשורות לנושא המנהיגות, נחשבת המנהיגות באסלאם כחובה דתית השואפת לשלימות, ולהשגת מטרות מקיפות. לעומת זאת, המנהיגות על פי תרבות המערב המודרני הינה גמישה, מסתמכת על מטריאליזם ואינטרסים המשתנים לאורך הזמן וללא רעיונות קבועים, דבר שמחייב לערוך עדכונים תמידיים בתאוריות של מנהיגות מודרנית.
מאמר זה בוחן את השינויים וההתפתחויו ת שהתרחש ו במערכת החינו ך
בירושלים במהל ך התקופו ת האיובית וה... more מאמר זה בוחן את השינויים וההתפתחויו ת שהתרחש ו במערכת החינו ך בירושלים במהל ך התקופו ת האיובית והממלוכית. כפי שעולה מהמחקר , בתקופ ה האיובי ת פעל ו בירושלי ם מספ ר מצומצ ם של מוסדות חינוך , אש ר הוקמו ברובם ע ל ידי הסֻלטאני ם האיובי ם בשנים שלאחר שחרו ר העי ר ) 1187/583 (. בסו ף התקופה הממלוכי ת לעומ ת זאת, הסתכ ם מספ ר מוסדות החינוך בעיר )מסוגי ם שוני ם — מַדרַסָה, חָ’אנקָאה, רִבָאט ו–זאָוִיָה ( ביותר משבעים. המאמר מנסה להתחקו ת אח ר הסיבו ת והגורמים אש ר הביא ו לפריחה הגדולה בהקמת מוסדו ת חינוך בירושלי ם בתקופ ה הממלוכית, תוך הדגש ת הנסיבות הפוליטיו ת, הכלכליות, החברתיו ת והדתיות בתקופה הנדונה . קדושתה וחשיבות ה הדתי ת של ירושלי ם הביאו את השליטים השונים , כמו ג ם נסיכי ם ואנש י שררה אחרים, להשקי ע מאמצים וכספים רבי ם בבניי ת מוסדו ת חינוך מפוארים בעי ר. בנייה זו נועד ה להטביע את חותמ ם ולהאדי ר א ת שמ ם ואת יוקרתם, ולכ ן הרבו השליטים בהקמת מוסדו ת בעלי אופ י דתי–פילנטרופ י. בשנים ש ל יציבו ת כלכלית וביטחונית ניכר ה מאו ד הפריחה בבניית המוסדות הלל ו, אולם גם בתקופה הממלוכי ת האחרונה )ובמיוח ד במשך המאה התשיעי ת/החמש–עשרה(, בה התערער ו היציבות והבטחו ן באזו ר, המשיכה מערכת החינוך בירושלים להנו ת משגשוג יחסי; אמנם, ג ם בירושלי ם ניכר ו חולש ה וירידה בהקמת ובהפעל ת מוסדות חינו ך בתקופה ז ו, אולם בהשוואה לערי ם אחרות בסורי ה — של א זכו למעמד ש ל קדושה דתית — חולש ה זו היית ה מצומצמת .
يتمحور هذا البحث حول الآراء التربوية لإبن جماعة التي عرضها حول مفهوم العلم وفضله والقائمين عليه... more يتمحور هذا البحث حول الآراء التربوية لإبن جماعة التي عرضها حول مفهوم العلم وفضله والقائمين عليه من علماء لإكسابه لطالب العلم (المتعلّم) والتعرُّف على القيادة التربوية المثاليّة، والتي يمثّلها المعلّم بأخلاقه وتعامُله مع نفسه ومع الطلاب، وطرق التدريس المُثلى والوسائل التي يستخدمُها المعلّم بعمله للوصول إلى الهدف التربوي وتحقيق غاياته المرجوّة. كذلك، يهدف البحث إلى استنباط وإبراز القيادة التربوية في الإسلام من خلال شخصية ابن جماعة وتاريخه، ثمّ من خلال منظوره الذي وثّقه من تجربته في هذا المجال كعالمٍ ومُدرّس في مؤلّفه "تذكرة السّامع والمتكلّم...". فيُظهر ابن جماعة سلوكيّات المُعلِّم وأخلاقه، والطُّرق والمبادئ التي يجب أن يتعامل بها في إكساب العلم من خلال الحفاظ على الآداب والأخلاق الدينيّة. كلّ ذلك بهدف الإسهام في صياغة القواعد الأساسية لمهنة التعليم، التي تهدفُ المؤسَّسات التربوية إلى اتباعها بالطرق الصّحيحة والسّليمة، وذلك من أجل الاستفادة من آراء العُلماء السابقين، الذين بلوروا آراءهم التربويَّة في هذا المجال، من خلال التجربة العمليّة في ظروف مغايرة، والعمل على الاستفادة منها في هذا الزمن المتجدّد.
يستعرض هذا الكتاب المناهج التربويّة في العلوم الإسلاميّة في العصر الوسيط، حيث تتوزّ مواضيع البحث ... more يستعرض هذا الكتاب المناهج التربويّة في العلوم الإسلاميّة في العصر الوسيط، حيث تتوزّ مواضيع البحث فيه على بين خمسة محاور وفصول رئيسيّة: الفصل الأوّل: يبحث في آثار التداخل بين التيّارين الفكريّين في الإسلام، العقليّ والنقليّ، نتيجة للتطوّرات السياسيّة والمذهبيّة في طلّ الصراعات الداخليّة بين الفرق الإسلاميّة المختلفة. الفصل الثاني: يدور البحث في هذا الفصل حول مفهوم العلم وفضله ومكانته والقائمين عليه من العلماء في منظور إبن جماعة وغيره من المفكرين في التربية الإسلاميّة. كما يتركز البحث هنا أيضًا على آراء ابن جماعة فيما يتعلق بالقيادة التربويّة، بآداب العالِم (المعلم) وعمله، والوقوف على الطرق والمبادئ والوسائل التربويّة. الفصل الثالث: يتمحور هذا الفصل حول موضوع العمليّة التعليميّة وآدابها وتفاعلها بين العالِم وبين المتعلم. كما يركز على آراء التربويّين في الإسلام، بالاعتماد على بدر الدين بن جماعة كمثال، من خلال كتابه "تذكرة السّامع والمتكلم في أدب العالِم والمتعلم" للمقارنة مع آراء رجال الفكر والتربية في الإسلامممن سبقه في هذه المواضيع أمثال الغزاليّ، الزرنوجيّ وغيرهم. الفصل الرابع: يتمحور موضوع هذا الفصل حول المعايير التربويّة في إعداد المعلم من منظور الفكر التربويّ الإسلاميّ. كما يهدف إلى التعرّف على الإجازات التي تؤهّل المعلم، والكفاءات التي ينبغي توفّرها لديه، والتي تعتمد على الفكر التربويّ لدى مجموعة من الفلاسفة والمفكرين المسلمين في العصور الوسطى. الفصل الخامس: يركز موضوع هذا الفصل على تطوّر التعليم في الإسلام والمؤسّسات التعليميّة وأثرها على طبقة العلماء ومناصبهم وعلاقتهم بالسّلطة، وأثره ذلك على العمليّة التعليميّة وتنوّعها. كما يتمحور بشكل رئيسيّ حول موضوع النقد والمديح للتفاعلات في الحركة العلميّة وما يرتبط بها، من خلال الشعر العربيّ.
This book focusses on educational and cultural activities and ethics in Medieval Islam affected b... more This book focusses on educational and cultural activities and ethics in Medieval Islam affected by political, doctrinal, and intellectual factors that have left their impact on Islamic education, curricula, literature, and various educational approaches. The book deals with specific educational issues in the late Middle Ages, especially after the spread of the “madrasa” institution from the Seljuk to the end of the Mamluk eras, in the regions between Syria (Bilād al-Shām/ the Levant), Egypt and neighboring regions. Therefore, the main issues dealt in this book are: A. Islamic Sciences in Light of Intellectual and Doctrinal Conflicts. B. ʿUlama as Educational Leadership in Medieval Islamic History. C. Behaviors and Ethics among Learners and Learning Methods in Medieval Islamic Education. D. The Ijāza: A Certificate for Teaching in Medieval Islamic Education. E. Praise and Criticism against ʿUlama and Rulers Associated with Education. F. Religious Education in Public and Popular Culture Through Preaching Sessions (majālis waʿẓ).
This research deals with the bureaucratic apparatus which was responsible for the administration ... more This research deals with the bureaucratic apparatus which was responsible for the administration of the Fatimid State. The Fatimid administration was made up of a number of permanent offices (diwans), and other offices were established according to the needs. The enter- relation between political and socio- economic developments constitute a major theme of this research. The events that took place during the rule of al–Mustansir, and other political struggles which occurred in the twelfth century left their imprint on Fatimid history and the structure of the administration.
The Major event of al–Mustansir’s period was the out break of a civil war which was accompanied by an economic crisis. These events (458-465/ 1065-1072) are known as “al–Shiddah al-Kubra” – the great crisis- paved the way for the rise of the military commander Badr al–Din al-Jamali, who ruled the Fatimid State as military vizier.
In the twelfh century two political crisis developed into a religious schisms. The first one followed the death of al–Mustansir and led to the development of the Nizariyya factions. The other one occurred after the murder of the Fatimid Imam al–Amir (524/1129-30) and brought about the rise of the Tayyibiyya faction. These events weakened the position of the Fatimid Imam vis- a- vis the high ranking officers of the army and provincial governors .Men of military background and provincial governors strived to obtain the position of vizier.
Following Bader al–Jamali’s dictatorship and along the twelfth century, military viziers became the most powerful men in the state gaining control over the administration and shaping its structure according to their needs.
لتغطية هذه الفترة الزمنية التي يدور حولها موضوع الدراسات في هذا الكتاب، رتّبت وفقاً للتسلسل الزمن... more لتغطية هذه الفترة الزمنية التي يدور حولها موضوع الدراسات في هذا الكتاب، رتّبت وفقاً للتسلسل الزمني من بداية الإسلام والفتح العُمري لمدينة بيت المقدس وحتى نهاية العصر المملوكي. فالفصل الأول يتناول تطورات الحركة الثقافية والنشاطات العلمية في بيت المقدس في ظلّ المؤثّرات السياسية حتى سقوط المدينة تحت السيطرة والإحتلال الفرنجي عام 492/ 1099. الفصل الثاني يتناول موضوع هجرة العلماء المقادسة من بيت المقدس على أثر إستيلاء الفرنجة على المدينة، والدور الهامّ في المجال الثقافي الذي ساهم فيه هؤلاء المقادسة في البلدان التي لاذوا بهجرتهم إليها. الفصل الثالث يبحث في الحركة العلمية في بيت المقدس، من مدارس وأوقاف وما يتعلق بها من مناصب وتأثيرات سياسية، بعد تحرير المدينة من أيدي الفرنجة على يد السلطان صلاح الدين الأيوبي عام 583/ 1187 وحتى أواخر العصر المملوكي عام 922/ 1516. أمّا الفصل الرابع، فهو عبارة عن قوائم ولوائح تشمل أهمّ العلماء وأعيان بيت المقدس الذين لعبوا دوراً مباشراً أو غير مباشر في الحركة الثقافية خلال العصرين الأيوبي والمملوكي، وفقاً للتراجم التي أوردها المؤرّخ المقدسي مجير الدين الحنبلي العليمي، مع إكمال بعض النواقص من مصادر أخرى.
Education in Medieval Syria underwent substantial permutations since the Zangid to the late Maml... more Education in Medieval Syria underwent substantial permutations since the Zangid to the late Mamluk Era. Different types of institutes(madrasa, khanqah, ribat and zawiya) had increased to a large extent as an urban phenomenon in the Syrian cities, and reached the top of their expansion rate during the 14th century. Those developments reflected the political and religious changes in the area. Most of the educational institutions in Syria were established by the ruling class, but the role of citizens in dedicating institutes was strong relatively. Establishing such institutes and dedicating endowments (waqf) were characterized by religious motif and charity deeds. However, during the Mamluk period, the social, economic and political considerations were obvious. Consequently, Syrian main cities, Damascus, Aleppo, Jerusalem and others became centres of transmission of knowledge in Islamic education that attracted ‘ulama, scholars and Sufi streams from all over the Muslim world. Toward the end of the Mamluk period, educational activities had slowed down in Syria as a result of the waqf decline, especially in the 15th century, because of bad political and economic circumstances.
Rakb al-Hajj al-Shāmī; Between Nomads (ʿurbān) and Pilgrimages’ Caravans in Late Middle Ages, 2019
This paper deals with the development of the relations between the nomads/ bedouin (ʿurbān) and t... more This paper deals with the development of the relations between the nomads/ bedouin (ʿurbān) and the caravans of pilgrimage from Syria to the Hijaz, and especially in the later Middle Ages. Through the caravans of pilgrims and trade between the north and south of the Arabian Peninsula, between Syria and Yemen, passes through the holy places in the Hijaz, even from the Islamic period, as it was mentioned in the Quran “riḥlat al-shitā’ wal-ṣayf “. These roads pass through mountainous and desert areas, and scattered Bedouin tribes. According to the accepted norm, it was those who control the holy sites in Mecca who are responsible for order and security. Therefor before Islam, agreements and alliances, known as "īlāf", were made between rulers of Mecca and the tribes of Bedouin, in order to preserve the transportation routes. During the various Islamic periods, these norms were preserved and even developed. Often, the Bedouin used periods of weakness of the central government or internal conflicts among the local heirs of the emirs of Mecca. And then, the Bedouins increased their attacks on the caravans of pilgrims and even on the cities of Mecca and Medina themselves. Sometimes these attacks were revenge or robberies of property, money, and goods that were in the hands of pilgrims. Those attacks often resulted in the loss of human life or taking them into bargaining for a financial ransom. With the rise of the Mamluks to power in Egypt and Syria in second half of the 13th century, they contributed to securing the pilgrimage routes to the holy places, both on the roads and during their stay in Mecca. A delegation of Mamluks headed by emir (amīr al-hajj) accompanied the convoys to protect against the nomad attacks, as the Sultan Baybars did in 1263, in addition to the appointment of Bedouins as guards (khafar) in the area for security in return for payment. The Mamluks also acted to suppress internal disputes in the Hijaz and punish the leaders of bedouin responsible for attacking the caravans. The Mamluks contributed greatly to building shift stations and places of rest along the ways. This custom continued in the Ottoman period, but the bedouin exploited opportunities of weakness in the central government and in the means of guarding convoys and continued their habit of attacking and robberies. This paper relies on relevant primary sources, both for the subject and for the period, such as Ibn Tulun's essay, for example: “Al-Barq al-Sāmī fī Tiʿdād Manāzil al-Hajj al-Shāmī”.
يرافق هذا الكتيّب للمصادر (الكراسة) الجزء الأول من مساق، "الإسلام: مدخل
إلى تاريخ الدين الإسلامي... more يرافق هذا الكتيّب للمصادر (الكراسة) الجزء الأول من مساق، "الإسلام: مدخل
إلى تاريخ الدين الإسلامي" ( 10432 ). حيث يتركز هذا الجزء في البحث في
المراحل الأولى لظهور الإسلام وفي التطوّرات المبكّرة في تاريخ الدين الإسلامي.
يتضمّن الكتيّب مختارات من النُّصوص، من بينها مقتطفات من الشعر وآيات من
القرآن الكريم، التي حوتها كتب المساق، على اختلاف وحداتها وأجزائها. وقد
صُمّم هذا الكتيّب لخدمة الدارسين ومتحدثي اللغة العربية كلُغة الأمّ، وكذلك
.لخدمة كلّ من عنده الاستعداد والرغبة في قراءة هذه النّصوص والمقطوعات.
ספרו של מאיר חטינה עוסק בשינויים ובהתפתחויות במעמדם של העולמא במרחב הציבורי לאור השינויים הפוליטי... more ספרו של מאיר חטינה עוסק בשינויים ובהתפתחויות במעמדם של העולמא במרחב הציבורי לאור השינויים הפוליטיים, בפרספקטיבה המצרית, בעיקר במחצית השנייה של המאה ה- 19 ובראשית המאה ה- 20 . תקופה שהתחילה להתגבש בה מדינות הלאום, ובה הושפעה החברה המצרית ממגוון של השפעות ושינויים: הכיבוש הצרפתי (1797 – 1801) ומכן הכיבוש הבריטי (1882), המודרניזציה המערבית, רפורמות פנימיות (ובעיקר בתקופת מחמד עלי והח'דיו אסמאעיל) וההשפעה של המעבר בין מסורתיות למודרניות. עם סוף המאה ה- 19 התפתחה במצרים שכבה משכילה שהשאירה את חותמה על החיים הציבוריים במצרים וגם באזורים הסמוכים. תקופה זו השפיעה על התפתחות רעיונות לאומיים וחברתיים מודרניים, אשר השפיעו על השכבה הדתית במצרים המיוצגת על ידי העולמא של אל-אזהר. הספר חושף מאבקי זהויות במצרים ומנסה דרך הדיון בפרקיו השונים להסביר את עמדתם ומיקומם של העולמא במאבקים אלה.
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Papers by Hatim Mahamid
יחידה 1 – לידתה של דת: נביא וקהילת מאמינים
יחידה 2 – ירושת הנביא, בעיית החַ 'לִיפוּת והפילוג באסלאם
יחידה 3 – מערביות לאסלאם: התאסלמות העמים הנכבשים ומשמעויותיה
تبحث هذه الدراسة في وجهات النظر المتباينة بين الباحثين اليهود حول العلاقات، اليهوديّة الإسلاميّة ومحاولات الاستقراء والاستنتاجات في أسباب هذا الاختلاف والمؤثّرات التي تركت آثارها على نتائجهم ما بين الموضوعيّة والإيجابيّة، وما بين محاولة إضفاء الصبغة السلبيّة على هذه العلاقة تجاه معاملة اليهود تحت الحكم الإسلامي أو العربي. اعتمد بعض المفكّرين اليهود على الكتابات اليهوديّة الأرشيفيّة والمحفوظة منذ العصور الوسطى، مقارنة بالمصادر العربيّة والإسلاميّة للحصول على استنتاجاتهم. بينما تأثّر آخرون بالآراء الاستشراقية والأفكار المتناقضة، والتي تأثّرت بالإيديولوجيّات الحديثة والقوميّة. وهكذا، مِن خلال هذه الدراسة، يُلاحظ التبايُن في وجهات النظر والاتجاهات الفكريّة للباحثين اليهود مع اختلاف مواقفهم واستنتاجاتهم، ممّا يستدعي البحث عن أسباب مواقف هؤلاء الباحثين حول هذه العلاقة وتبايناتها في وجهة
نظرهم.
الكلمات المفتاحيّة: اليهود تحت الحُكم الإسلامي، رجال الفكر اليهود، الآراء الاستشراقية، الحركات اليهوديّة المعاصرة.
This study deals with the issue of incompatibility with reason and transmission (al-‘aql wal-naql), which created doctrinal and intellectual conflicts between Sunni and hadith scholars (transmission) and between people of rational opinion (reason) and their impact on Islamic sciences in the Middle Ages. These conflicts appeared mainly after the openness of Muslims to other cultures, and translation of books of logic and philosophy of the Greeks, Persians and of other ancient cultures. Some Muslim intellectuals and scholars were influenced by that philosophy by venerating the mind and making it the basic criterion for the concept of science in Islam. This controversy resulted in number of trends and schools of thought that dealt with transmission and reason on different foundations and approaches. After the emergence of Ash‘ariyya and the attempts to reconcile between transmission and reason, and the victory of the Sunna and hadith over people of opinion and philosophy, the argument ended that everything that was mentioned in the Holy Qur’an and what was authenticated on the Prophet do not conflict with reason.
This research shows that the victory of the hadith scholars over people of opinion, since early eleventh century on, resulted in the spread and diversification of religious sciences by establishing religious institutions, such as the madrasa. The matter that contributed to the revival of various religious sciences and the Sunna, but the door remained open, and controversy existed between scholars and intellectuals over the extent to which action is defined by opinion and reason in religious matters and its various activities to these days.
The processes of change and their effects on establishing the various kinds of Islamic educational institutions in Jerusalem during the medieval period began with the city’s liberation from Crusader rule by the Sultan Salah al-Dîn al-Ayyubî in the year 583/1187. However, records show that the pace of building these institutions was relatively slow in Ayyubid Jerusalem, compared with that occurring in the other cities of Syria and Egypt during the same period. Two key factors had a negative impact on the dedication of educational facilities: the continued Crusader threat in the region, and particularly in Jerusalem, and the struggles for succession within the Ayyubid regime itself.
A turning point came with the rise to power of the Mamelukes. Through their victories in the Syrian territories over the Mongols, the Crusaders and the Shi‘i remnants, the Mamelukes gained and consolidated great political power and legitimacy for their rule. In addition to stabilizing their political and governmental power, the Mamelukes strived to entrench their social and religious standing through the allocation of financial endowments and the construction of educational and religious institutions in all the cities of their domain, in proportion to these cities’ centrality. Jerusalem was one of the most significant cities in Syria, attracting special attention from Mameluke rulers of all levels, both for its holiness and its position in the Mameluke scheme of reinforcing the security and stability of Greater Syria’s southern regions (Palestine and the coastal area).
The rate of increased building of educational institutions in Mameluke Jerusalem was similar to the rate of building in the other cities under Mameluke dominion. However, the implications of historical circumstances were somewhat different, and favorable, in the case of Jerusalem. This was primarily the case after the last Mongol incursion into Syrian regions in the year 803/1400, and the political and economic crises that occurred during the 15th century and until the Ottoman conquest. As a result, Jerusalem’s educational institutions appeared to be better preserved and maintained through the end of the Mameluke period, when compared to those institutions in the cities of Northern Syria, such as Damascus and Aleppo.
It may likewise be concluded that Jerusalem attracted the attention of foreign powers, notably Ottomans and various Anatolian rulers, who also took part in the process of constructing educational institutions in Jerusalem during the 15th century. This raises a question for a later study: Did the Ottomans see to the development of education and its institutions in Jerusalem after assuming the hegemony there from the year 1516, as the Mamelukes had done in their time?
The endowments system, waqf deeds, practices and conditions of the educational institutions of Jerusalem were similar to those of other such institutions elsewhere in the Ayyubid State and subsequently in the Mameluke Empire. The developments and changes in considerations regarding the building of such institutions throughout those regions were likewise similar. As with other educational institutions in the Mameluke domain, those in Jerusalem underwent processes of change both in their architecture and in the function designated for them. Thus, by the late Mameluke period, these institutions were perceived as comprehensive facilities with diverse educational, religious, Sufi, social and charitable functions, as exemplified by the al-Tankiziyya madrasa, the al-Ashrafiyya, and others.
רבים מהעולמא ומשכילים מוסלמים של ימי הביניים דנו בעניין המאפיינים של המנהיגות באסלאם, ובמרכיביה השונים: ידע, ובעיקר דתי, גם סמכות וצדק, כוח וכריזמה ובריאות. בשונה מהתיאוריות המודרניות הקשורות לנושא המנהיגות, נחשבת המנהיגות באסלאם כחובה דתית השואפת לשלימות, ולהשגת מטרות מקיפות. לעומת זאת, המנהיגות על פי תרבות המערב המודרני הינה גמישה, מסתמכת על מטריאליזם ואינטרסים המשתנים לאורך הזמן וללא רעיונות קבועים, דבר שמחייב לערוך עדכונים תמידיים בתאוריות של מנהיגות מודרנית.
בירושלים במהל ך התקופו ת האיובית והממלוכית. כפי שעולה מהמחקר ,
בתקופ ה האיובי ת פעל ו בירושלי ם מספ ר מצומצ ם של מוסדות חינוך ,
אש ר הוקמו ברובם ע ל ידי הסֻלטאני ם האיובי ם בשנים שלאחר שחרו ר
העי ר ) 1187/583 (. בסו ף התקופה הממלוכי ת לעומ ת זאת, הסתכ ם מספ ר
מוסדות החינוך בעיר )מסוגי ם שוני ם — מַדרַסָה, חָ’אנקָאה, רִבָאט ו–זאָוִיָה (
ביותר משבעים. המאמר מנסה להתחקו ת אח ר הסיבו ת והגורמים אש ר
הביא ו לפריחה הגדולה בהקמת מוסדו ת חינוך בירושלי ם בתקופ ה
הממלוכית, תוך הדגש ת הנסיבות הפוליטיו ת, הכלכליות, החברתיו ת
והדתיות בתקופה הנדונה .
קדושתה וחשיבות ה הדתי ת של ירושלי ם הביאו את השליטים השונים ,
כמו ג ם נסיכי ם ואנש י שררה אחרים, להשקי ע מאמצים וכספים רבי ם
בבניי ת מוסדו ת חינוך מפוארים בעי ר. בנייה זו נועד ה להטביע את חותמ ם
ולהאדי ר א ת שמ ם ואת יוקרתם, ולכ ן הרבו השליטים בהקמת מוסדו ת
בעלי אופ י דתי–פילנטרופ י. בשנים ש ל יציבו ת כלכלית וביטחונית ניכר ה
מאו ד הפריחה בבניית המוסדות הלל ו, אולם גם בתקופה הממלוכי ת
האחרונה )ובמיוח ד במשך המאה התשיעי ת/החמש–עשרה(, בה התערער ו
היציבות והבטחו ן באזו ר, המשיכה מערכת החינוך בירושלים להנו ת
משגשוג יחסי; אמנם, ג ם בירושלי ם ניכר ו חולש ה וירידה בהקמת ובהפעל ת
מוסדות חינו ך בתקופה ז ו, אולם בהשוואה לערי ם אחרות בסורי ה — של א
זכו למעמד ש ל קדושה דתית — חולש ה זו היית ה מצומצמת .
יחידה 1 – לידתה של דת: נביא וקהילת מאמינים
יחידה 2 – ירושת הנביא, בעיית החַ 'לִיפוּת והפילוג באסלאם
יחידה 3 – מערביות לאסלאם: התאסלמות העמים הנכבשים ומשמעויותיה
تبحث هذه الدراسة في وجهات النظر المتباينة بين الباحثين اليهود حول العلاقات، اليهوديّة الإسلاميّة ومحاولات الاستقراء والاستنتاجات في أسباب هذا الاختلاف والمؤثّرات التي تركت آثارها على نتائجهم ما بين الموضوعيّة والإيجابيّة، وما بين محاولة إضفاء الصبغة السلبيّة على هذه العلاقة تجاه معاملة اليهود تحت الحكم الإسلامي أو العربي. اعتمد بعض المفكّرين اليهود على الكتابات اليهوديّة الأرشيفيّة والمحفوظة منذ العصور الوسطى، مقارنة بالمصادر العربيّة والإسلاميّة للحصول على استنتاجاتهم. بينما تأثّر آخرون بالآراء الاستشراقية والأفكار المتناقضة، والتي تأثّرت بالإيديولوجيّات الحديثة والقوميّة. وهكذا، مِن خلال هذه الدراسة، يُلاحظ التبايُن في وجهات النظر والاتجاهات الفكريّة للباحثين اليهود مع اختلاف مواقفهم واستنتاجاتهم، ممّا يستدعي البحث عن أسباب مواقف هؤلاء الباحثين حول هذه العلاقة وتبايناتها في وجهة
نظرهم.
الكلمات المفتاحيّة: اليهود تحت الحُكم الإسلامي، رجال الفكر اليهود، الآراء الاستشراقية، الحركات اليهوديّة المعاصرة.
This study deals with the issue of incompatibility with reason and transmission (al-‘aql wal-naql), which created doctrinal and intellectual conflicts between Sunni and hadith scholars (transmission) and between people of rational opinion (reason) and their impact on Islamic sciences in the Middle Ages. These conflicts appeared mainly after the openness of Muslims to other cultures, and translation of books of logic and philosophy of the Greeks, Persians and of other ancient cultures. Some Muslim intellectuals and scholars were influenced by that philosophy by venerating the mind and making it the basic criterion for the concept of science in Islam. This controversy resulted in number of trends and schools of thought that dealt with transmission and reason on different foundations and approaches. After the emergence of Ash‘ariyya and the attempts to reconcile between transmission and reason, and the victory of the Sunna and hadith over people of opinion and philosophy, the argument ended that everything that was mentioned in the Holy Qur’an and what was authenticated on the Prophet do not conflict with reason.
This research shows that the victory of the hadith scholars over people of opinion, since early eleventh century on, resulted in the spread and diversification of religious sciences by establishing religious institutions, such as the madrasa. The matter that contributed to the revival of various religious sciences and the Sunna, but the door remained open, and controversy existed between scholars and intellectuals over the extent to which action is defined by opinion and reason in religious matters and its various activities to these days.
The processes of change and their effects on establishing the various kinds of Islamic educational institutions in Jerusalem during the medieval period began with the city’s liberation from Crusader rule by the Sultan Salah al-Dîn al-Ayyubî in the year 583/1187. However, records show that the pace of building these institutions was relatively slow in Ayyubid Jerusalem, compared with that occurring in the other cities of Syria and Egypt during the same period. Two key factors had a negative impact on the dedication of educational facilities: the continued Crusader threat in the region, and particularly in Jerusalem, and the struggles for succession within the Ayyubid regime itself.
A turning point came with the rise to power of the Mamelukes. Through their victories in the Syrian territories over the Mongols, the Crusaders and the Shi‘i remnants, the Mamelukes gained and consolidated great political power and legitimacy for their rule. In addition to stabilizing their political and governmental power, the Mamelukes strived to entrench their social and religious standing through the allocation of financial endowments and the construction of educational and religious institutions in all the cities of their domain, in proportion to these cities’ centrality. Jerusalem was one of the most significant cities in Syria, attracting special attention from Mameluke rulers of all levels, both for its holiness and its position in the Mameluke scheme of reinforcing the security and stability of Greater Syria’s southern regions (Palestine and the coastal area).
The rate of increased building of educational institutions in Mameluke Jerusalem was similar to the rate of building in the other cities under Mameluke dominion. However, the implications of historical circumstances were somewhat different, and favorable, in the case of Jerusalem. This was primarily the case after the last Mongol incursion into Syrian regions in the year 803/1400, and the political and economic crises that occurred during the 15th century and until the Ottoman conquest. As a result, Jerusalem’s educational institutions appeared to be better preserved and maintained through the end of the Mameluke period, when compared to those institutions in the cities of Northern Syria, such as Damascus and Aleppo.
It may likewise be concluded that Jerusalem attracted the attention of foreign powers, notably Ottomans and various Anatolian rulers, who also took part in the process of constructing educational institutions in Jerusalem during the 15th century. This raises a question for a later study: Did the Ottomans see to the development of education and its institutions in Jerusalem after assuming the hegemony there from the year 1516, as the Mamelukes had done in their time?
The endowments system, waqf deeds, practices and conditions of the educational institutions of Jerusalem were similar to those of other such institutions elsewhere in the Ayyubid State and subsequently in the Mameluke Empire. The developments and changes in considerations regarding the building of such institutions throughout those regions were likewise similar. As with other educational institutions in the Mameluke domain, those in Jerusalem underwent processes of change both in their architecture and in the function designated for them. Thus, by the late Mameluke period, these institutions were perceived as comprehensive facilities with diverse educational, religious, Sufi, social and charitable functions, as exemplified by the al-Tankiziyya madrasa, the al-Ashrafiyya, and others.
רבים מהעולמא ומשכילים מוסלמים של ימי הביניים דנו בעניין המאפיינים של המנהיגות באסלאם, ובמרכיביה השונים: ידע, ובעיקר דתי, גם סמכות וצדק, כוח וכריזמה ובריאות. בשונה מהתיאוריות המודרניות הקשורות לנושא המנהיגות, נחשבת המנהיגות באסלאם כחובה דתית השואפת לשלימות, ולהשגת מטרות מקיפות. לעומת זאת, המנהיגות על פי תרבות המערב המודרני הינה גמישה, מסתמכת על מטריאליזם ואינטרסים המשתנים לאורך הזמן וללא רעיונות קבועים, דבר שמחייב לערוך עדכונים תמידיים בתאוריות של מנהיגות מודרנית.
בירושלים במהל ך התקופו ת האיובית והממלוכית. כפי שעולה מהמחקר ,
בתקופ ה האיובי ת פעל ו בירושלי ם מספ ר מצומצ ם של מוסדות חינוך ,
אש ר הוקמו ברובם ע ל ידי הסֻלטאני ם האיובי ם בשנים שלאחר שחרו ר
העי ר ) 1187/583 (. בסו ף התקופה הממלוכי ת לעומ ת זאת, הסתכ ם מספ ר
מוסדות החינוך בעיר )מסוגי ם שוני ם — מַדרַסָה, חָ’אנקָאה, רִבָאט ו–זאָוִיָה (
ביותר משבעים. המאמר מנסה להתחקו ת אח ר הסיבו ת והגורמים אש ר
הביא ו לפריחה הגדולה בהקמת מוסדו ת חינוך בירושלי ם בתקופ ה
הממלוכית, תוך הדגש ת הנסיבות הפוליטיו ת, הכלכליות, החברתיו ת
והדתיות בתקופה הנדונה .
קדושתה וחשיבות ה הדתי ת של ירושלי ם הביאו את השליטים השונים ,
כמו ג ם נסיכי ם ואנש י שררה אחרים, להשקי ע מאמצים וכספים רבי ם
בבניי ת מוסדו ת חינוך מפוארים בעי ר. בנייה זו נועד ה להטביע את חותמ ם
ולהאדי ר א ת שמ ם ואת יוקרתם, ולכ ן הרבו השליטים בהקמת מוסדו ת
בעלי אופ י דתי–פילנטרופ י. בשנים ש ל יציבו ת כלכלית וביטחונית ניכר ה
מאו ד הפריחה בבניית המוסדות הלל ו, אולם גם בתקופה הממלוכי ת
האחרונה )ובמיוח ד במשך המאה התשיעי ת/החמש–עשרה(, בה התערער ו
היציבות והבטחו ן באזו ר, המשיכה מערכת החינוך בירושלים להנו ת
משגשוג יחסי; אמנם, ג ם בירושלי ם ניכר ו חולש ה וירידה בהקמת ובהפעל ת
מוסדות חינו ך בתקופה ז ו, אולם בהשוואה לערי ם אחרות בסורי ה — של א
זכו למעמד ש ל קדושה דתית — חולש ה זו היית ה מצומצמת .
الفصل الأوّل: يبحث في آثار التداخل بين التيّارين الفكريّين في الإسلام، العقليّ والنقليّ، نتيجة للتطوّرات السياسيّة والمذهبيّة في طلّ الصراعات الداخليّة بين الفرق الإسلاميّة المختلفة.
الفصل الثاني: يدور البحث في هذا الفصل حول مفهوم العلم وفضله ومكانته والقائمين عليه من العلماء في منظور إبن جماعة وغيره من المفكرين في التربية الإسلاميّة. كما يتركز البحث هنا أيضًا على آراء ابن جماعة فيما يتعلق بالقيادة التربويّة، بآداب العالِم (المعلم) وعمله، والوقوف على الطرق والمبادئ والوسائل التربويّة.
الفصل الثالث: يتمحور هذا الفصل حول موضوع العمليّة التعليميّة وآدابها وتفاعلها بين العالِم وبين المتعلم. كما يركز على آراء التربويّين في الإسلام، بالاعتماد على بدر الدين بن جماعة كمثال، من خلال كتابه "تذكرة السّامع والمتكلم في أدب العالِم والمتعلم" للمقارنة مع آراء رجال الفكر والتربية في الإسلامممن سبقه في هذه المواضيع أمثال الغزاليّ، الزرنوجيّ وغيرهم.
الفصل الرابع: يتمحور موضوع هذا الفصل حول المعايير التربويّة في إعداد المعلم من منظور الفكر التربويّ الإسلاميّ. كما يهدف إلى التعرّف على الإجازات التي تؤهّل المعلم، والكفاءات التي ينبغي توفّرها لديه، والتي تعتمد على الفكر التربويّ لدى مجموعة من الفلاسفة والمفكرين المسلمين في العصور الوسطى.
الفصل الخامس: يركز موضوع هذا الفصل على تطوّر التعليم في الإسلام والمؤسّسات التعليميّة وأثرها على طبقة العلماء ومناصبهم وعلاقتهم بالسّلطة، وأثره ذلك على العمليّة التعليميّة وتنوّعها. كما يتمحور بشكل رئيسيّ حول موضوع النقد والمديح للتفاعلات في الحركة العلميّة وما يرتبط بها، من خلال الشعر العربيّ.
The Major event of al–Mustansir’s period was the out break of a civil war which was accompanied by an economic crisis. These events (458-465/ 1065-1072) are known as “al–Shiddah al-Kubra” – the great crisis- paved the way for the rise of the military commander Badr al–Din al-Jamali, who ruled the Fatimid State as military vizier.
In the twelfh century two political crisis developed into a religious schisms. The first one followed the death of al–Mustansir and led to the development of the Nizariyya factions. The other one occurred after the murder of the Fatimid Imam al–Amir (524/1129-30) and brought about the rise of the Tayyibiyya faction. These events weakened the position of the Fatimid Imam vis- a- vis the high ranking officers of the army and provincial governors .Men of military background and provincial governors strived to obtain the position of vizier.
Following Bader al–Jamali’s dictatorship and along the twelfth century, military viziers became the most powerful men in the state gaining control over the administration and shaping its structure according to their needs.
Toward the end of the Mamluk period, educational activities had slowed down in Syria as a result of the waqf decline, especially in the 15th century, because of bad political and economic circumstances.
Often, the Bedouin used periods of weakness of the central government or internal conflicts among the local heirs of the emirs of Mecca. And then, the Bedouins increased their attacks on the caravans of pilgrims and even on the cities of Mecca and Medina themselves. Sometimes these attacks were revenge or robberies of property, money, and goods that were in the hands of pilgrims. Those attacks often resulted in the loss of human life or taking them into bargaining for a financial ransom.
With the rise of the Mamluks to power in Egypt and Syria in second half of the 13th century, they contributed to securing the pilgrimage routes to the holy places, both on the roads and during their stay in Mecca. A delegation of Mamluks headed by emir (amīr al-hajj) accompanied the convoys to protect against the nomad attacks, as the Sultan Baybars did in 1263, in addition to the appointment of Bedouins as guards (khafar) in the area for security in return for payment. The Mamluks also acted to suppress internal disputes in the Hijaz and punish the leaders of bedouin responsible for attacking the caravans. The Mamluks contributed greatly to building shift stations and places of rest along the ways. This custom continued in the Ottoman period, but the bedouin exploited opportunities of weakness in the central government and in the means of guarding convoys and continued their habit of attacking and robberies.
This paper relies on relevant primary sources, both for the subject and for the period, such as Ibn Tulun's essay, for example: “Al-Barq al-Sāmī fī Tiʿdād Manāzil al-Hajj al-Shāmī”.
إلى تاريخ الدين الإسلامي" ( 10432 ). حيث يتركز هذا الجزء في البحث في
المراحل الأولى لظهور الإسلام وفي التطوّرات المبكّرة في تاريخ الدين الإسلامي.
يتضمّن الكتيّب مختارات من النُّصوص، من بينها مقتطفات من الشعر وآيات من
القرآن الكريم، التي حوتها كتب المساق، على اختلاف وحداتها وأجزائها. وقد
صُمّم هذا الكتيّب لخدمة الدارسين ومتحدثي اللغة العربية كلُغة الأمّ، وكذلك
.لخدمة كلّ من عنده الاستعداد والرغبة في قراءة هذه النّصوص والمقطوعات.
בתקופת מחמד עלי והח'דיו אסמאעיל) וההשפעה של המעבר בין מסורתיות למודרניות. עם סוף המאה ה- 19 התפתחה במצרים שכבה משכילה שהשאירה את חותמה על החיים הציבוריים במצרים וגם באזורים הסמוכים. תקופה זו השפיעה על התפתחות רעיונות לאומיים וחברתיים מודרניים, אשר השפיעו על השכבה הדתית במצרים המיוצגת על ידי העולמא של אל-אזהר. הספר חושף מאבקי זהויות במצרים ומנסה דרך הדיון בפרקיו השונים להסביר את עמדתם ומיקומם של העולמא במאבקים אלה.