“The Four Wives of David and the Four Women of Odysseus,” in The Character of David in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Warrior, Poet, Prophet and King (eds.), Marzena Zawanowska and Mateusz Wilk (Themes in Biblical Narrative, 29; Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2001), 363-402. , 2021
Abstract: The article compares the four wives of King David: Michal, Abigail, Bathsheba, and Abis... more Abstract: The article compares the four wives of King David: Michal, Abigail, Bathsheba, and Abishag, who all played crucial roles in his life and career and received a circumstantial narrative in the Hebrew Bible, with the four women in the story of Odysseus who likewise save his life, help him on his homeward journey, or welcome him back home: Calypso, Circe, Nausicaa, and Penelope. The Hebrew Bible places a woman at significant moments in David’s career from a young humble warrior to a seasoned warlord and an aging ruler. To a certain degree, this feature is comparable to the role of women in the career of Odysseus from his ten-year absence from Ithaca for the duration of the Trojan war and his additional decade-long return voyage home to his island of Ithaca and to his faithful wife Penelope. The behavior of a person may be compared to prismatic reflections. Each new relationship brings out a particular facet of one’s personality. The four women in the lives of Odysseus and David bring to the fore different aspects of their personalities and act as a reflecting mirror allowing both characters to progress in acquiring a truer perception of themselves, their limits and shortcomings. Both Odysseus and David are major culture heroes who are the main characters of the stories associated with them. Nevertheless, one can deconstruct these stories by reading them against the grain, focusing on the female characters with whom they interact. The women in the Odyssey are present at key moments of the hero’s career, are subtly characterized, and wield a lot of power (Helen, Arete, Circe, Calypso, Nausicaa, Leucothea, Clytemnestra, Penelope, Eurycleia) to such a degree that Samuel Butler’s provocative Victorian hypothesis that the Odyssey was composed by a female author is now being revived.
David Gavra Tova. Studies in Honor of David Marcus, JANES Special Supplement, 2022
The term gillûlîm, literally “dung gods,” is the favorite term in the Book of Ezekiel to designat... more The term gillûlîm, literally “dung gods,” is the favorite term in the Book of Ezekiel to designate “idols,” where it is used 39 times out of a total of 48 times in the Hebrew Bible. The article attempts to show that the choice of this unusual term might be based on acts of ritual defecation as part of various ceremonies attested and described in the ancient Near Eastern texts. References to acts of defecation, ritual, and otherwise, are examined in various texts starting with a Neo-Babylonian Akkadian text dealing with practices related to the carnival-like Ištar festival that took place during Ezekiel’s Babylonian exile. Two Mari Old Babylonian texts are further adduced where defecation is associated with the breaking of an alliance, hence its pertinence for Ezekiel; then an Aramaic healing incantation, a Greek text from a temple in Athens, throwing light on the presence of excrements in the temple precincts and finally the Mishnah and the Gemarah of the Babylonian Talmud mentioning ritual acts associated with the worship of the god Baʿal Peʿor. The Baʿal Peʿor cult mentioned in rabbinic literature is seen in the light of the Ugaritic Marzeaḥ feast (Sifre Num 13 marzĕḥîm). Scholars are divided about the way these texts should be understood. Should they be taken as metaphors, symbolic gestures, or actual rituals? The article first analyzes the texts where defecation is mentioned and then attempts to suggest which texts should be taken either as metaphors or symbolic gestures and which might refer to definite ritual acts. One has first to determine the meaning of the act of ritual defecation and then trace the transformation of its original meaning and its reutilization as a metaphor in subsequent ancient Near Eastern literature. In this stream of tradition on jesters (Akk. aluzinnu, Greek ἀλαξών “buffoon, bullshit artist”), performing such acts (from a Sumerian proverb, Ishtar Festival at Mari in OB to NB times in Babylon, among the Hittites and as late as the 5th century BCE Athenian comedies of Aristophanes), scatological jokes and outrageous pranks serve to deride and subvert the established rule and religion. It's an outrageous, excessive way of deriding something.
Text and Image 61Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, 2018
Abstract: The link between the Akkadian and general Semitic terms for “image” ṣalmu/ṣelem and “sh... more Abstract: The link between the Akkadian and general Semitic terms for “image” ṣalmu/ṣelem and “shadow” ṣillu/ṣēl is either considered to be problematic or unproven and has often been contested. The etymology of ṣelem has been something of a philological quibble combined with the issue of identifying the correct initial sibilant. Adducing elements from iconography, philology, history of art, and the probable use by ancient sculptors and artists of the common technique of projected shadow “ombre portée” in drawing images, this article will suggest how to explain the change from a shadow ṣillu/ṣēl that is a two-dimensional black outline with no details being only a semi-representational image to a concrete, three-dimensional statue ṣalmu/ṣelem in the round “ronde-bosse.” The article argues that the common Semitic terms for “image” and “shadow” belong to the same semantic field.
The history of Israel is a much-debated topic in Old Testament studies. On one side are minimalis... more The history of Israel is a much-debated topic in Old Testament studies. On one side are minimalists who find little of historical value in the Hebrew Bible. On the other side are those who assume the biblical text is a precise historical record. Many serious students of the Bible find themselves between these two positions and would benefit from a careful exploration of issues in Israelite history. This substantive history of Israel textbook values the Bible's historical contribution without overlooking critical issues and challenges. Featuring the latest scholarship, the book introduces students to the current state of research on issues relevant to the study of ancient Israel. The editors and contributors, all top biblical scholars and historians, discuss historical evidence in a readable manner, using both canonical and chronological lenses to explore Israelite history. Contents Preface Bill T. Arnold and Richard S. Hess Introduction: Foundations for a History of Israel Richard S. Hess 1. The Genesis Narratives Bill T. Arnold 2. The Exodus and Wilderness Narratives James K. Hoffmeier 3. Covenant and Treaty in the Hebrew Bible and in the Ancient Near East Samuel Greengus 4. Early Israel and Its Appearance in Canaan Lawson G. Stone 5. The Judges and the Early Iron Age Robert D. Miller II 6. The Story of Samuel, Saul, and David Daniel Bodi 7. United Monarchy: Archaeology and Literary Sources Steven M. Ortiz 8. The Biblical Prophets in Historiography James K. Mead 9. Late Tenth- and Ninth-Century Issues: Ahab Underplayed? Jehoshaphat Overplayed? Kyle Greenwood 10. Eighth-Century Issues: The World of Jeroboam II, the Fall of Samaria, and the Reign of Hezekiah Sandra Richter 11. Judah in the Seventh Century: From the Aftermath of Sennacherib's Invasion to the Beginning of Jehoiakim's Rebellion Brad E. Kelle 12. Sixth-Century Issues Peter van der Veen 13. Fifth- and Fourth-Century Issues: Governorship and Priesthood in Jerusalem André Lemaire 14. The Hellenistic Period David A. deSilva Indexes
Au IX e siècle, la riche tradition arabe de l'adab parvient en Espagne, al-Andalus, plaque to... more Au IX e siècle, la riche tradition arabe de l'adab parvient en Espagne, al-Andalus, plaque tournante où s'échangent les savoirs venus d'Orient. L'adab rencontre en al-Andalus la tradition sapientielle juive de la littérature midrashique. De nouveaux recueils sont com-posés, des oeuvres originales sont produites aux X e et XI e siècles et, à partir du début du XII e siècle, les recueils d'exempla, de sagesse et de dits des philosophes sont traduits en hébreu, en latin, en langues romanes. De nouvelles compilations se créent pour servir la prédication chrétienne, incluant des proverbes populaires, des maximes et sentences tirées d'auteurs latins et grecs, de philosophes, de la patristique et des morales d'exem-pla. Les textes appartenant à la tradition sapientielle sont traduits en hébreu en Provence dès le XII e siècle et en latin. Cet héritage complexe se retrouve en bonne part dans l'immense littérature parémiolo-gique espagnole qui s'épanouit au...
This article draws a comparison between the encounter of the wild man Enkidu with the courtesan Š... more This article draws a comparison between the encounter of the wild man Enkidu with the courtesan Šamḫat from the city of Uruk as described in the Gilgameš Epic and the encounter of the Hebrew spies with the prostitute Raḥab from Jericho as narrated in Joshua, chapter 2. Both the Joyful Lass - Šamḫat and Raḥab are taken as symbols of acculturation. The first contact of the nomadic Hebrews with the sophisticated city life in the land of Canaan occurs through a courtesan. In both ancient Near Eastern literary traditions, the encounter with a sexually free woman symbolizes the transition from the wild and nomadic lifestyle to the civilized, urban type. This encounter could be taken as a literary topos indicating a status change where the nomad becomes sedentary and an acculturated city dweller.
La famille dans le Proche-Orient ancien: réalités, symbolismes et images, 2014
The article deals with a specific aspect of the so-called diplomatic marriages. It analyzes the p... more The article deals with a specific aspect of the so-called diplomatic marriages. It analyzes the practice of ancient Near Eastern rulers to offer two of their female family members, usually royal daughters and princesses to the same vassal or fellow king as wives. While female family members are used as “exchange money” or bargaining chips in sealing alliances and political transactions, what is the reason in offering two daughters to the same man? This phenomenon is analyzed in a series of ancient Near Eastern texts and a probable raison d’être and meaning are suggested for each case. The following examples are analyzed in chronological order: 1. In the Amorite realm, the case of Zimri-Lim offering his two daughters Kirûm and Šimātum to his vassal Ḫāya-Sūmû (eighteenth century BCE). 2. In the Egyptian realm, the two daughters of Hatshepsut given to their half-brother Thutmose III (fifteenth century BCE). 3. In the Hittite-Egyptian realm, the two Hittite princesses given to Ramses II as wives (thirteenth century BCE). 4. In the Hebrew realm, according to Gen. 29, the two daughters of Laban, the Aramean, Leah and Rachel were given as wives to the same man, Jacob, and, in the time of early Hebrew tribal chiefdom, the two sisters Merab and Michal, the daughters of Saul, were offered to David as wives.
Le present article offre une analyse des differents genres de la « correspondance divine » du Pro... more Le present article offre une analyse des differents genres de la « correspondance divine » du Proche-Orient ancien. Cette appellation generique designe: a) les lettres que des hommes ecrivent aux divinites: b) les lettres que des dieux adressent aux humains; c) les comptes rendus de campagnes militaires que les rois destinent a leurs maitres divins; d) une lettres incantatoire adressee au dieu personnel d'un individu. Cet article revient sur la suggestion qui a etefaite auparavant concernant les origines de cette « correspondance divine», origines qui se situeraient dans certaines suppliques sumeriennes. Nous examinons en outre les textes hittites, egyptiens et hebraiques (2 Rois 19,14 // Esaie 37,14) temoignant d'un «echange» epistolaire entre les hommes et leurs dieux.
D. Bodi, “Les Mille et Une Nuits et l’Épopée de Gilgamesh: éléments de comparaison,” = “The Arabi... more D. Bodi, “Les Mille et Une Nuits et l’Épopée de Gilgamesh: éléments de comparaison,” = “The Arabian Nights and the Gilgamesh Epic: Elements of Comparison,” in A. Chraïbi (ed.), Les Mille et Une Nuits en partage (Paris: Actes Sud, 2004), pp. 394-411.
In the context of a colloquium celebrating the 250 years since the translation of a medieval Arabic manuscript of the Arabian Nights by the father of French Orientalism, Antoine Galland, in this article I have first compared the long process of composition and translation of the Gilgamesh Epic from Sumerian into Akkadian and the equally long process of composition and translation from Persian into Arabic of the Arabian Nights. In spite of the chronological distance between the two works, there are some similarities in the way literature is written in the Near East. Next, I have made comparisons between a number of literary motifs in the Gilgameš Epic and in one particular tale of the Arabian Nights called Bulûqiyâ. These similarities increase the probability that the phenomenon of literary borrowing occurred. In the final part of the article I suggest the probable way this borrowing took place through Aramaic references to Gilgamesh in the Qumran texts and further through Jewish intermediaries who provided a series of tales the Arabic medieval historians call “Israilia.”
The article presents a well-established tradition, over one hundred years old, in which scholars ... more The article presents a well-established tradition, over one hundred years old, in which scholars sought to demonstrate the Babylonian linguistic, cultural, and literary influence on the Book of Ezekiel. There are basically three lines of approach used by scholars seeking to show Ezekiel’s rootedness in the Mesopotamian world: comparative, iconographic, and philological studies. Combining elements from the history of research, this article focuses on some key elements found in the Book of Ezekiel that very likely stem from a Mesopotamian context, providing a bibliography for scholars desirous to pursue this approach.
The topos of the arrival of the divinely appointed time is present in Akkadian literature from NB... more The topos of the arrival of the divinely appointed time is present in Akkadian literature from NB times and has found echoes in the Aramaic parts of Daniel. The Akkadian term is variously transcribed with adānu, adiānu, edannu, idānu, ḫadannu, ḫadiānu, ḫidānu. The article analyzes in particular some references where it means“appointed, fateful time” and occasionally,“favorable time.” The concept of favorable time is well attested in the Semitic world since the 8th century BCE. The notion of favorable time is abundantly attested in texts from NB times and is a key term in extispicy. Moreover, if my demonstration of the presence of this expression in the Zimrī Līm Epic is correct, the concept would be present in the Northwest Semitic domain since OB times. The two Mari examples, however, hinge on the issue of syntax and some additional OB examples of this type of status constructus are needed in order to clinch the issue.
The article argues for the existence of a link between the symbolic numbers of the 7-story ziqqur... more The article argues for the existence of a link between the symbolic numbers of the 7-story ziqqurat, its architectural divisions (area base, length, breadth, and height) as found on the Louvre E-sagil Tablet, and the detailed specifications of the 7-story Ark with its inner compartments as described in Gilgameš Epic XI. A series of indications found in the Gilgameš Flood Story and the E-sagil Tablet point to the existence of philosophical-theological speculation. In the Gilgameš Epic XI 158 at the end of the Deluge, once the Ark was immobilized and held fast for six days by the sacred mountain Ni-muš (Gilg. XI 142-146), on the 7th day after releasing a dove, a swallow, and a raven, Uta-napištim “offered incense at the ziqqurat of the mountain,” placing 7 flasks in position. The systematic repetition of figure 7 establishes a link between the 7-story ziqqurat and the 7-story Ark, the 7th day on which the birds are released, and the 7 incense flasks. These various elements make it more appropriate to translate the unusual collocation in Gilg. XI 158 literally, stating that Uta-napištim offered incense on the “ziqqurat of the mountain,” i.e., on the sacred mountain, instead of giving the term ziqqurat a transferred meaning “mountain peak” (e.g., CAD Z, 131). Moreover, the term šadû appears in several texts as a metaphorical reference to Babylon. The legend of the Flood as reflected in the Gilgameš Flood Tablet does not deal with a precise geographical reference nor with a specific historical event. Rather, the text establishes an important link between the Ark and the ziqqurat, and this conjunction carries a religious meaning. In the Gilgamesh version of the Flood story, the Ark stands for a symbolic representation of the world as a microcosm of all the surviving creatures, while the ziqqurat E-temen-an-ki in Babylon stands for the central pole of the world uniting the heavens (an) and the earth (ki) as reflected in a series of Sumerian names for temples and ziqqurats. The Ark at the end of the Flood lands at the summit of the ziqqurat at Babylon assuming the role of the mooring pole. In this manner, it brings Marduk, the patron god of Babylon, the supreme god of the Mesopotamian pantheon, the creator, protector, and guarantor of life in contact with all life that survived the Flood. This conjunction between the Ark and the ziqqurat is essential for life to thrive again in Mesopotamia and on earth.
“The Four Wives of David and the Four Women of Odysseus,” in The Character of David in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Warrior, Poet, Prophet and King (eds.), Marzena Zawanowska and Mateusz Wilk (Themes in Biblical Narrative, 29; Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2001), 363-402. , 2021
Abstract: The article compares the four wives of King David: Michal, Abigail, Bathsheba, and Abis... more Abstract: The article compares the four wives of King David: Michal, Abigail, Bathsheba, and Abishag, who all played crucial roles in his life and career and received a circumstantial narrative in the Hebrew Bible, with the four women in the story of Odysseus who likewise save his life, help him on his homeward journey, or welcome him back home: Calypso, Circe, Nausicaa, and Penelope. The Hebrew Bible places a woman at significant moments in David’s career from a young humble warrior to a seasoned warlord and an aging ruler. To a certain degree, this feature is comparable to the role of women in the career of Odysseus from his ten-year absence from Ithaca for the duration of the Trojan war and his additional decade-long return voyage home to his island of Ithaca and to his faithful wife Penelope. The behavior of a person may be compared to prismatic reflections. Each new relationship brings out a particular facet of one’s personality. The four women in the lives of Odysseus and David bring to the fore different aspects of their personalities and act as a reflecting mirror allowing both characters to progress in acquiring a truer perception of themselves, their limits and shortcomings. Both Odysseus and David are major culture heroes who are the main characters of the stories associated with them. Nevertheless, one can deconstruct these stories by reading them against the grain, focusing on the female characters with whom they interact. The women in the Odyssey are present at key moments of the hero’s career, are subtly characterized, and wield a lot of power (Helen, Arete, Circe, Calypso, Nausicaa, Leucothea, Clytemnestra, Penelope, Eurycleia) to such a degree that Samuel Butler’s provocative Victorian hypothesis that the Odyssey was composed by a female author is now being revived.
David Gavra Tova. Studies in Honor of David Marcus, JANES Special Supplement, 2022
The term gillûlîm, literally “dung gods,” is the favorite term in the Book of Ezekiel to designat... more The term gillûlîm, literally “dung gods,” is the favorite term in the Book of Ezekiel to designate “idols,” where it is used 39 times out of a total of 48 times in the Hebrew Bible. The article attempts to show that the choice of this unusual term might be based on acts of ritual defecation as part of various ceremonies attested and described in the ancient Near Eastern texts. References to acts of defecation, ritual, and otherwise, are examined in various texts starting with a Neo-Babylonian Akkadian text dealing with practices related to the carnival-like Ištar festival that took place during Ezekiel’s Babylonian exile. Two Mari Old Babylonian texts are further adduced where defecation is associated with the breaking of an alliance, hence its pertinence for Ezekiel; then an Aramaic healing incantation, a Greek text from a temple in Athens, throwing light on the presence of excrements in the temple precincts and finally the Mishnah and the Gemarah of the Babylonian Talmud mentioning ritual acts associated with the worship of the god Baʿal Peʿor. The Baʿal Peʿor cult mentioned in rabbinic literature is seen in the light of the Ugaritic Marzeaḥ feast (Sifre Num 13 marzĕḥîm). Scholars are divided about the way these texts should be understood. Should they be taken as metaphors, symbolic gestures, or actual rituals? The article first analyzes the texts where defecation is mentioned and then attempts to suggest which texts should be taken either as metaphors or symbolic gestures and which might refer to definite ritual acts. One has first to determine the meaning of the act of ritual defecation and then trace the transformation of its original meaning and its reutilization as a metaphor in subsequent ancient Near Eastern literature. In this stream of tradition on jesters (Akk. aluzinnu, Greek ἀλαξών “buffoon, bullshit artist”), performing such acts (from a Sumerian proverb, Ishtar Festival at Mari in OB to NB times in Babylon, among the Hittites and as late as the 5th century BCE Athenian comedies of Aristophanes), scatological jokes and outrageous pranks serve to deride and subvert the established rule and religion. It's an outrageous, excessive way of deriding something.
Text and Image 61Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, 2018
Abstract: The link between the Akkadian and general Semitic terms for “image” ṣalmu/ṣelem and “sh... more Abstract: The link between the Akkadian and general Semitic terms for “image” ṣalmu/ṣelem and “shadow” ṣillu/ṣēl is either considered to be problematic or unproven and has often been contested. The etymology of ṣelem has been something of a philological quibble combined with the issue of identifying the correct initial sibilant. Adducing elements from iconography, philology, history of art, and the probable use by ancient sculptors and artists of the common technique of projected shadow “ombre portée” in drawing images, this article will suggest how to explain the change from a shadow ṣillu/ṣēl that is a two-dimensional black outline with no details being only a semi-representational image to a concrete, three-dimensional statue ṣalmu/ṣelem in the round “ronde-bosse.” The article argues that the common Semitic terms for “image” and “shadow” belong to the same semantic field.
The history of Israel is a much-debated topic in Old Testament studies. On one side are minimalis... more The history of Israel is a much-debated topic in Old Testament studies. On one side are minimalists who find little of historical value in the Hebrew Bible. On the other side are those who assume the biblical text is a precise historical record. Many serious students of the Bible find themselves between these two positions and would benefit from a careful exploration of issues in Israelite history. This substantive history of Israel textbook values the Bible's historical contribution without overlooking critical issues and challenges. Featuring the latest scholarship, the book introduces students to the current state of research on issues relevant to the study of ancient Israel. The editors and contributors, all top biblical scholars and historians, discuss historical evidence in a readable manner, using both canonical and chronological lenses to explore Israelite history. Contents Preface Bill T. Arnold and Richard S. Hess Introduction: Foundations for a History of Israel Richard S. Hess 1. The Genesis Narratives Bill T. Arnold 2. The Exodus and Wilderness Narratives James K. Hoffmeier 3. Covenant and Treaty in the Hebrew Bible and in the Ancient Near East Samuel Greengus 4. Early Israel and Its Appearance in Canaan Lawson G. Stone 5. The Judges and the Early Iron Age Robert D. Miller II 6. The Story of Samuel, Saul, and David Daniel Bodi 7. United Monarchy: Archaeology and Literary Sources Steven M. Ortiz 8. The Biblical Prophets in Historiography James K. Mead 9. Late Tenth- and Ninth-Century Issues: Ahab Underplayed? Jehoshaphat Overplayed? Kyle Greenwood 10. Eighth-Century Issues: The World of Jeroboam II, the Fall of Samaria, and the Reign of Hezekiah Sandra Richter 11. Judah in the Seventh Century: From the Aftermath of Sennacherib's Invasion to the Beginning of Jehoiakim's Rebellion Brad E. Kelle 12. Sixth-Century Issues Peter van der Veen 13. Fifth- and Fourth-Century Issues: Governorship and Priesthood in Jerusalem André Lemaire 14. The Hellenistic Period David A. deSilva Indexes
Au IX e siècle, la riche tradition arabe de l'adab parvient en Espagne, al-Andalus, plaque to... more Au IX e siècle, la riche tradition arabe de l'adab parvient en Espagne, al-Andalus, plaque tournante où s'échangent les savoirs venus d'Orient. L'adab rencontre en al-Andalus la tradition sapientielle juive de la littérature midrashique. De nouveaux recueils sont com-posés, des oeuvres originales sont produites aux X e et XI e siècles et, à partir du début du XII e siècle, les recueils d'exempla, de sagesse et de dits des philosophes sont traduits en hébreu, en latin, en langues romanes. De nouvelles compilations se créent pour servir la prédication chrétienne, incluant des proverbes populaires, des maximes et sentences tirées d'auteurs latins et grecs, de philosophes, de la patristique et des morales d'exem-pla. Les textes appartenant à la tradition sapientielle sont traduits en hébreu en Provence dès le XII e siècle et en latin. Cet héritage complexe se retrouve en bonne part dans l'immense littérature parémiolo-gique espagnole qui s'épanouit au...
This article draws a comparison between the encounter of the wild man Enkidu with the courtesan Š... more This article draws a comparison between the encounter of the wild man Enkidu with the courtesan Šamḫat from the city of Uruk as described in the Gilgameš Epic and the encounter of the Hebrew spies with the prostitute Raḥab from Jericho as narrated in Joshua, chapter 2. Both the Joyful Lass - Šamḫat and Raḥab are taken as symbols of acculturation. The first contact of the nomadic Hebrews with the sophisticated city life in the land of Canaan occurs through a courtesan. In both ancient Near Eastern literary traditions, the encounter with a sexually free woman symbolizes the transition from the wild and nomadic lifestyle to the civilized, urban type. This encounter could be taken as a literary topos indicating a status change where the nomad becomes sedentary and an acculturated city dweller.
La famille dans le Proche-Orient ancien: réalités, symbolismes et images, 2014
The article deals with a specific aspect of the so-called diplomatic marriages. It analyzes the p... more The article deals with a specific aspect of the so-called diplomatic marriages. It analyzes the practice of ancient Near Eastern rulers to offer two of their female family members, usually royal daughters and princesses to the same vassal or fellow king as wives. While female family members are used as “exchange money” or bargaining chips in sealing alliances and political transactions, what is the reason in offering two daughters to the same man? This phenomenon is analyzed in a series of ancient Near Eastern texts and a probable raison d’être and meaning are suggested for each case. The following examples are analyzed in chronological order: 1. In the Amorite realm, the case of Zimri-Lim offering his two daughters Kirûm and Šimātum to his vassal Ḫāya-Sūmû (eighteenth century BCE). 2. In the Egyptian realm, the two daughters of Hatshepsut given to their half-brother Thutmose III (fifteenth century BCE). 3. In the Hittite-Egyptian realm, the two Hittite princesses given to Ramses II as wives (thirteenth century BCE). 4. In the Hebrew realm, according to Gen. 29, the two daughters of Laban, the Aramean, Leah and Rachel were given as wives to the same man, Jacob, and, in the time of early Hebrew tribal chiefdom, the two sisters Merab and Michal, the daughters of Saul, were offered to David as wives.
Le present article offre une analyse des differents genres de la « correspondance divine » du Pro... more Le present article offre une analyse des differents genres de la « correspondance divine » du Proche-Orient ancien. Cette appellation generique designe: a) les lettres que des hommes ecrivent aux divinites: b) les lettres que des dieux adressent aux humains; c) les comptes rendus de campagnes militaires que les rois destinent a leurs maitres divins; d) une lettres incantatoire adressee au dieu personnel d'un individu. Cet article revient sur la suggestion qui a etefaite auparavant concernant les origines de cette « correspondance divine», origines qui se situeraient dans certaines suppliques sumeriennes. Nous examinons en outre les textes hittites, egyptiens et hebraiques (2 Rois 19,14 // Esaie 37,14) temoignant d'un «echange» epistolaire entre les hommes et leurs dieux.
D. Bodi, “Les Mille et Une Nuits et l’Épopée de Gilgamesh: éléments de comparaison,” = “The Arabi... more D. Bodi, “Les Mille et Une Nuits et l’Épopée de Gilgamesh: éléments de comparaison,” = “The Arabian Nights and the Gilgamesh Epic: Elements of Comparison,” in A. Chraïbi (ed.), Les Mille et Une Nuits en partage (Paris: Actes Sud, 2004), pp. 394-411.
In the context of a colloquium celebrating the 250 years since the translation of a medieval Arabic manuscript of the Arabian Nights by the father of French Orientalism, Antoine Galland, in this article I have first compared the long process of composition and translation of the Gilgamesh Epic from Sumerian into Akkadian and the equally long process of composition and translation from Persian into Arabic of the Arabian Nights. In spite of the chronological distance between the two works, there are some similarities in the way literature is written in the Near East. Next, I have made comparisons between a number of literary motifs in the Gilgameš Epic and in one particular tale of the Arabian Nights called Bulûqiyâ. These similarities increase the probability that the phenomenon of literary borrowing occurred. In the final part of the article I suggest the probable way this borrowing took place through Aramaic references to Gilgamesh in the Qumran texts and further through Jewish intermediaries who provided a series of tales the Arabic medieval historians call “Israilia.”
The article presents a well-established tradition, over one hundred years old, in which scholars ... more The article presents a well-established tradition, over one hundred years old, in which scholars sought to demonstrate the Babylonian linguistic, cultural, and literary influence on the Book of Ezekiel. There are basically three lines of approach used by scholars seeking to show Ezekiel’s rootedness in the Mesopotamian world: comparative, iconographic, and philological studies. Combining elements from the history of research, this article focuses on some key elements found in the Book of Ezekiel that very likely stem from a Mesopotamian context, providing a bibliography for scholars desirous to pursue this approach.
The topos of the arrival of the divinely appointed time is present in Akkadian literature from NB... more The topos of the arrival of the divinely appointed time is present in Akkadian literature from NB times and has found echoes in the Aramaic parts of Daniel. The Akkadian term is variously transcribed with adānu, adiānu, edannu, idānu, ḫadannu, ḫadiānu, ḫidānu. The article analyzes in particular some references where it means“appointed, fateful time” and occasionally,“favorable time.” The concept of favorable time is well attested in the Semitic world since the 8th century BCE. The notion of favorable time is abundantly attested in texts from NB times and is a key term in extispicy. Moreover, if my demonstration of the presence of this expression in the Zimrī Līm Epic is correct, the concept would be present in the Northwest Semitic domain since OB times. The two Mari examples, however, hinge on the issue of syntax and some additional OB examples of this type of status constructus are needed in order to clinch the issue.
The article argues for the existence of a link between the symbolic numbers of the 7-story ziqqur... more The article argues for the existence of a link between the symbolic numbers of the 7-story ziqqurat, its architectural divisions (area base, length, breadth, and height) as found on the Louvre E-sagil Tablet, and the detailed specifications of the 7-story Ark with its inner compartments as described in Gilgameš Epic XI. A series of indications found in the Gilgameš Flood Story and the E-sagil Tablet point to the existence of philosophical-theological speculation. In the Gilgameš Epic XI 158 at the end of the Deluge, once the Ark was immobilized and held fast for six days by the sacred mountain Ni-muš (Gilg. XI 142-146), on the 7th day after releasing a dove, a swallow, and a raven, Uta-napištim “offered incense at the ziqqurat of the mountain,” placing 7 flasks in position. The systematic repetition of figure 7 establishes a link between the 7-story ziqqurat and the 7-story Ark, the 7th day on which the birds are released, and the 7 incense flasks. These various elements make it more appropriate to translate the unusual collocation in Gilg. XI 158 literally, stating that Uta-napištim offered incense on the “ziqqurat of the mountain,” i.e., on the sacred mountain, instead of giving the term ziqqurat a transferred meaning “mountain peak” (e.g., CAD Z, 131). Moreover, the term šadû appears in several texts as a metaphorical reference to Babylon. The legend of the Flood as reflected in the Gilgameš Flood Tablet does not deal with a precise geographical reference nor with a specific historical event. Rather, the text establishes an important link between the Ark and the ziqqurat, and this conjunction carries a religious meaning. In the Gilgamesh version of the Flood story, the Ark stands for a symbolic representation of the world as a microcosm of all the surviving creatures, while the ziqqurat E-temen-an-ki in Babylon stands for the central pole of the world uniting the heavens (an) and the earth (ki) as reflected in a series of Sumerian names for temples and ziqqurats. The Ark at the end of the Flood lands at the summit of the ziqqurat at Babylon assuming the role of the mooring pole. In this manner, it brings Marduk, the patron god of Babylon, the supreme god of the Mesopotamian pantheon, the creator, protector, and guarantor of life in contact with all life that survived the Flood. This conjunction between the Ark and the ziqqurat is essential for life to thrive again in Mesopotamia and on earth.
The history of Israel is a much-debated topic in Old Testament studies. On one side are minimalis... more The history of Israel is a much-debated topic in Old Testament studies. On one side are minimalists who find little of historical value in the Hebrew Bible. On the other side are those who assume the biblical text is a precise historical record. Many serious students of the Bible find themselves between these two positions and would benefit from a careful exploration of issues in Israelite history.
This substantive history of Israel textbook values the Bible's historical contribution without overlooking critical issues and challenges. Featuring the latest scholarship, the book introduces students to the current state of research on issues relevant to the study of ancient Israel. The editors and contributors, all top biblical scholars and historians, discuss historical evidence in a readable manner, using both canonical and chronological lenses to explore Israelite history.
Contents
Preface Bill T. Arnold and Richard S. Hess
Introduction: Foundations for a History of Israel Richard S. Hess
1. The Genesis Narratives Bill T. Arnold
2. The Exodus and Wilderness Narratives James K. Hoffmeier
3. Covenant and Treaty in the Hebrew Bible and in the Ancient Near East Samuel Greengus
4. Early Israel and Its Appearance in Canaan Lawson G. Stone
5. The Judges and the Early Iron Age Robert D. Miller II
6. The Story of Samuel, Saul, and David Daniel Bodi
7. United Monarchy: Archaeology and Literary Sources Steven M. Ortiz
8. The Biblical Prophets in Historiography James K. Mead
9. Late Tenth- and Ninth-Century Issues: Ahab Underplayed? Jehoshaphat Overplayed? Kyle Greenwood
10. Eighth-Century Issues: The World of Jeroboam II, the Fall of Samaria, and the Reign of Hezekiah Sandra Richter
11. Judah in the Seventh Century: From the Aftermath of Sennacherib's Invasion to the Beginning of Jehoiakim's Rebellion Brad E. Kelle
12. Sixth-Century Issues Peter van der Veen
13. Fifth- and Fourth-Century Issues: Governorship and Priesthood in Jerusalem André Lemaire
14. The Hellenistic Period David A. deSilva
Indexes
This is the first book devoted to the biblical figure of Abigail, whose encounter with David is n... more This is the first book devoted to the biblical figure of Abigail, whose encounter with David is narrated in 1 Samuel 25. An interdisciplinary study, its seven papers combine biblical criticism, narratology, history of religions, Assyriology and the study of midrash.
One article (by Michaël Guichard) brings to light a major historical analogy from the Mari documents to the triangular relationship of Abigail, Nabal and David. The career of the princess Inib-sharri, first married to an old sheikh, and, after his sudden, mysterious death, to a younger princeling, provides a very apt analogy to that of Abigail.
Another article (by Daniel Bodi) compares David’s way of seizing power to the pattern of seizing power in the ancient Near East: Zimri-Lim in Mari, Idrimi in Alalakh, and the ‘Apiru in the Amarna texts serve as analogies to David.
The tale of David as an ambitious warlord taking power through marriage can be paralleled by the myth of Nergal and Ereshkigal; in its older Amarna version Nergal takes power through violence whereas in its Assyrian version his power is due to Ereshkigal’s seduction and love. The Abigail story combines both aspects, beginning with violence and ending with marriage (Jean-Jacques Glassner).
Some rabbis saw Abigail as a seducer and a hellish type of woman. The final articles (by Bodi and Jean-Marie Husser) show that, while her behaviour might be ambiguous, she should not be branded a scarlet woman.
The novelty of this monograph on David and Bathsheba (2 Sam. 11–12) lies in its placing the narra... more The novelty of this monograph on David and Bathsheba (2 Sam. 11–12) lies in its placing the narrative in the context of the behavior of nomadic warlords and Amorite tribal chieftains as reflected in several Akkadian texts from Mari and Mesopotamia. The biblical story is interpreted in the light of an Akkadian literary topos depicting the ideal warlike existence of a Bedouin tribal chieftain. According to this topos, David’s dallying with women, and eating, drinking and living in the shade rather than leading armies into military exploits would be considered unworthy of a warlord and disparaging to his reputation. Another new feature in this book is the explanation of the treatment that king David inflicted on Uriah the Hittite, a ‘resident alien’ according to the rabbis, in the light of the outrage that a high official of a Pharaoh committed upon a resident-alien in El-Amarna times. There seems to have existed an unwritten ancient Near Eastern law about the obligation of protecting and not harming resident aliens. As evidenced by the El-Amarna letter 162, disregard for this law entailed a death sentence on the perpetrator of such an outrage. In 2 Samuel 11–12 the outrage done to the resident alien is expressed through the literary motif of the abduction of the beautiful wife in the context of oppression and threat exercised by the powerful over the weak and the helpless.
This fresh approach to the story of Michal, daughter of Saul and wife of David, juxtaposes three ... more This fresh approach to the story of Michal, daughter of Saul and wife of David, juxtaposes three quite different interpretative methods: narratological, historical, and history of traditions. In the first chapter I offer a subtle political reading of the Michal story, bringing to the fore the power-struggle between Saul and David that forms its main intrigue. Michal’s personal tragedy foreshadows that of the Israelite monarchy and prefigures its end. It is a unique phenomenon in ancient Near Eastern literature that the story of a woman should serve as a means of criticizing the abuses of the monarchy and deconstructing the royal ideology. The second chapter compares the daughters of Saul and the daughters of Zimri-Lim. This 18th BCE tribal king of Mari offered his two daughters Kirûm and Šimātum to the same vassal in order to be able to spy on him. Saul seems to have done something similar with his daughters Merab and Michal, both offered to David. The unhappy marriage of Kirûm ended in divorce. Although the announcement of the divorce was made by her husband in a public ceremony, it was prompted by the royal princess—the first example of a divorce initiated by a woman in ancient Near Eastern texts. The third chapter explores a rich variety of rabbinic interpretations of key moments in the Michal story. Important and often little known observations are drawn from both the Talmuds and from midrashic works such as Abrabanel and anthologies like Midrash Rabbah, Yalqut Shimoni, Meam Loez and Malbim, together with the comments by Rashi and Qimḥi. Both the narratological investigation and the rabbinic interpretations point to David’s guilt during his dance in front of the ark. The rabbis indeed attributed the exile of the nation to David’s misdeeds. A careful reading of the biblical texts dealing with the figure of David in his relationship with his first wife Michal reaches the same conclusion: He is not exactly the man he pretends to be.
This is a comparative-contrastive commentary of the Book of Ezekiel in the light of comparative S... more This is a comparative-contrastive commentary of the Book of Ezekiel in the light of comparative Semitic philology and iconography from the ancient Near East. I have tried to place this biblical book in the Babylonian context in which Ezekiel lived and exercised his prophetic activity for more than twenty years.
This book offers an historical and comparative analysis of the biblical book of Nehemiah with a t... more This book offers an historical and comparative analysis of the biblical book of Nehemiah with a theological and philosophical commentary. The author places the events described in the “Nehemiah Memoir” in the context of the history of the Mediterranean in the 5th century BCE. Less than a century prior to Nehemiah, another high official had a similar political career: the Egyptian Udjahorresnet, governor of the Persian court in Egypt who left a written record of his mission. The author compares the work of reconstruction of the Jerusalem citadel by Nehemiah and his team with the reconstruction of Athens under Themistocles in the 5th century BCE. He also adduces parallels with the social and political reforms of the Athenian political leader Solon. Nehemiah knew how to recognize the right timing for action and this important aspect of his activity is compared with the Greek concept of kairos to which the ancients ascribed an eminently religious and philosophical value. In this context, a parallel has been established between the Hebrew term (ḥokmâ) “wisdom” and the metis of the Greeks i.e. craftiness. It is a matter of a particular type of intelligence and wisdom manifest in the execution of a practical task. It often overcomes obstacles by a sly detour and dominates adversity in order to succeed in most diverse areas of life. Ten years prior to Nehemiah’s political mission in Jerusalem, the strategic and military value of a fortress had been aptly demonstrated during the Egyptian revolt against their Persian overlords. In the midst of a Persian retreat, the Memphis citadel offered a refuge to the defeated Persian troops. The Egyptian rebels never succeeded in completely conquering Memphis because of its fortress which remained in Persian hands. It is argued that likewise the Jerusalem citadel could only have a defensive role offering a place of refuge to defeated Persian troops in case of a retreat. In Nehemiah’s times, Jerusalem had a legal existence and social structure of a “City-Temple Community.” This economic entity was widespread all over the ancient Near East between the 6th and the 4th centuries BCE, where local populations organized themselves around the Temple as the administrative body.
The goal of this Akkadian Grammar for Beginners is avowedly modest. It offers beginning students ... more The goal of this Akkadian Grammar for Beginners is avowedly modest. It offers beginning students a brief and easy method with all the necessary elements of grammar in order to read and analyze Akkadian texts. It aims at students with no preliminary knowledge of any Semitic language. However, it can also be used by more advanced students looking for a comparative and historical approach in learning Semitic languages. The first chapter offers a general introduction to Assyriology with a basic bibliography for the study of different Semitic languages. Without being comprehensive, the bibliography aims in offering basic tools for the study of Akkadian in a comparative perspective. The remaining thirteen chapters offer an overview of basic elements of grammar. Each chapter is accompanied with an exercise based on the first ten laws from the Hammurabi Codex. The novelty of this grammar is the use of computer-produced Old Babylonian cuneiform text of the Hammurabi Codex (§§ 1-10) with a computer program “DubSar.”
This research analyzes twelve features that appear in the Book of Ezekiel and in the 9th century ... more This research analyzes twelve features that appear in the Book of Ezekiel and in the 9th century BCE Babylonian Poem of Erra. It offers guidelines for a comparative-contrastive approach, showing the considerable heuristic value but also the limitations of the comparative study of the Ancient Near Eastern literature. The author attempts to demonstrate the likelihood that in the formulation of certain themes and motifs of the Book of Ezekiel, its author/redactor knew and used a contemporary Akkadian song called the Poem of Erra. Twelve features shared by both works have been analyzed. These points of contact have been divided into two categories following a descending degree of probability. In the first category are four features which appear uniquely in the Book of Ezekiel. In the second category are eight features which are present in Ezekiel and in the rest of the Hebrew Bible. The source of the first four features would most probably be extra-Biblical, and more specifically the Poem of Erra. The source of the second category of motifs would be in antecedent Hebrew prophetic traditions. Nevertheless, the Poem of Erra might have influenced the presentation of some aspects of these motifs. The survey of research of the Babylonian influence on the Book of Ezekiel offers a richly documented review of the over one hundred years old tradition of the interpretatio Babylonica of the Book of Ezekiel. This research strikes one by the straightforwardness of its working hypothesis and the elegant solution it offers to the problems raised in this book. It has the marked advantage of bringing all the parallels to a single source - the Babylonian Poem of Erra.
The national catastrophe of the fall of Jerusalem in 587 BCE and the Babylonian Exile of the Jude... more The national catastrophe of the fall of Jerusalem in 587 BCE and the Babylonian Exile of the Judean elite are often perceived as major traumatic events in the history of the Hebrew people. This book attempts to show how, in spite of indisputable drawbacks, this experience of crisis was extremely fecund for the formation of the written Hebrew tradition which gave us the Bible. In Exile the Judeans were confronted with the several- millennia-old Mesopotamian civilization which was characterized by the use of writing and a highly elaborated science of interpretation. One chapter traces the influence of Babylonian hermeneutics on the development of later Midrashic exegetical techniques. These features could not fail to influence the literate elites among the Judeans exiles. The first major influence was that of the Babylonians. It was followed by that of the Persians who allowed the Judeans to regain their homeland, to reconstruct and reoccupy their ancient capital.
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The behavior of a person may be compared to prismatic reflections. Each new relationship brings out a particular facet of one’s personality. The four women in the lives of Odysseus and David bring to the fore different aspects of their personalities and act as a reflecting mirror allowing both characters to progress in acquiring a truer perception of themselves, their limits and shortcomings. Both Odysseus and David are major culture heroes who are the main characters of the stories associated with them. Nevertheless, one can deconstruct these stories by reading them against the grain, focusing on the female characters with whom they interact. The women in the Odyssey are present at key moments of the hero’s career, are subtly characterized, and wield a lot of power (Helen, Arete, Circe, Calypso, Nausicaa, Leucothea, Clytemnestra, Penelope, Eurycleia) to such a degree that Samuel Butler’s provocative Victorian hypothesis that the Odyssey was composed by a female author is now being revived.
In the context of a colloquium celebrating the 250 years since the translation of a medieval Arabic manuscript of the Arabian Nights by the father of French Orientalism, Antoine Galland, in this article I have first compared the long process of composition and translation of the Gilgamesh Epic from Sumerian into Akkadian and the equally long process of composition and translation from Persian into Arabic of the Arabian Nights. In spite of the chronological distance between the two works, there are some similarities in the way literature is written in the Near East. Next, I have made comparisons between a number of literary motifs in the Gilgameš Epic and in one particular tale of the Arabian Nights called Bulûqiyâ. These similarities increase the probability that the phenomenon of literary borrowing occurred. In the final part of the article I suggest the probable way this borrowing took place through Aramaic references to Gilgamesh in the Qumran texts and further through Jewish intermediaries who provided a series of tales the Arabic medieval historians call “Israilia.”
The behavior of a person may be compared to prismatic reflections. Each new relationship brings out a particular facet of one’s personality. The four women in the lives of Odysseus and David bring to the fore different aspects of their personalities and act as a reflecting mirror allowing both characters to progress in acquiring a truer perception of themselves, their limits and shortcomings. Both Odysseus and David are major culture heroes who are the main characters of the stories associated with them. Nevertheless, one can deconstruct these stories by reading them against the grain, focusing on the female characters with whom they interact. The women in the Odyssey are present at key moments of the hero’s career, are subtly characterized, and wield a lot of power (Helen, Arete, Circe, Calypso, Nausicaa, Leucothea, Clytemnestra, Penelope, Eurycleia) to such a degree that Samuel Butler’s provocative Victorian hypothesis that the Odyssey was composed by a female author is now being revived.
In the context of a colloquium celebrating the 250 years since the translation of a medieval Arabic manuscript of the Arabian Nights by the father of French Orientalism, Antoine Galland, in this article I have first compared the long process of composition and translation of the Gilgamesh Epic from Sumerian into Akkadian and the equally long process of composition and translation from Persian into Arabic of the Arabian Nights. In spite of the chronological distance between the two works, there are some similarities in the way literature is written in the Near East. Next, I have made comparisons between a number of literary motifs in the Gilgameš Epic and in one particular tale of the Arabian Nights called Bulûqiyâ. These similarities increase the probability that the phenomenon of literary borrowing occurred. In the final part of the article I suggest the probable way this borrowing took place through Aramaic references to Gilgamesh in the Qumran texts and further through Jewish intermediaries who provided a series of tales the Arabic medieval historians call “Israilia.”
This substantive history of Israel textbook values the Bible's historical contribution without overlooking critical issues and challenges. Featuring the latest scholarship, the book introduces students to the current state of research on issues relevant to the study of ancient Israel. The editors and contributors, all top biblical scholars and historians, discuss historical evidence in a readable manner, using both canonical and chronological lenses to explore Israelite history.
Contents
Preface Bill T. Arnold and Richard S. Hess
Introduction: Foundations for a History of Israel Richard S. Hess
1. The Genesis Narratives Bill T. Arnold
2. The Exodus and Wilderness Narratives James K. Hoffmeier
3. Covenant and Treaty in the Hebrew Bible and in the Ancient Near East Samuel Greengus
4. Early Israel and Its Appearance in Canaan Lawson G. Stone
5. The Judges and the Early Iron Age Robert D. Miller II
6. The Story of Samuel, Saul, and David Daniel Bodi
7. United Monarchy: Archaeology and Literary Sources Steven M. Ortiz
8. The Biblical Prophets in Historiography James K. Mead
9. Late Tenth- and Ninth-Century Issues: Ahab Underplayed? Jehoshaphat Overplayed? Kyle Greenwood
10. Eighth-Century Issues: The World of Jeroboam II, the Fall of Samaria, and the Reign of Hezekiah Sandra Richter
11. Judah in the Seventh Century: From the Aftermath of Sennacherib's Invasion to the Beginning of Jehoiakim's Rebellion Brad E. Kelle
12. Sixth-Century Issues Peter van der Veen
13. Fifth- and Fourth-Century Issues: Governorship and Priesthood in Jerusalem André Lemaire
14. The Hellenistic Period David A. deSilva
Indexes
One article (by Michaël Guichard) brings to light a major historical analogy from the Mari documents to the triangular relationship of Abigail, Nabal and David. The career of the princess Inib-sharri, first married to an old sheikh, and, after his sudden, mysterious death, to a younger princeling, provides a very apt analogy to that of Abigail.
Another article (by Daniel Bodi) compares David’s way of seizing power to the pattern of seizing power in the ancient Near East: Zimri-Lim in Mari, Idrimi in Alalakh, and the ‘Apiru in the Amarna texts serve as analogies to David.
The tale of David as an ambitious warlord taking power through marriage can be paralleled by the myth of Nergal and Ereshkigal; in its older Amarna version Nergal takes power through violence whereas in its Assyrian version his power is due to Ereshkigal’s seduction and love. The Abigail story combines both aspects, beginning with violence and ending with marriage (Jean-Jacques Glassner).
Some rabbis saw Abigail as a seducer and a hellish type of woman. The final articles (by Bodi and Jean-Marie Husser) show that, while her behaviour might be ambiguous, she should not be branded a scarlet woman.