UrsulaCastroOliveira Doutorado P
UrsulaCastroOliveira Doutorado P
UrsulaCastroOliveira Doutorado P
São Paulo
2011
RESUMO
Oliveira UC. Eimeria spp. of domestic rabbit and fowl: development of molecular
assays and phylogenetic characterization [Ph. D. thesis (Parasitology)]. São Paulo:
Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas da Universidade de São Paulo; 2011.
Protozoan parasites of the genus Eimeria infect a wide range of hosts, and cause
enteric diseases generically known as coccidioses. This work presented two main
objectives: (1) development of molecular assays for the detection and
discrimination of the eleven Eimeria species of domestic rabbit; (2) study of the
evolutionary relations among Eimeria species of mammals and birds. Aiming at the
first goal, we sequenced the ITS1 of the ribosomal cistron of the eleven Eimeria
species of domestic rabbit and designed species-specific primers. The assays
were tested in regard to their specificity and no cross-reactivity has been observed.
The detection threshold varied from 500 fg to 1 pg, which corresponds to 0.8 to 1.7
sporulated oocysts. For the phylogenetic analysis, we sequenced four distinct
molecular markers of Eimeria species of domestic fowl and rabbit. An overall
analysis comprising our data and public sequences of Eimeria of other hosts has
been performed, and we used several distinct methods for the phylogenetic
reconstruction. A concatenated multiple gene dataset permitted to generate
phylogenetic trees with the best congruence across different methods and the
highest node support values. E. maxima showed an accelerated evolution rate
when comparing to other Eimeria species, which correlates with its known higher
antigenic and immunological diversity. The phylogenetic analyses indicated that
Eimeria species are often monophyletic in regard to their hosts, but paraphylies are
sometimes observed. Tree topology also demonstrated that host specificity is
more relevant in reflecting the phylogenetic relationships than is the
presence/absence of the oocyst residuum. The demographic analysis indicated
that multiple events of invasion of mammal and bird hosts might have occurred
along the evolutionary process. In terms of ecology, we observed a correlation
between the evolutionary relationships of different Eimeria species and the feeding
habits and habitats of their respective hosts. Finally, the hypothesis of co-evolution
of Eimeria parasites and their hosts could not be supported due to the following
evidences: (1) there are experimental reports of host-switching events among
rodent Eimeria species; (2) the estimated divergence time of Eimeria species is
much more recent than the divergence time of their respective vertebrate hosts;
and (3) the parasite and host trees cannot be reconciled.
enquanto que os animais mais velhos são mais sensíveis à infecção (Pakandl et al.,
2007; Pakandl et al., 2008a,b). Rose (1973) sugeriu que a imunidade dos animais
mais jovens era devida à presença de ácido para-aminobenzóico (PABA) no leite
materno. Dürr et al. (1969) determinaram que a infecção de animais mais jovens
(menos de 21 dias) é menos eficiente por algum mecanismo relacionado ao bloqueio
da excistação, fato confirmado por Pakandl et al. (2007) e Pakandl et al. (2008b).
Animais com idade superior a 21 dias, mesmo que ainda sob aleitamento, mas que
já tenham iniciado a ingestão de outro tipo de alimento, teriam o ambiente do seu
trato gastrintestinal alterado, permitindo a excistação dos esporozoítos e posterior
invasão das células do epitélio intestinal.
RAPD é uma técnica baseada em PCR que utiliza iniciadores arbitrários (geralmente
decâmeros) em condições de baixa estringência. O resultado obtido é um perfil de
bandas específico daquela espécie, conhecido como impressão digital de DNA (DNA
fingerprinting). Esses perfis permitem diferenciar espécies e até mesmo cepas.
Ensaios de RAPD demonstraram, conforme esperado, que o polimorfismo entre
espécies é bastante superior ao observado entre cepas (Procunier et al., 1993).
Contudo, a técnica permite a diferenciação de cepas de uma mesma espécie
(Fernandez et al., 2003a; Shirley e Bumstead, 1994).
O primeiro ensaio molecular baseado em PCR com iniciadores específicos,
capaz de identificar cada uma das sete espécies de Eimeria que infectam a galinha
doméstica, foi descrito por Schnitzler et al. (1998, 1999). Esse ensaio molecular
utilizou como alvo o ITS1 (espaçador interno transcrito 1) do cistron de RNA
ribossômico. Foi demonstrado que o ITS1 possui variações interespecíficas que
permitiram discriminar as sete espécies de forma específica e com alta sensibilidade.
Recentemente, a mesma abordagem foi feita para 6 espécies de Eimeria que
infectam os bovinos (Kawahara et al., 2010).
O nosso grupo desenvolveu ensaios diagnósticos para as sete espécies de
Eimeria de galinha baseados em RAPD (Fernandez et al., 2003a). Em um trabalho
posterior, as bandas espécie-específicas tiveram seu DNA extraído e sequenciado e,
a partir desses dados, foi possível desenvolver um conjunto de marcadores SCAR
(Sequence Characterized Amplified Region), os quais são altamente específicos e
reprodutíveis (Fernandez et al., 2004). Além disso, a partir de sete marcadores
SCAR, específicos para cada uma das espécies de Eimeria de galinha, foi
desenvolvido um ensaio de PCR multiplex (Fernandez et al., 2003b). Nesse ensaio,
todas as espécies podem ser detectadas e identificadas em uma reação conjunta
realizada em um único tubo, facilitando enormemente o diagnóstico de amostras de
campo. Além dos métodos moleculares de diagnóstico, nosso grupo também
desenvolveu um sistema de identificação de oocistos de Eimeria de galinha baseado
em reconhecimento de padrões de imagem (Castañón et al., 2007). Foram
consideradas várias características morfológicas do oocisto esporulado como a
curvatura, tamanho e estruturas internas, para diferenciar as sete espécies de
Eimeria que infectam a galinha doméstica. Assim foi criada uma interface web na
qual o usuário pode submeter fotos de amostras para análise e diagnóstico de
Ursula Castro de Oliveira Introdução 34
correlação maior, contudo, pôde ser feita com outras características biológicas,
como sítio da lesão ou período pré-patente.
Power et al. (2009) descreveram estudos filogenéticos entre isolados de E.
trichosuri, uma espécie de Eimeria de marsupial, (gambá - Thricosurus vulpecula) e
outras espécies de Eimeria de mamíferos e aves. Nestes estudos os autores
especularam que as espécies de Eimeria de galinha originaram-se a partir de
espécies de Eimeria de mamíferos placentários. Além disso, também sugeriram que
as espécies de Eimeria teriam co-evoluído com seus hospedeiros.
Na inferência filogenética de uma dada espécie não é recomendado utilizar
um único gene, mas, sim, um conjunto de genes que reflita melhor a história
evolutiva da espécie. A utilização de apenas um marcador filogenético implica na
obtenção de uma árvore que reflete mais a história evolutiva desse marcador nas
diferentes espécies analisadas, do que a história evolutiva das próprias espécies. O
uso de um maior número de marcadores dilui eventuais variações individuais entre
as taxas de evolução de cada marcador e pode reduzir a incongruência de
topologias entre eles. Desde que um número razoável de marcadores fosse
utilizado, tomando-se o cuidado de não incluir sequências transferidas lateralmente,
as árvores poderiam ser consideradas como árvores filogenéticas das espécies
analisadas (species trees). Rokas et al. (2003) utilizaram genomas de diferentes
espécies do gênero Saccharomyces e selecionaram 106 genes ortólogos para um
estudo filogenético. Os autores concluíram que conjuntos de dados contendo um ou
poucos genes podiam gerar árvores topologicamente incongruentes, ainda que cada
uma delas apresentasse alto suporte. Entretanto, quando os dados utilizados
consistiram de genes concatenados, qualquer combinação de vinte genes resultava
em árvores perfeitamente congruentes e com alto suporte. Essas árvores, portanto,
podiam ser consideradas como árvores de espécies.
Assim, decidimos no presente trabalho estender o estudo das relações
filogenéticas de espécies do gênero Eimeria utilizando todas as espécies conhecidas
do parasita de um hospedeiro ave (galinha) e de um mamífero (coelho). Visando
ainda obter árvores com maior suporte, que reflitam melhor a evolução das espécies
do parasita, decidimos empregar um conjunto de quatro marcadores moleculares
distintos, originados de três compartimentos celulares: núcleo, mitocôndria e
apicoplasto.
6 CONCLUSÕES
Ursula Castro de Oliveira Conclusões 126
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