Amanda Agnew

The article presents the results of the research conducted so far on the early medieval burial ground at site 10 in Giecz. Over six seasons of research, 133 early medieval graves have been discovered. Graves of wooden construction or encased in stone, as well as graves with an unusual arrangement (the deceased bent on the side and on the stomach), with different orientation, or double graves of women with small children draw particular attention. In the majority of graves, grave goods were found such as coins, ornaments or household items (including pieces of unique character). These finds – together with 14C analyses conducted for 7 graves – made it possible to determine the chronology of the burial ground to the period dating from the beginning of the 11th century (or even the end of the 10th century) till the 13th century.

Skeletal analysis is integral to research in biological anthropology, especially in fields such as forensic anthropology, bioarchaeology, zooarchaeology, paleontology, and paleopathology. The focus on skeletal remains in these fields relies on unique attributes of bone. Bone is a dynamic tissue in which important metabolic processes, including growth and development, and biomechanical adaptations (i.e., kinds and levels of physical activity) occur, and these metabolic processes are recorded in bone microstructure. Histological analysis provides a way to access this record. In addition, because of the mineralized composition of bone tissue, this record can persist and is observable long after death and the decomposition of other tissues. This article serves to provide readers with basic readings that are essential for students and researchers who seek to undertake histological analysis of skeletal remains in an anthropological context. The content includes references relating to basic skeletal biology necessary to understand and interpret histological methods; valuable reviews and critiques of histological methodology and methods; examples of methods proven to be applicable in forensic anthropology, bioarchaeology, paleontology, paleopathology, and related fields; and references of historical importance.

Intracortical remodeling, and the osteons it produces, is one aspect of bone’s microstructure that is influenced by and, in turn, can influence its mechanical properties.  Previous research examining the spatial distribution of intracortical remodeling density across the femoral midshaft has been limited to either considering only small regions of the cortex, or when looking at the entirety of the cortex considering only a single individual. This study examined the spatial distribution of all remodeling events (intact osteons, fragmentary osteons, and resorptive bays) across the entirety of the femoral midshaft in a sample of 30 modern cadaveric donors.  The sample consisted of 15 males and 15 females, aged 21–97 years at time of death.  Using geographic information systems software, the femoral cortex was subdivided radially into thirds and circumferentially into octants, and the spatial location of all remodeling events was marked.  Density maps and calculation of osteon population density in cortical regions of interest revealed that remodeling density is typically highest in the periosteal third of the bone, particularly in the lateral and anterolateral regions of the cortex.  Due to modeling drift, this area of the midshaft femur has some of the youngest primary tissue, which consequently reveals that the lateral and anterolateral regions of the femoral midshaft have higher remodeling rates than elsewhere in the cortex.  This is likely the result of tension/shear forces and/or greater strain magnitudes acting upon the anterolateral femur, which results in a greater amount of microdamage in need of repair than is seen in the medial and posterior regions of the femoral midshaft, which are more subject to compressive forces and/or lesser strain magnitudes.

Resonance frequency analysis (RFA) has been introduced as a noninvasive method to clinically estimate the stability of dental implant systems. The objective of this study was to examine whether implant stability quotient (ISQ) values of RFA can account for mechanical stability of the dental implant system, which is assessed using dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). Fifty-seven screw-type titanium dental implants were placed in artificial polyurethane foams with seven different thicknesses (3.5 to 12 mm) and eight edentulous mandibles of human cadavers (four men and four women, 79.11 ± 13.48 years). After the ISQ values, insertion torque, and static stiffness of each implant system were measured, the DMA was performed to assess dynamic stiffness and viscoelastic tan δ. The ISQ value had strong positive correlations with thickness, insertion torque, static and dynamic stiffness, and a negative correlation with tan δ of implant systems in artificial bone blocks (r = 0.769 to 0.992, p < .043). However, the ISQ value was correlated with only the insertion torque of implant systems in human mandibles (p < .049). The ISQ values could reflect mechanical stability of the dental implant system under the controlled condition of homogeneous density in simple dimensions.

Traumatic injuries can be used as general indicators of activity patterns in past populations. This study tests the hypothesis that contemporaneous (10th–12th century) rural and urban populations in medieval Poland will have a significantly different prevalence of non-violent fractures. Traumatic injuries to the post-cranial skeleton were recorded for 180 adults from rural Giecz and for 96 adults from urban Poznań-Śródka. They were statistically analyzed by body region and individual skeletal element. Results reveal that Giecz had a significantly higher rate of trunk fractures than Poznań-Śródka (Fisher’s exact, p<0.05). In particular, rib and vertebral fractures were more common in Giecz males and females than in their Poz- nań-Śródka counterparts. Traumatic injuries in the extremities were comparable between the two samples, suggesting similar risks of trauma to these regions. These results indicate that in early medieval Poland, activities associated with a rural lifestyle resulted in more inju- ries. These stress or accidental fractures, which are related to a high-risk setting, were not consistent with an urban lifestyle. Overall, agricultural populations like Giecz were engaged in a laborious lifestyle, reflected in a variety of injuries related to repetitive, high-risk activi ties. Although urban populations like Poznań engaged in craft specialization participated in repetitive activities, their lifestyle resulted in lesser fracture-risk.

Traumatic injuries can be used as general indicators of activity patterns in past populations. This study tests the hypothesis that contemporaneous (10th–12th century) rural and urban populations in medieval Poland will have a significantly different prevalence of non-violent fractures. Traumatic injuries to the post-cranial skeleton were recorded for 180 adults from rural Giecz and for 96 adults from urban Poznań-Śródka. They were statistically analyzed by body region and individual skeletal element. Results reveal that Giecz had a significantly higher rate of trunk fractures than Poznań-Śródka (Fisher’s exact, p<0.05). In particular, rib and vertebral fractures were more common in Giecz males and females than in their Poznań-Śródka counterparts. Traumatic injuries in the extremities were comparable between the two samples, suggesting similar risks of trauma to these regions. These results indicate that in early medieval Poland, activities associated with a rural lifestyle resulted in more injuries. These stress or accidental fractures, which are related to a high-risk setting, were not consistent with an urban lifestyle. Overall, agricultural populations like Giecz were engaged in a laborious lifestyle, reflected in a variety of injuries related to repetitive, high-risk activities. Although urban populations like Poznań engaged in craft specialization participated in repetitive activities, their lifestyle resulted in lesser fracture-risk.

Traumatic injury from motor vehicle crashes is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in the United States.  The thorax is particularly at risk in motor vehicle crashes and is studied extensively by the injury biomechanics community.  Unfortunately, most samples used in such research generally do not include children or the very elderly, despite the common occurrence of thorax injuries at both ends of the age spectrum. Rib fractures in particular, are one of the most common injuries, especially in the elderly, and can greatly affect morbidity, mortality, and quality of life.  As the proportion of older adults in the population increases, such age-related fragility fractures will continually grow as a worldwide problem. Additionally, the risk of rib fracture significantly increases with age with confounding deleterious effects. Studies on elderly ribs are not uncommon, however very few studies exist which explore the mechanical properties and behavior of immature human bone, especially of ribs. Previous research identifying rib properties has provided useful information for numerous applications.  However, no study has included a comprehensive sample of all ages (pediatric through elderly) in which ribs are tested in the same repeatable set-up.  The goal of this study is to characterize differences in rib structural response across the age spectrum.  One-hundred forty excised ribs from 70 individuals were experimentally tested in a custom-built pendulum fixture simulating a dynamic frontal impact.  The sample includes individuals of ages ranging from six to 99 years old and includes 58 males and 12 females.  Reported data include fracture location, displacement in the X and Y directions at fracture (δX, δY), force at fracture (FX), and linear structural stiffness (K).  δX and K exhibit a statistically significant linear decrease with age (p<0.0001).  FX reveals a trend in which a peak is reached in the young adult years (25-40).  Detailed mechanical property data, as provided here, will prove useful for application in computational modeling efforts, which are vital to help prevent injury and to understand injury mechanisms from childhood through old age.

"Traumatic injury is a major cause of death in the
child population. Motor vehicle crashes account for a large
portion of these deaths, and a considerable effort is put forth
by the safety community to identify injury mechanisms and
methods of injury prevention. However, construction of
biofidelic anthropomorphic test devices and computational
models for this purpose requires knowledge of bone properties
that is difficult to obtain. The objective of this study is
to characterize the relationship between mechanical properties
and measures of skeletal development in the growing rib.
Anterolateral segments of 44 ribs from 12 pediatric individuals
(age range: 5 months to 9 years) were experimentally
tested in three-point bending. Univariate mixed models were
used to assess the predictive abilities of development-related
variables (e.g., age, stature, histomorphometry, crosssectional
geometry) on mechanical variables (material and
structural properties). Results show that stature, in addition
to age, may be a reliable predictor of bone strength, and that
histomorphometry has potential to explain bone properties
and to further our understanding of fracture mechanisms.
For example, percent secondary lamellar bone (%Sd.Ar)
successfully predicts peak force (FP) and Young’s modulus
(E). Application of these findings is not restricted to injury
biomechanics, but can also be referenced in forensic and
anthropological contexts."

Human skeletal remains from past populations are an invaluable source to objectively study
biological history. The combined biological and cultural assessment of bioarchaeology offers a unique
perspective on the adaptation of people to their environment. This study summarizes a portion of ongoing
work to decipher trends related to health and lifestyle in early medieval (XI-XII c.) Giecz, Poland. The
skeletal assemblage from Giecz, the “Giecz Collection”, represents a community positioned at a major
center of political, economic, and religious power during this important time in Polish history. Non-violent
traumatic injuries were investigated to elucidate trends related to possible types and rigor of activities and
linear femoral growth trends were analyzed to assess patterns of stress. Preliminary results suggest that
all members of the community (men, women, and adolescents) contributed to a lifestyle characterized by
repetitive hard-work. Furthermore, it appears that most individuals suffered from health insults negatively
affecting their development and perhaps their mortality.

Geographic information systems (GIS) software is typically used for analyzing geographically distributed data, allowing users to annotate points or areas on a map and attach data for spatial analyses. While traditional GIS-based research involves geo-referenced data (points tied to geographic locations), the use of this technology has other constructive applications for physical anthropologists. The use of GIS software for the study of bone histology offers a novel opportunity to analyze the distribution of bone nano- and microstructures, relative to macrostructure and in comparison to other variables of interest, such as biomechanical loading history. This approach allows for the examination of characteristics of single histological features while considering their role at the macroscopic level. Such research has immediate promise in examining the load history of bone by surveying the functional relationship between collagen fiber orientation and strain mode. The diversity of GIS applications that may be utilized in bone histology research is just beginning to be explored. The goal of this study is to offer a reliable methodology for such investigation and our objective is to quantify the heterogeneity of bone microstructure over an entire cross-section of bone using ArcGIS v 9.3 (ESRI). This was accomplished by identifying the distribution of remodeling units in a human metatarsal relative to bending axes. One biomechanical hypothesis suggests that collagen fiber orientation, manifested by patterns of birefringence, are indicative of mode of strain during formation. This study demonstrates that GIS can be used to investigate, describe, and compare such patterns through histological mapping.

The purpose of this study is to characterize the tensile stress of human ribs across the lifespan. One-hundred six whole ribs from 43 subjects were experimentally tested in a bending scenario using a custom fixture to simulate a dynamic frontal impact. Ages ranged from nine to 92 years old, with a mean age of 60 years and representation in each decade. Strain gauges on each rib were used to determine time of failure. Post-impact, a section adjacent to the fracture site was used for precise calculations of geometric properties. Tensile stress due to bending was determined at the time of fracture for each rib, and results indicate a significant decline in stress with increasing age. This research may be particularly useful for application in the construction of finite element models. Rib material properties in the context of structural response as presented here can aid with advancing knowledge about age-related changes in the rib as well as having implications for better understanding of whole thorax response and injury.

The intricate link between load environment and skeletal health is exemplified by the severe osteopenia that accompanies prolonged periods of immobilization, frequently referred to as disuse osteoporosis. Investigating the effects disuse has on the structural properties of bone provides a unique opportunity to better understand how mechanical loads influence the adaptation and maintenance of skeletal tissue. Here, we report results from an examination of multiple indicators of bone metabolism (e.g., mean osteon density, mean osteon size, bone mass, and bone area distribution) within the major long bones of individuals with distinct activity level differences. Results are based on a sample comprising two subjects that suffered from long-term quadriplegia and 28 individuals of comparable age that had full limb mobility. Although limited in sample size, our findings suggest bones associated with long-term disuse have lower osteon densities and larger osteon areas compared to individuals of normal mobility, reflecting dramatically lower remodeling rates potentially related to reduced strain levels. Moreover, immobilized skeletal elements demonstrate a reduced percentage of cortical area present resulting from endosteal resorption. Differences between mobility groups in the percentage of cortical area present and bone distribution of all skeletal elements, suggests bone modeling activity is negligible in the unloaded adult skeleton. Additional histomorphometric comparisons reveal potential intraskeletal differences in bone turnover rates suggesting remodeling rates are highest within the humeri and femora. Addition of more immobilized individuals in the future will allow for quantitative statistical analyses and greater consideration of human variation within and between individuals. Am J Phys Anthropol 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Osteoporosis is a major health concern in modern society and is continually being evaluated in past populations by quantifying bone loss. Cortical area measures are commonly used in anthropological analyses to assess bone loss in the ribs, but these values are typically based on endosteal expansion and do not account for intracortical bone loss. The objective of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of using absolute cortical area, compared to traditional cortical area measures to describe global bone loss in elderly ribs. Transverse sections were prepared from sixth ribs of ten elderly subjects, and bone area measurements were made from 100× magnification composites of each rib for calculation of cortical area (Ct.Ar) and percent cortical area (% C/T). In addition, all areas of intracortical porosity were measured and percent porosity area (% Po.Ar) calculated. Absolute cortical area (Ct.ArA) was calculated by subtracting porosity area from cortical area, and a percent absolute cortical area (% CA/T) calculated. ANOVA results reveal significant interindividual variation in percent porosity area (% Po.Ar). Percent cortical area and percent absolute cortical area values were compared and results show a mean difference of 4.08% exists across all subjects, with a range of 1.19–11.73%. This suggests that intracortical porosity is variable and does play a role in age-associated bone loss in the rib. All future investigations of osteoporosis should account for intracortical porosity in bone loss. Am J Phys Anthropol 148:462–466, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Accurate stature estimation from skeletal remains can foster useful information on health and microevolutionary trends in past human populations. Stature can be estimated through the anatomical method and regression equations. The anatomical method (Fully: Ann Med Leg 36 [1956] 266–273; Raxter et al.: Am J Phys Anthropol 130 [2006] 374–384) is preferable because it takes into account total skeletal height and thus provides more accurate estimates, but it cannot be applied to incomplete remains. In such circumstances, regression equations allow estimates of living stature from the length of one or few skeletal elements. However, the accuracy of stature estimates from regression equations depends on similarity in body proportions between the population under examination and those used to calibrate the equations. Since genetic affinity and body proportions similarity are not always clearly known in bioarcheological populations, the criteria for selection of appropriate formulae are not always straightforward. This may lead to inaccurate stature estimates and imprecise accounts of past life conditions. Prompted by such practical and theoretical concerns this study aimed at (1) estimating living stature in an early medieval (XI-XII c.) Polish sample (40 male; 20 female) through the anatomical method and developing population-specific regression formulae; and (2) evaluating the accuracy of estimates obtained with regression methods commonly employed in European populations. Results indicate that when applied to the skeletal remains from Giecz, our formulae provide accurate estimates, with non-age-corrected formulae performing better than age-corrected ones. Our formulae provide better estimates than those calibrated on recent populations and their use in medieval Polish populations is preferable. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2009. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Evidence of cancer’s long history in humans exists in the archeological record, though it is restricted to cases in which cancer either originated in or metastasized to bone.  Skeletal lesions from metastasized carcinomas, however, are varied in appearance and make differential diagnosis from skeletal material difficult.  Modern clinical diagnostic tools are of limited use in paleopathology because of their reliance on non-mineralized material (e.g. blood work, decalcified biopsies). As a result, skeletal references for confirmed cases of metastasized carcinomas are rare.  The current case study presents a histological analysis of the rib and femoral metastases resulting from a primary diagnosis of breast cancer in a 27 year-old female.
Multiple, undecalcified cross-sections from the femoral midshafts and various locations throughout the 6th ribs were examined under brightfield and polarized light microscopy.  Overall, this individual presents with a mixed osteolytic and osteoblastic response, which is relatively uncommon in metastatic tumors of bone.  The osteolytic response, observed only in the ribs, is primarily on the periosteal surface and extends moderately into the cortex.  In contrast, the osteoblastic response primarily affected the endosteal border, resulting in a proliferation of woven-fibered bone highly disorganized in appearance.  This indicates rapid deposition though some areas show evidence of incipient remodeling.  This process is more marked in the rib, resulting in an almost complete infilling of the medullary area.  Recognition of these patterns in a confirmed case of metastatic cancer may aid differential diagnosis in a paleopathological setting.

After attending this presentation, attendees will understand the spatial variation present in the distribution of intracortical remodeling events throughout the entirety of the femoral midshaft, and the importance of selecting regions of interest (ROI) for developing new histological aging methods. 

This presentation will impact the forensic science community by introducing new sampling strategies for the quantification of histological remodeling that can be used to estimate age, and further demonstrating these age estimates to be highly accurate throughout the adult life span.

As a complement to macroscopic aging methods, or when necessary macroscopic elements are damaged/absent, age can be estimated through histological examination of remodeling events in cortical bone.  During the last half century the femoral midshaft has been the most commonly employed site for histological studies; however, a consensus is still lacking on where to best quantify remodeling, as different methods employ various ROIs that differ in size, number, and location. To address this knowledge gap, this study employed geographic information systems (GIS) software to digitally map all remodeling events (intact and fragmentary osteons, and resorptive bays) across the entirety of the femoral midshaft.  Patterns in the spatial distribution of remodeling were then examined to identify which region(s) of the femoral cortex produce the most accurate age estimates. 

Thirty complete cross-sections from modern cadaveric femora were used, 15 of each sex, ranging from 21–97 years (mean = 58.9; SD = 22.1 years), with both sexes having similar age distributions. Each sample was photographed under polarized light and seamless cross-sectional images were imported into ArcGIS v10.1. Polygon features were created to overlay cortical areas and all remodeling events (n = 230,870) were identified and digitally annotated with point features. A total of 10 different sampling strategies were employed, each subdividing the entire cortex in a different manner. Osteon population density (OPD) was calculated by summing all remodeling events within an ROI and dividing by its area.

Statistical analyses were performed in SPSS 21. OPD values were normally distributed for each ROI, and MANCOVA analyses revealed that OPD was not significantly different between sexes for any ROI, allowing the combination of male and female data for further analyses. Paired t-tests revealed OPD calculations were not statistically different between observers. Stepwise linear regression was used to determine which ROIs from each sampling strategy were most useful in estimating age. To further evaluate the performance of the resulting predictive models, jackknife age estimates were generated by removing an individual from the sample, recalculating the regression model, and then estimating the age of the individual not included in the model; this was done iteratively for all individuals. The accuracy of these estimates was analyzed through measures of bias and inaccuracy. 

Results indicate the two most promising sampling strategies are dividing the femoral cortex into anterior, posterior, medial, and lateral (APML) quadrants separated into periosteal, middle, and endosteal thirds, and also APML octants separated into thirds. Stepwise regression selected four ROIs for each method, primarily in the lateral and anterolateral regions of the cortex, and spread between all depths of the cortex. The resulting model for the APML quadrants by thirds explains more than 90% of the variation in age (adj. R2 = 0.907, p =  0.000) with a standard error of 6.73 years, while the APML octants by thirds explained more than 93% of the variation in age (adj. R2 = 0.931, p =  0.000) with a standard error of 5.82 years. Jackknife age estimates from both models were very promising, with average differences between estimated and known age (bias) being less than one year and average absolute differences between estimated and known age (inaccuracy) being less than six years. Further, individuals in their 90s had bias and inaccuracy measures of less than seven and four years for the quadrants and octants methods, respectively. Such accuracy in age estimation, even into the tenth decade of life, demonstrates that this new method for histological aging considerably outperforms more traditional macroscopic methods of aging in older individuals.  Considering increasing life expectancies, this research has great promise in providing forensic anthropologists a tool to accurately age elderly individuals.

Rib fractures can affect morbidity and mortality in elderly individuals and the risk of their occurrence increases significantly with age. Clinical diagnoses of bone fragility often fail to measure the contribution of poor bone quality. An inefficient remodeling process in aging individuals results in disrepair of microfractures, allowing their accumulation to reach harmful levels. While it is established that microfractures contribute to catastrophic bone failure, it is unknown to what extent they exist in human ribs and their role in determining bone quality. Additionally, the loads habitually applied to the rib during respiration are difficult to determine and therefore absent from many discussions on adaptive responses to loading. The objective of this research is to explore individual variation in microfractures which accumulate in vivo in elderly ribs. Samples from sixth rib pairs were removed from ten elderly cadavers, stained en bloc in Basic Fuchsin Hydrochloride, and transverse thin-sections prepared. A two-way mixed model analysis of variance (ANOVA) reveals significant differences in microfracture accumulation between individuals, but not within (left vs right rib). Only insignificant differences were found in crack location, with slightly more microfractures accumulating in the cutaneous cortex. These findings suggest that microfracture accumulation in the elderly has the potential to contribute to differential fragility. Additionally, based on crack distribution, the priority may be to preferentially maintain a higher bone quality in the pleural cortex. Knowledge of the mechanisms involved in bone quality deterioration is vitally important to establish methods to combat fragility fractures in the high-risk elderly population.

Traumatic injuries can be used as general indicators of activity patterns in past populations. Agricultural populations are engaged in a laborious lifestyle, reflected in a variety of accidental and stress-related injuries from repetitive activities. Urban populations engaged in craft specialization may participate in repetitive activities; however, their overall lifestyle is arguably less intensive and the risk of accidental and stress-related fractures is diminished. This study tests the hypothesis that a rural, agricultural population will have a higher prevalence of accidental and stress fractures than a contemporaneous urban population engaged in craft specialization in medieval Poland (XI-XII c). Furthermore, these differences will be demonstrated in both males and females.
Traumatic injuries were recorded for 180 adults from rural Giecz (56 females, 104 males) and for 96 adults from urban Poznań-Sródka (36 females, 26 males). Injuries were recorded by skeletal element and grouped into three categories: stress, accidental, and violent. They were statistically analyzed by element and by body region (upper limb, lower limb, etc.). Statistical analyses reveal that Giecz had a significantly higher rate of vertebral stress fractures than Poznań-Sródka (chi-square, p<0.05) and is significant for males and females. Additionally, Giecz had a significantly higher prevalence of accidental rib injuries. These results support the hypothesis that an agricultural lifestyle was more laborious, leading to chronic injuries and fractures from accidents. The lack of significant difference in prevalence of injuries in the extremities suggests that agricultural activities were especially stressful in the trunk region.

One-hundred eighty mature skeletons from the medieval population in Giecz, Poland (XI-XII c) were examined for evidence of skeletal trauma to determine the effects of intentional violence and lifestyle factors.  The stronghold in Giecz is considered one of the strongest military fortifications of its time, playing a major role in the unification of the Polish state and royal administration.  The following hypotheses were tested in this study: 1) more males (i.e. soldiers) will be affected by trauma than females and 2) a high frequency of trauma will be the result of intentional violence. The prevalence of trauma in the adult population is significant at 46.6 % (84/180) with males exhibiting trauma more often than females at 66.6 % (56/84) and 28.5 % (24/84), respectively.  More individuals exhibit trauma in the trunk region at 83.3% (70/84), than the upper limb at 13% (11/84), lower limb at 5.9% (5/84), or cranium at 5.9% (5/84).  Only 3.5 % (3/84) of the adults exhibiting trauma are considered victims of intentional violence.  Of the individuals with fractures in the trunk region, 84.2 % (59/70) have fractures of the vertebrae, specifically.  These data suggest that a physically demanding workload and lifestyle played a large role in the incidence of trauma and either 1) the population at Giecz was not involved in as extensive a military effort as previously thought or 2) the sample of excavated skeletons is not representative of the entire population and does not include soldiers.

Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) is characterized by an osteochondritic defect on an articular surface, most often at the knee or elbow joint. In skeletal remains, active OCD is identified by a clearly defined circular lesion in subchondral cortical bone with exposure of underlying trabeculae. The etiology of this condition is incompletely understood, but genetics, traumatic events, and/or overuse are likely contributors. Specifically, adolescents with a history of repetitive overuse are at high risk. The presence of OCD has been suggested to be related to stress from occupational trauma and agricultural activities in archaeological populations. From the medieval cemetery in Giecz, Poland (site Gz4), five adolescent (10-20 years of age) skeletons exhibit osseous defects consistent with OCD. The prevalence of this condition is 15.6% in the adolescent sub-sample (n=32) of the Giecz Collection. High rates of stress-related trauma suggest the adult population at Giecz experienced a rigorous workload associated with agricultural and military activities. The frequency of OCD in adolescents from Giecz implies that they too labored intensively and perhaps were considered adults in their community.

Two-hundred seventy eight skeletons from a medieval cemetery (XI-XII c) in Giecz, Poland (Gz4) were examined for evidence of pathological lesions.  This study reports the case of a young adult male, estimated to be 17 to 19 years at the time of death, exhibiting a distinctive type and distribution of lesions not observed in the rest of the population.  Features of osteomyelitis including multiple cloacae and prominent periostitis on many skeletal elements, most notably a rib, coexist with destruction of both scapular spines and osteolytic lesions in the frontal bone.  Some cranial lesions penetrate both the external and internal tables with pronounced involvement of the diploë, and all exhibit scalloped borders with no sclerotic response resulting in a “punched out” appearance.  Hence, they are deemed the most recent expression of disease and likely the ultimate cause of death through brain involvement.  A differential diagnosis based on paleopathological and clinical literature is discussed.  There is a possibility that two different disease processes are responsible for the pattern of lesions described.  Although an infection of pleural origin with contiguous rib involvement is likely, an extended differential diagnosis includes specific types of mycobacterial, mycotic and other infections, as well as neoplastic conditions (specifically lytic meningioma), Langerhans cell histiocytosis (histocytosis X), and hematopoietic disease.

Developmental dysplasia of the hip has an unknown etiology, but certainly genetic as well as environmental factors influence the progression of the malformation.  Other variants of the condition are termed congenital dislocation of the hip or congenital acetabular dysplasia.  Modern trends reveal a higher frequency of unilateral involvement, predominantly in the left hip, with females being affected more often than males.  Polish Caucasian populations have been found to have one of the highest incidences of the condition.
Grave 7/08 of the Giecz Collection (11-12th c., medieval Poland), a child of 8-10 years, exhibits evidence of unilateral (left) developmental dysplasia of the hip joint, including malformation of the ilium, ischium and proximal femur.  The right hip appears normal.  The entire left lower extremity is atrophied relative to the right with involvement of the femur, tibia, and fibula.  In this case, it does not appear that the femoral head was dislocated from the joint itself as there is no evidence of a false acetabulum or secondary joint formed elsewhere on the pelvis.  Instead, a deepening of the developing acetabulum is seen with sclerotic reaction surrounding the joint.  While the absence of a femoral head/neck has been reported in other cases, both are present but deformed in this case and appear to fit within the similarly abnormal acetabulum.  The lack of a defined secondary articular surface suggests the condition may be congenital and not traumatic in nature.

Of the eighty-five subadult skeletons excavated to date at the medieval cemetery (XI-XII c.) in Giecz, Poland, only one exhibits bony changes consistent with scurvy.  It is rare that cases of scurvy are reported in the paleopathological literature, as scorbutic lesions are often difficult to identify.  Grave 14/06 is a five to six year old child exhibiting a distinct pattern of skeletal changes.  Abnormal porosity is described on the temporal bones, greater wings of the sphenoid, palatine processes of the maxilla, and rami of the mandible.  Minor cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis are also present, along with bilateral ante-mortem tooth loss of the first deciduous mandibular molars.  This possible case of scurvy, while exhibiting many indicators “classic” for the condition, was probably not one of extreme severity.  The post-cranial skeleton is almost completely unaffected, with the exception of mild periostitis on the scapular spines.  It is possible that this child also had other nutritional deficiencies which may have inhibited the expression of scurvy, although there is no direct evidence of this on the skeleton.

Early medieval (XI-XII c.) cemetery site Gz 4 in Giecz, Poland represents a population inhabiting the area of what was one of the main military fortifications during the tumultuous times of Poland’s early statehood formation.  This site experienced violent warfare just prior to the cemeteries establishment and supposedly served a military administration.  However, the individuals excavated thus far (n=278) surprisingly comprise a typical population distribution of sex and age and has limited evidence of interpersonal violence - rather than a population of a male-dominated military force, riddled with traumatic, fatal injuries reflecting wartime activity.  None-the-less, perimortem evidence of interpersonal violence is observed on two individuals, both adult males.  One case was the victim of sharp force trauma to the skull. The second case has multiple sharp force and traumatic defects on both parietals and the left zygomatic, two vertebrae (C6 and C7), the left scapula and clavicle, and left hand and forearm.  None of the defects on either individual show any signs of healing and thus would have occurred near or at the time of death.

An unidentified lesion on the superior medial orbitofrontal of a skeleton from a medieval (XI-XIIth century) cemetery in Giecz, Poland is described.  Skeleton 82/01 is an adult male with an estimated age of 45-60+ years.  The defect is a deep depression in the superior medial corner of the left orbit.  It exhibits thick, inactive, smooth margins and a smooth inner wall.  Upon gross examination, there is no indication that it continues into the inner table.  However, radiographs reveal absence of a left frontal sinus in this location.  Differential diagnosis based on a review of clinical and paleopathological literature is discussed.  This includes cholesterol granuloma, epidermoid cholesteatoma, hydatid cyst, subconjunctival epithelial cyst, and congenital absence of frontal sinus.  An additional lesion, healed possible blunt force trauma, is also present.  This is an eraser-head sized depression on the left superior frontal.  It is unknown if the defects are related, however, cholesterol granuloma and epidermoid cholesteatoma are most often a result of blunt force trauma to the skull.

Sagittal cleft vertebra has rarely been identified in archaeological remains and even in modern populations occurs less frequently than coronal clefts.  Some suggest that a complete sagittal cleft vertebra is incompatible with life (Kohler and Zimmer, 1993).  However, the case presented here, dating to Poland’s early medieval period (11-12th c.), is that of a child exhibiting a complete sagittal cleft thoracic vertebra (probably T11), who it is estimated to have survived to 6-9 years of age.  Sagittal cleft vertebra (also known as butterfly vertebra) is a notochord field defect, occurring when the notochord fails to regress and divides the vertebral body.  This condition can involve either partial union or complete nonunion of a vertebral body’s lateral halves, resulting in a bifid centrum.  Severe involvement can result in abnormalities in the ribs and visceral defects in the gastrointestinal tract or central nervous system (Barnes, 1994), and diminished height of the anteriorly wedged vertebral body often produces kyphosis (Mann and Hunt, 2005).  When minor, however, it can be asymptomatic and may go unreported (Barnes, 1994).  The description of this exceptional case is a significant contribution to the paleopathological literature.

Grave 7/02 and a deposit near grave 3/06 of the Giecz Collection (11th - 12th centuries) include foot bones that exhibit possible manifestations of leprosy, a disease rarely reported for medieval Poland (Gladykowska-Rzeczycka 1976).  Leprosy is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae, a bacteria that is closely related to that of tuberculosis.  Skeletal manifestation of leprosy can include rhinomaxillary syndrome, Charcot’s joint, and concentric cortical bone-loss and osteomyelitis in the hands and feet.  Neurotrophic manifestations in the hand and foot bones occur in more advanced stages of leprosy, yet are the most common joint lesion reported for leprosy (Ortner 2003).  It is believed that leprosy was introduced into Europe from Asia (Møller-Christensen 1967), the earliest cases emerging around AD 150 and increasing in prevalence between AD 1000 and AD 1400 (Ortner 2003).  Although it was known to flourish in Europe during the Middle Ages (Møller-Christensen 1967), few cases of leprosy from medieval Poland have been reported in the archaeological literature (Gladykowska-Rzeczycka 1976).  This presentation describes two possible cases observed in the Giecz Collection and offers differential diagnoses.  Unfortunately, grave 7/02 does not include facial bones and the deposit near grave 3/06 consists of a single metatarsal.  Without facial bones, a definitive diagnosis is not possible.

Few cases of amputation have been reported in the archaeological record (Roberts and Manchester, 2005).  Three traumatized bone elements were discovered in the early medieval (XI-XIIth century) cemetery site Gz. 4 in Giecz, Poland.  Elements from two individuals include one tibia and a set of radius and ulna, all with well healed trauma of the distal portions.  The corresponding foot and hand were not recovered from excavation.  The tibia, unfortunately, was found in a secondary burial where few other skeletal elements were recovered.  Absence of elements does not necessarily equate evidence of absence at the time of death.  However, the morphology and extent of healing suggest amputation.  Amputation via surgery, traumatic accident, or conflict cannot be diagnosed.  Evidence of surgical tool or weapon cannot be observed due to the extent of healing.  The aim of this poster presentation is to describe and present two cases of possible amputation as a contribution to the osteoarchaeological record.

Multiple indicators of growth disruption have been implemented in evaluating systemic stress in past populations.  The phenomenon of catch-up growth, however, can confound these interpretations.  Researchers have thus utilized skeletal elements that cease growth during childhood relative to those that continue growth into adulthood to investigate lifetime stress.  Vertebral neural canal (VNC) dimensions are fully formed by late childhood (approximately nine years old) while the vertebral bodies continue growth into adulthood.  Prior studies have utilized the anterior-posterior (AP) and transverse (TR) measurements of the VNC in adults to identify “stunting” and evaluate childhood stress resulting in growth disruption.  These morphometrics have been shown to be independent of age, sex, body size and ethnicity in adults. This study uses thoracic computed tomography (CT) obtained for multiple diagnostic purposes from 40 modern pediatric individuals to measure VNC dimensions.  AP and TR thoracic VNC measurements are expected to vary with respect to age as well as chronic versus acute conditions.  Results are consistent with previous studies using adult individuals to evaluate developmental disturbances.  Patients less than nine years old with chronic illnesses experience stunted growth in the VNC compared to those with acute conditions.  Meanwhile, patients greater than nine years old with no evidence of chronic illness show less variation in VNC dimensions as growth has ceased in this element.  Access to the health history of known age pediatric individuals is crucial to evaluating the developmental variation within vertebral morphometrics used to investigate stress and growth disruptions in past populations.

Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis (DISH), a pathological condition prevalent in modern human populations, has rarely been documented in other hominoids.  Although its antiquity has been established, the diagnostic standards are inconsistent, and only one case of DISH in a non-human primate has been reported in the literature.  This investigation provides the first postmortem differential diagnosis of the condition in a Gorilla gorilla gorilla specimen.  Antemortem medical records from captivity, macroscopic diagnostic criteria, computed tomography (CT), and histological data are used here to document DISH in a captive female Gorilla gorilla gorilla as a proxy for archaeological context.  Furthering our understanding and interpretation of the process this disease takes through three dimensional CT reconstruction and accompanying descriptions of histological analysis of ectopic growth, this paper builds knowledge of diagnostic signatures of the disease.  This skeleton shows diagnostic characteristics of DISH including “candle wax” vertebral ossification, preservation of intervertebral disc space, uninvolved interarticular facets, and histological appearance consistent with the ossification of the anterior longitudinal ligament.  However, vertebral patterning and the histological presence of appositional bone growth vary from traditional diagnostic standards supporting a multi-methodological approach to differentially diagnosing DISH. Captive lifestyle conditions for a non-human primate are analogous to the clinically correlated behavioral risk factors.  Combining clinical data with human and captive non-human primate skeletal and lifestyle data will aid in further clarification of behavioral reconstructions of past populations.    Increasing awareness in human and non-human primates will lead to a more accurate paleopathological differential diagnosis and lifestyle interpretation.