Historicus: Quarterly Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society, Vol. LXVIII, No. 2, April-June 2020, pp. 35-47., 2020
Kashf al-maḥjūb [Revelation of the Veiled] authored by Abu’1-Hasan ‘Alī b. ‘Uthmān b. ‘Alī al-Jul... more Kashf al-maḥjūb [Revelation of the Veiled] authored by Abu’1-Hasan ‘Alī b. ‘Uthmān b. ‘Alī al-Jullābī al-Hujwirī (d. between 1073-77 circa) was written after the mid eleventh century in Lahore. It is considered the first treatise on Sufism in Persian language, as well as one of the most read books on Sufism. It offers valuable information on the doctrines, practices and ethics of Sufism along with the biographies of renowned early sufis. Like many other early sufi texts, Kashf al-maḥjūb is a hybrid text, combining features of varied genres of sufi literature, hence denying any neat genre classification. It has generally been considered a survey or handbook of Sufism. The present study is an attempt to analyze the debate on its genre classification. The present study contends the prevalent view, as its biographical section, which forms a major portion of the said work, casts doubt on its exclusive branding as a sufi manual. It argues that Kashf al-maḥjūb cannot be treated exclusively as a sufi manual or a ṭabaqā owing to its rich biographical material. In other words, it is more than a sufi manual. Furthermore, the study argues that Kashf al-maḥjūb partly appears to be a proto-tadhkirah as well due to its biographical content, since it was produced at the time when the development of the genre of tadhkirah writing had not yet originated. It served as a model for writing the first tadhkirah of sufi literary history, i.e. Tadhkirat al-awliyā by ‘Aṭṭār.
Historicus: Quarterly Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society; Vol. LXVIII, No. 2, April-June 2020, pp. 35-47., 2020
Kashf al-maḥjūb [Revelation of the Veiled] authored by Abu’1-Hasan ‘Alī b. ‘Uthmān b. ‘Alī al-Jul... more Kashf al-maḥjūb [Revelation of the Veiled] authored by Abu’1-Hasan ‘Alī b. ‘Uthmān b. ‘Alī al-Jullābī al-Hujwirī (d. between 1073-77 circa) was written after the mid eleventh century in Lahore. It is considered the first treatise on Sufism in Persian language, as well as one of the most read books on Sufism. It offers valuable information on the doctrines, practices and ethics of Sufism along with the biographies of renowned early sufis. Like many other early sufi texts, Kashf al-maḥjūb is a hybrid text, combining features of varied genres of sufi literature, hence denying any neat genre classification. It has generally been considered a survey or handbook of Sufism. The present study is an attempt to analyze the debate on its genre classification. The present study contends the prevalent view, as its biographical section, which forms a major portion of the said work, casts doubt on its exclusive branding as a sufi manual. It argues that Kashf al-maḥjūb cannot be treated exclusively as a sufi manual or a ṭabaqā owing to its rich biographical material. In other words, it is more than a sufi manual. Furthermore, the study argues that Kashf al-maḥjūb partly appears to be a proto-tadhkirah as well due to its biographical content, since it was produced at the time when the development of the genre of tadhkirah writing had not yet originated. It served as a model for writing the first tadhkirah of sufi literary history, i.e. Tadhkirat al-awliyā by ‘Aṭṭār.
In South Asian literary traditions, virāhinī motif is commonly found in bhakti literature. A virā... more In South Asian literary traditions, virāhinī motif is commonly found in bhakti literature. A virāhinī is a woman or a wife separated from her lover or husband, experiences the agony of separation, and thus intensely longs for her union with him. Symbolically, she represents the longing of the human souls for union with the Supreme deity. Particularly, in Vaishnava cults in Hinduism, the goal of a devotee's spiritual quest is to submit before Lord Krishna, which is expressed through the metaphor of submission of a wife before her husband. The feverish love of virāhinī is similar to the sufi notion of 'ishq (heightened love coupled with intense longing for union) based on the idea that the human souls had been separated from their Divine source of origin, and thus had a burning desire to return to it. The virāhinī motif is commonly found in South Asian sufi poetry, including the Punjabi sufi poetical tradition originating with Baba Farid. The sixteenth-century sufi, Shah Husayn of Lahore (1539-1593) employed the virāhinī motif to depict the sufi notion of alienation of human soul from God, and its desire for union. By doing so, he made a conscious attempt to vernacularize and indigenize the doctrines of Sufism in local socio-cultural context. Though he evoked the virāhinī motif, which was in consonance with already existing literary conventions in India, he replaced Radha with Hir, depicting the latter as a virāhinī (waiting for Ranjha, who symbolized God), since Hir is a more familiar character for the Punjabi audience.
Islamic Studies, Islamic Research Institute (IRI), International Islamic University, Islamabad (IIUI), Vol. 57, No. 3-4 , 2018
Sufi literature occupies a significant place in the literary and religio-spiritual history of med... more Sufi literature occupies a significant place in the literary and religio-spiritual history of medieval India. This sufi literature is categorised in varied genres ranging from tadhkirah to malfuzat. However, it is noteworthy to mention that many of the early sufi texts were hybrid, thus defying any neat categorisation as per present-day literary standards. The study of a fourteenth-century sufi text, Siyar al-auliya' dar ahval-o malfuzat-i mashayikh-i Chisht, authored by Amir Khurd Kirmani (d. 1368-69 CE) reveals such problematic categorisation of medieval writings. The title of this fourteenth-century sufi text, composed between 1351-1368 CE in north India, also reflects this problem. It is classified sometimes as tadhkirah or a memoir, or a malfuz or a collection of conversations of the Sufis of silsilah-i Chishtiyyah-Nizamiyyah, and partly considered a sufi manual on sufi ethics and doctrines. Nonetheless, it is considered the very first work of its kind. The present study is an attempt to assess and analyse all the categories of genres assigned to this hybrid text. It argues that Siyar al-auliya' is primarily a tadhkirah since the bulk of its content deals with sufi biographies, whereas only a small part of it contains the malfuzat or the sayings and conversations of Shaykh Nizam al-Din Auliya'. Moreover, it may be considered a "proto-tadhkirah" since the tadhkirah-writing tradition was in its nascent phase, and yet was not fully developed in South Asia compared to other parts of the Muslim world. That is why, it included non-biographical material as well.
Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan, Vol. 56, No. 1, Jan-June, 2019, pp. 49-60., 2019
Shah Husayn (1539-1593) of Lahore, popularly known as Lal Husayn, is a celebrated sixteenth-centu... more Shah Husayn (1539-1593) of Lahore, popularly known as Lal Husayn, is a celebrated sixteenth-century sufi poet of premodern Punjab, who composed very lyrical and melodious short poems or kāfīs. His poetical compositions are high symbolic in nature, with similes and metaphors drawn from Punjabi rural life and folk traditions. In particular, most of his metaphors are related to cotton-spinning and cloth weaving, cotton being a major agricultural produce of Punjab. One of the reasons is that Shah Husayn belonged to a family or caste of weavers, which was, and is still, considered a marginalized community in South Asia. He was not shamed of his social status, as he did not hesitate to openly acknowledge it in his poetry. Most of his famous kāfis feature spinning and weaving metaphors, with charkha or the spinning-wheel as the central symbol. He employed a feminine voice in his poetry. He also talked about the technicalities of spinning and weaving, as well as attan or the female social space for spinning, and dowry, and beautifully weaves them in his sufi symbolism, which is meant to disseminate ethical ideals among the readers. He urges the people to earn good deeds during their lifetime so that they could enjoy the eternal pleasures in the life hereafter.
The Sufi poetic articulation of transcendent experience of Divine love is often characterized by ... more The Sufi poetic articulation of transcendent experience of Divine love is often characterized by gendered imagery, as it is expressed in metaphorical and figurative language by employing idioms of temporal human love. Reversing their gender and assuming a female persona, many male Sufi poets in premodern Punjab spoke in the voice of ardent female lovers, while portraying God as a male Beloved. They often employed a bridal metaphor, identifying themselves with a bride-in-waiting or a loyal and devoted wife, whereas the Divine Self was symbolized by a groom or husband. The poetic exegesis of the love lyrics of Shah Husayn of Lahore reveals that he expanded the bridal metaphor through borrowing rich imagery from socio-cultural topography of premodern Punjab, and situated it in context of local cultural ethos and literary conventions.
Vernacularization of Islam is the process through which the message and teachings of Islam adjust... more Vernacularization of Islam is the process through which the message and teachings of Islam adjusted and adapted in local regional environments outside Arabia. The universal principles of Islam were vernacularized in specific time and space, and contextualized or localized forms and expressions of Muslim piety emerged in these regions. The credit of vernacularization of Islam and Sufism in South Asia particularly goes to the sufis who challenged the Arabo-Persian linguistic hegemony by producing religious literature in vernacular languages and dialects, as a vast majority of the sufis depended less on Arabic and Persian for the popularization of the sufi message. They employed the medium of vernacular poetry to disseminate the message of Sufism among the common people. They contributed to the development of various scripts as well as new or existing literary genres such as siharfis, kafis,Prem-kahani or 'Sufi Romances,' and ginans, in order to popularize the teachings of Sufism in South Asia.
The Chishti Silsilah is one of the earliest sufi silsilahs introduced and popularized in India by... more The Chishti Silsilah is one of the earliest sufi silsilahs introduced and popularized in India by Khwaja Mu'in al-Din Chishti of Ajmer (d. 627/1230). It is considered the most popular as well as most Indianized of all the sufi silsilahs of South Asia, as its sufi masters vernacularized the message of Islam and Sufism in local context. What made them particularly endearing was their conviction in 'love for all' and religious inclusiveness. However, the Muslim nationalist historical works in Pakistan selectively highlight the role of sufis (especially the Naqshbandis) in South Asia. The sufis are presented as 'missionaries' or proselytizers of Islam, and as reformists fostering separate Muslim identity and consciousness. There is historiographical silence on Chishti Sufism in these works, as none of the celebrated Chishti sufi masters find any mention in them, nor their contribution in developing a social ethos reflecting religious harmony and cultural assimilation of the elite Turco-Persian and the local popular Indian culture is acknowledged. The nationalist narrative tends to view the past through the lens of the present day values, norms and contemporary circumstances. In a bid to justify the Two-nation Theory based on Hindu-Muslim separatism, it cites select historical evidence, and presses data in the service of a nationalist agenda. Marred by reductionism, it projects a much distorted view of the past, completely ignoring the role and contribution of the Chishti sufis in South Asian social and cultural history. The present study investigates why there is historiographical silence on Chishti Sufism in Muslim nationalist historical narrative, and undertakes its critical analysis to explore its underlying assumptions and misrepresentations of the historical role of the sufis.
In South Asian literary traditions, virahinī motif is commonly found in bhakti literature. A vira... more In South Asian literary traditions, virahinī motif is commonly found in bhakti literature. A virahinī woman or a wife separated from her lover or husband experiences the agony of separation, and thus intensely longs for her union with him. Symbolically, she represents the longing of the human souls for union with the Supreme deity. Particularly, in Vaishnava cults in Hinduism, the goal of a devotee's spiritual quest is to submit before Lord Krishna, which is expressed through the metaphor of submission of a wife before her husband. The feverish love of the virahinī is not unlike the sufi experience of 'ishq (heightened love of God coupled with intense longing for union with the Divine) based on the idea that human souls had been separated from their Divine source of origin, and thus had a burning desire to return to It. The virahinī motif is commonly found in South Asian sufi poetry, including the Punjabi sufi poetical tradition originating with Baba Farid. The sixteenth-century sufi, Shah Husayn of Lahore (1539-1593) employed the virahinī motif in his kāfīs to depict the sufi notion of alienation of human soul from God, and its desire for reunion. By doing so, he made a conscious attempt to vernacularize and indigenize the doctrines of Sufism in local socio-cultural context. Though he evoked the virahinī motif, which was in consonance with already existing literary conventions in India, he replaced Radha with Hir, depicting the latter as a virahinī (waiting for Ranjha, who symbolized God), since Hir is a more familiar character for the Punjabi audience.
As a phenomenon, androgyny is an ability to display both male and female characteristics in human... more As a phenomenon, androgyny is an ability to display both male and female characteristics in human identity through dress, ornaments, speech, body language and actions. Traditionally, androgynous behaviour is seen as a breach of standards of sexual norms and values, and gender-specific behaviour, and consequently, condemned and discouraged, but throughout human history, androgynous practices have existed in many cultures and religious traditions, wherein transformation of gender is viewed as a source of spiritual awakening. It exists as a symbolic practice in sufi culture, and is particularly associated with the socially non-conformist male sufis who take on the persona of women. Cross-dressed pilgrims can be seen at some of the sufi shrines as well. In South Asia, its most glaring example is Shaykh Musa 'Sadā Suhāg' (d. 1449) of Gujarat, who always dressed up as a female and wore female ornaments. However, some of the male sufis only occasionally adopted a feminine persona. Such androgyne sufis try to transcend normative gender categories, and redefine the concept of masculinity. Historically, some of them enjoyed popular esteem. Their androgynous behaviour was a metaphorical practice, which symbolized the idea of God's bride. In other words, it was a practical manifestation of that very idea.
Historicus: Quarterly Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society, Vol. LXVIII, No. 2, April-June 2020, pp. 35-47., 2020
Kashf al-maḥjūb [Revelation of the Veiled] authored by Abu’1-Hasan ‘Alī b. ‘Uthmān b. ‘Alī al-Jul... more Kashf al-maḥjūb [Revelation of the Veiled] authored by Abu’1-Hasan ‘Alī b. ‘Uthmān b. ‘Alī al-Jullābī al-Hujwirī (d. between 1073-77 circa) was written after the mid eleventh century in Lahore. It is considered the first treatise on Sufism in Persian language, as well as one of the most read books on Sufism. It offers valuable information on the doctrines, practices and ethics of Sufism along with the biographies of renowned early sufis. Like many other early sufi texts, Kashf al-maḥjūb is a hybrid text, combining features of varied genres of sufi literature, hence denying any neat genre classification. It has generally been considered a survey or handbook of Sufism. The present study is an attempt to analyze the debate on its genre classification. The present study contends the prevalent view, as its biographical section, which forms a major portion of the said work, casts doubt on its exclusive branding as a sufi manual. It argues that Kashf al-maḥjūb cannot be treated exclusively as a sufi manual or a ṭabaqā owing to its rich biographical material. In other words, it is more than a sufi manual. Furthermore, the study argues that Kashf al-maḥjūb partly appears to be a proto-tadhkirah as well due to its biographical content, since it was produced at the time when the development of the genre of tadhkirah writing had not yet originated. It served as a model for writing the first tadhkirah of sufi literary history, i.e. Tadhkirat al-awliyā by ‘Aṭṭār.
Historicus: Quarterly Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society; Vol. LXVIII, No. 2, April-June 2020, pp. 35-47., 2020
Kashf al-maḥjūb [Revelation of the Veiled] authored by Abu’1-Hasan ‘Alī b. ‘Uthmān b. ‘Alī al-Jul... more Kashf al-maḥjūb [Revelation of the Veiled] authored by Abu’1-Hasan ‘Alī b. ‘Uthmān b. ‘Alī al-Jullābī al-Hujwirī (d. between 1073-77 circa) was written after the mid eleventh century in Lahore. It is considered the first treatise on Sufism in Persian language, as well as one of the most read books on Sufism. It offers valuable information on the doctrines, practices and ethics of Sufism along with the biographies of renowned early sufis. Like many other early sufi texts, Kashf al-maḥjūb is a hybrid text, combining features of varied genres of sufi literature, hence denying any neat genre classification. It has generally been considered a survey or handbook of Sufism. The present study is an attempt to analyze the debate on its genre classification. The present study contends the prevalent view, as its biographical section, which forms a major portion of the said work, casts doubt on its exclusive branding as a sufi manual. It argues that Kashf al-maḥjūb cannot be treated exclusively as a sufi manual or a ṭabaqā owing to its rich biographical material. In other words, it is more than a sufi manual. Furthermore, the study argues that Kashf al-maḥjūb partly appears to be a proto-tadhkirah as well due to its biographical content, since it was produced at the time when the development of the genre of tadhkirah writing had not yet originated. It served as a model for writing the first tadhkirah of sufi literary history, i.e. Tadhkirat al-awliyā by ‘Aṭṭār.
In South Asian literary traditions, virāhinī motif is commonly found in bhakti literature. A virā... more In South Asian literary traditions, virāhinī motif is commonly found in bhakti literature. A virāhinī is a woman or a wife separated from her lover or husband, experiences the agony of separation, and thus intensely longs for her union with him. Symbolically, she represents the longing of the human souls for union with the Supreme deity. Particularly, in Vaishnava cults in Hinduism, the goal of a devotee's spiritual quest is to submit before Lord Krishna, which is expressed through the metaphor of submission of a wife before her husband. The feverish love of virāhinī is similar to the sufi notion of 'ishq (heightened love coupled with intense longing for union) based on the idea that the human souls had been separated from their Divine source of origin, and thus had a burning desire to return to it. The virāhinī motif is commonly found in South Asian sufi poetry, including the Punjabi sufi poetical tradition originating with Baba Farid. The sixteenth-century sufi, Shah Husayn of Lahore (1539-1593) employed the virāhinī motif to depict the sufi notion of alienation of human soul from God, and its desire for union. By doing so, he made a conscious attempt to vernacularize and indigenize the doctrines of Sufism in local socio-cultural context. Though he evoked the virāhinī motif, which was in consonance with already existing literary conventions in India, he replaced Radha with Hir, depicting the latter as a virāhinī (waiting for Ranjha, who symbolized God), since Hir is a more familiar character for the Punjabi audience.
Islamic Studies, Islamic Research Institute (IRI), International Islamic University, Islamabad (IIUI), Vol. 57, No. 3-4 , 2018
Sufi literature occupies a significant place in the literary and religio-spiritual history of med... more Sufi literature occupies a significant place in the literary and religio-spiritual history of medieval India. This sufi literature is categorised in varied genres ranging from tadhkirah to malfuzat. However, it is noteworthy to mention that many of the early sufi texts were hybrid, thus defying any neat categorisation as per present-day literary standards. The study of a fourteenth-century sufi text, Siyar al-auliya' dar ahval-o malfuzat-i mashayikh-i Chisht, authored by Amir Khurd Kirmani (d. 1368-69 CE) reveals such problematic categorisation of medieval writings. The title of this fourteenth-century sufi text, composed between 1351-1368 CE in north India, also reflects this problem. It is classified sometimes as tadhkirah or a memoir, or a malfuz or a collection of conversations of the Sufis of silsilah-i Chishtiyyah-Nizamiyyah, and partly considered a sufi manual on sufi ethics and doctrines. Nonetheless, it is considered the very first work of its kind. The present study is an attempt to assess and analyse all the categories of genres assigned to this hybrid text. It argues that Siyar al-auliya' is primarily a tadhkirah since the bulk of its content deals with sufi biographies, whereas only a small part of it contains the malfuzat or the sayings and conversations of Shaykh Nizam al-Din Auliya'. Moreover, it may be considered a "proto-tadhkirah" since the tadhkirah-writing tradition was in its nascent phase, and yet was not fully developed in South Asia compared to other parts of the Muslim world. That is why, it included non-biographical material as well.
Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan, Vol. 56, No. 1, Jan-June, 2019, pp. 49-60., 2019
Shah Husayn (1539-1593) of Lahore, popularly known as Lal Husayn, is a celebrated sixteenth-centu... more Shah Husayn (1539-1593) of Lahore, popularly known as Lal Husayn, is a celebrated sixteenth-century sufi poet of premodern Punjab, who composed very lyrical and melodious short poems or kāfīs. His poetical compositions are high symbolic in nature, with similes and metaphors drawn from Punjabi rural life and folk traditions. In particular, most of his metaphors are related to cotton-spinning and cloth weaving, cotton being a major agricultural produce of Punjab. One of the reasons is that Shah Husayn belonged to a family or caste of weavers, which was, and is still, considered a marginalized community in South Asia. He was not shamed of his social status, as he did not hesitate to openly acknowledge it in his poetry. Most of his famous kāfis feature spinning and weaving metaphors, with charkha or the spinning-wheel as the central symbol. He employed a feminine voice in his poetry. He also talked about the technicalities of spinning and weaving, as well as attan or the female social space for spinning, and dowry, and beautifully weaves them in his sufi symbolism, which is meant to disseminate ethical ideals among the readers. He urges the people to earn good deeds during their lifetime so that they could enjoy the eternal pleasures in the life hereafter.
The Sufi poetic articulation of transcendent experience of Divine love is often characterized by ... more The Sufi poetic articulation of transcendent experience of Divine love is often characterized by gendered imagery, as it is expressed in metaphorical and figurative language by employing idioms of temporal human love. Reversing their gender and assuming a female persona, many male Sufi poets in premodern Punjab spoke in the voice of ardent female lovers, while portraying God as a male Beloved. They often employed a bridal metaphor, identifying themselves with a bride-in-waiting or a loyal and devoted wife, whereas the Divine Self was symbolized by a groom or husband. The poetic exegesis of the love lyrics of Shah Husayn of Lahore reveals that he expanded the bridal metaphor through borrowing rich imagery from socio-cultural topography of premodern Punjab, and situated it in context of local cultural ethos and literary conventions.
Vernacularization of Islam is the process through which the message and teachings of Islam adjust... more Vernacularization of Islam is the process through which the message and teachings of Islam adjusted and adapted in local regional environments outside Arabia. The universal principles of Islam were vernacularized in specific time and space, and contextualized or localized forms and expressions of Muslim piety emerged in these regions. The credit of vernacularization of Islam and Sufism in South Asia particularly goes to the sufis who challenged the Arabo-Persian linguistic hegemony by producing religious literature in vernacular languages and dialects, as a vast majority of the sufis depended less on Arabic and Persian for the popularization of the sufi message. They employed the medium of vernacular poetry to disseminate the message of Sufism among the common people. They contributed to the development of various scripts as well as new or existing literary genres such as siharfis, kafis,Prem-kahani or 'Sufi Romances,' and ginans, in order to popularize the teachings of Sufism in South Asia.
The Chishti Silsilah is one of the earliest sufi silsilahs introduced and popularized in India by... more The Chishti Silsilah is one of the earliest sufi silsilahs introduced and popularized in India by Khwaja Mu'in al-Din Chishti of Ajmer (d. 627/1230). It is considered the most popular as well as most Indianized of all the sufi silsilahs of South Asia, as its sufi masters vernacularized the message of Islam and Sufism in local context. What made them particularly endearing was their conviction in 'love for all' and religious inclusiveness. However, the Muslim nationalist historical works in Pakistan selectively highlight the role of sufis (especially the Naqshbandis) in South Asia. The sufis are presented as 'missionaries' or proselytizers of Islam, and as reformists fostering separate Muslim identity and consciousness. There is historiographical silence on Chishti Sufism in these works, as none of the celebrated Chishti sufi masters find any mention in them, nor their contribution in developing a social ethos reflecting religious harmony and cultural assimilation of the elite Turco-Persian and the local popular Indian culture is acknowledged. The nationalist narrative tends to view the past through the lens of the present day values, norms and contemporary circumstances. In a bid to justify the Two-nation Theory based on Hindu-Muslim separatism, it cites select historical evidence, and presses data in the service of a nationalist agenda. Marred by reductionism, it projects a much distorted view of the past, completely ignoring the role and contribution of the Chishti sufis in South Asian social and cultural history. The present study investigates why there is historiographical silence on Chishti Sufism in Muslim nationalist historical narrative, and undertakes its critical analysis to explore its underlying assumptions and misrepresentations of the historical role of the sufis.
In South Asian literary traditions, virahinī motif is commonly found in bhakti literature. A vira... more In South Asian literary traditions, virahinī motif is commonly found in bhakti literature. A virahinī woman or a wife separated from her lover or husband experiences the agony of separation, and thus intensely longs for her union with him. Symbolically, she represents the longing of the human souls for union with the Supreme deity. Particularly, in Vaishnava cults in Hinduism, the goal of a devotee's spiritual quest is to submit before Lord Krishna, which is expressed through the metaphor of submission of a wife before her husband. The feverish love of the virahinī is not unlike the sufi experience of 'ishq (heightened love of God coupled with intense longing for union with the Divine) based on the idea that human souls had been separated from their Divine source of origin, and thus had a burning desire to return to It. The virahinī motif is commonly found in South Asian sufi poetry, including the Punjabi sufi poetical tradition originating with Baba Farid. The sixteenth-century sufi, Shah Husayn of Lahore (1539-1593) employed the virahinī motif in his kāfīs to depict the sufi notion of alienation of human soul from God, and its desire for reunion. By doing so, he made a conscious attempt to vernacularize and indigenize the doctrines of Sufism in local socio-cultural context. Though he evoked the virahinī motif, which was in consonance with already existing literary conventions in India, he replaced Radha with Hir, depicting the latter as a virahinī (waiting for Ranjha, who symbolized God), since Hir is a more familiar character for the Punjabi audience.
As a phenomenon, androgyny is an ability to display both male and female characteristics in human... more As a phenomenon, androgyny is an ability to display both male and female characteristics in human identity through dress, ornaments, speech, body language and actions. Traditionally, androgynous behaviour is seen as a breach of standards of sexual norms and values, and gender-specific behaviour, and consequently, condemned and discouraged, but throughout human history, androgynous practices have existed in many cultures and religious traditions, wherein transformation of gender is viewed as a source of spiritual awakening. It exists as a symbolic practice in sufi culture, and is particularly associated with the socially non-conformist male sufis who take on the persona of women. Cross-dressed pilgrims can be seen at some of the sufi shrines as well. In South Asia, its most glaring example is Shaykh Musa 'Sadā Suhāg' (d. 1449) of Gujarat, who always dressed up as a female and wore female ornaments. However, some of the male sufis only occasionally adopted a feminine persona. Such androgyne sufis try to transcend normative gender categories, and redefine the concept of masculinity. Historically, some of them enjoyed popular esteem. Their androgynous behaviour was a metaphorical practice, which symbolized the idea of God's bride. In other words, it was a practical manifestation of that very idea.
The traditionalist or conservative Muslim view holds that the Quran-the sacred Book of Allah-is e... more The traditionalist or conservative Muslim view holds that the Quran-the sacred Book of Allah-is essentially untranslatable, and hence, it cannot and should not be translated in any other language. It has been argued that the concepts contained in the Quran cannot easily or appropriately be translated in other languages. In other words, other languages cannot grasp and capture the true meaning, essence and spirit of the Quran. Moreover, the task of translating the Quran in any language is considered to be difficult owing to conceptual, theological and linguistic limitations. Despite that, there have been uncountable attempts at translating the Quran in various languages. However, a translation of the Quran in any language is considered to be an interpretation, and not merely a translation. According to this view, translation subtly changes the meaning, and is thus called interpretation. Therefore, any attempt at translating the Quran is, in fact, an exegetical attempt. Historically, until recently such attempts had generally been looked upon with suspicion rather than admiration. Translations of the Quran in the languages such as Turkish, Persian and Urdu have now been generally approved of by the traditionalists. These so-called 'Islamized languages' contain many Arabic loan words. So while reading these translations, the reader can easily identify with/relate to the Qur'anic concepts, since the Quranic-Arabic religious terminology is retained. Translations in European languages such as English and German do not seem to be much objectionable to them. However, the case of translations of the Quran in languages such as Hindi, which are relatively uncommon, is somewhat different. Fazle Rahman's Hindi-Purabi translation of the Quran titled Manmohan ki Batain is one such attempt, which remained incomplete. Shah Fazle Rahman (b. 1208/1793-d. 1313/1895) of Ganj Muradabad was a Naqshbandi Sufi, and the founder of Silsilah-i Rahmaniyya, a sub-lineage of Naqshbandiyya, which is named after him. He had established his khanqah and seminary in Ganj
Sufism, the mystical tradition of Islam, is a living and a dynamic phenomenon. The sufis in South... more Sufism, the mystical tradition of Islam, is a living and a dynamic phenomenon. The sufis in South Asia have played a very crucial role in history, society, culture as well as politics. Many of them tried to vernacularize the message of Islam and Sufism, translating it in local context, and thus making the understanding and practice of Islam easier for the new converts. What made many of these sufis particularly endearing was their conviction in 'love for all' and religious inclusiveness, rooted in their belief in transcendent unity of all religions. This worldview is well-reflected in many genres of sufi literature including malfuz (conversations of the sufis) collections, tadhkirahs (hagiographical works), theosophical treatises as well as poetic compositions. Though the national narrative in Pakistan is not altogether silent on the role of sufis in South Asian history, it selectively highlights the role of some sufi groups, such as the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidis. The sufis in general are presented as 'missionaries' or proselytizers of Islam, and as reformists fostering separate Muslim identity and consciousness among the new converts to Islam. There is historiographical silence on the role and contribution of many celebrated sufis belonging to Chishti, Qadri, Shattari, Suhrawardi, Firdawsi and other silsilahs, as none of them find any mention in the national narrative, nor their contribution in developing a social ethos reflecting religious harmony and cultural assimilation of the migrant Turco-Persian elite and the local popular Indian culture is acknowledged. The proposed paper argues that the national narrative tends to view the past through the lens of the present day values, norms and contemporary realities. In its bid to justify the Two-nation Theory based on the idea of a perpetual Hindu-Muslim antagonism and separatism, it cites select historical evidence that supports this thesis. In fact, the narrative tries to press data in the service of a nationalist agenda. Marred by reductionism, the narrative projects a relatively distorted view of the past, ignoring the role and contribution of the sufis in South Asian social, cultural, religious and intellectual history in a holistic sense.
for International Conference on "Language, Literature and Society" (to be held in March 2016) In ... more for International Conference on "Language, Literature and Society" (to be held in March 2016) In Sufism, the mystical tradition of Islam, the concept of Divine love is quite central, and that is why, it is often referred to as the 'way of love'. One of the earliest articulations of the notion of selfless and unconditional love for God is attributed to an eighth-century sufi woman named Rabiah al-Adawiyah of Basrah (d. 801), who preached that one must love God for Himself alone, neither out of fear of hell, nor in greed for paradise. Later it became one of the major themes in sufi literature, and was further developed by sufi theorists like Ibn al-'Arabi (d. 1240) and Jalal al-Din Rumi (d. 1273). The poetic articulation of transcendent experience of Divine love by the sufis is often characterized by gendered imagery, since it has been (and can only be) expressed in metaphorical and figurative language by employing the idioms of temporal human love. Reversing their gender, many male sufi poets in premodern Punjab assumed the female persona. They spoke in the voice of ardent feminine lovers, while portraying God as the male Beloved. These sufi poets often evoked bridal metaphor as well, and identified themselves with a waiting bride or a loyal and devoted wife, whereas the Divine Self was symbolized by a groom or husband. The bridal symbolism is a well-attested tradition in South Asian sufi literature, particularly in sufi poetry in vernacular languages. The poetic exegesis of the Punjabi verses of Bulhe Shah of Qasur (1680-1758)-a sufi Qadiri-Shattari spiritual lineage, reveal that the bridal metaphor was not only indigenized and situated in context of local cultural ethos and literary conventions by him, its use was also expanded by him through borrowing rich imagery from socio-cultural topography of premodern Punjab.
The use of music in Islam is a controversial question. Some out rightly reject it as un-Islamic, ... more The use of music in Islam is a controversial question. Some out rightly reject it as un-Islamic, whereas others argue for its permissibility with conditions. Sufism or tasawwuff, the mystical tradition of Islam, lays great emphasis on inner meaning of all ritual observances. There are varied positions of sufi silsilahs/orders or individual sufis on sama (devotional sufi music). For instance, the sufis associated with Naqshbandiyya Mujaddidiyya tradition are generally considered anti-sama, but those associated with Mevlawiyya in Turkey and Chistiyya in South Asia are particularly known for their pro-sama stance. According to the latter groups, sama is permitted for ahl-i hal but not for the ahl-i qal. An early sufi, Dhu'l-Nun Misri (d. 861) stated: "Sama is a Divine influence which stirs the heart to see Allah; those who listen to it spiritually attain to Allah, and those who listen to it sensually fall into heresy." To sufis, sama is a form of dhikr (remembrance of God), and it is a source of mystic transcendence or transportation toward union with God. It activates one's link with a living spiritual guide, with the departed sufis of one's spiritual genealogy, and ultimately with God. In other words, sama is the language of spiritual quest and attainment. It is an instrument of revelation of higher and subtle truths. Music, in fact, heightens what is in the heart and mind of a listener. If the listener is filled with Divine Love, sama will enhance and intensify it. According to the sufi worldview, there is a philosophy behind the sufi practice of sama.
In South Asian literary traditions, virāhinī motif is commonly found in bhakti literature. A virā... more In South Asian literary traditions, virāhinī motif is commonly found in bhakti literature. A virāhinī is a woman or a wife separated from her lover or husband, experiences the agony of separation, and thus intensely longs for her union with him. Symbolically, she represents the longing of the human souls for union with the Supreme deity. Particularly, in Vaishnava cults in Hinduism, the goal of a devotee's spiritual quest is to submit before Lord Krishna, which is expressed through the metaphor of submission of a wife before her husband. The feverish love of virāhinī is similar to the sufi notion of 'ishq (heightened love coupled with intense longing for union) based on the idea that the human souls had been separated from their Divine source of origin, and thus had a burning desire to return to it. The virāhinī motif is commonly found in South Asian sufi poetry, including the Punjabi sufi poetical tradition originating with Baba Farid. The sixteenth-century sufi, Shah Husayn of Lahore (1539-1593) employed the virāhinī motif to depict the sufi notion of alienation of human soul from God, and its desire for union. By doing so, he made a conscious attempt to vernacularize and indigenize the doctrines of Sufism in local socio-cultural context. Though he evoked the virāhinī motif, which was in consonance with already existing literary conventions in India, he replaced Radha with Hir, depicting the latter as a virāhinī (waiting for Ranjha, who symbolized God), since Hir is a more familiar character for the Punjabi audience.
In Sufism, the mystical tradition of Islam, the concept of Divine love is quite central, and that... more In Sufism, the mystical tradition of Islam, the concept of Divine love is quite central, and that is why, it is often referred to as the 'way of love'. The sufi notion of universal or cosmic love embraces the entire universe and the creation within. To the sufis, this cosmic love-the cause behind all causes-brings out all existence out of nothingness. One of the earliest articulations of the notion of disinterested/selfless and unconditional love for God is attributed to an eighth-century sufi woman named Rabiah al-Adawiyah of Basrah (d. 801), who preached that one must love God for Himself alone, neither out of fear of hell, nor in greed for paradise. This notion of Divine love later became one of the major themes in sufi literature, and was further developed by sufis like Jalal al-Din Rumi (d. 1273) who elaborated upon the sufi philosophy of 'ishq (intensified love coupled with passionate longing), and argued that the human souls had been separated from their Divine source of origin, and so had a burning desire to return to it. The poetic articulation of transcendent experience of Divine love by the sufis is often characterized by gendered imagery, since it has been (and can only be) expressed in metaphorical and figurative language by employing the idioms of temporal human love. Reversing their gender, many male sufi poets in premodern Punjab assumed the female persona. They spoke in the voice of ardent feminine lovers, while portraying God as the male Beloved. These sufi poets often evoked bridal metaphor as well, and identified themselves with a waiting bride or a loyal and devoted wife, whereas the Divine Self was symbolized by a groom or husband. This phenomenon of 'bridal mysticism' or the notion of spiritual marriage can be found in mystical traditions of other world religions. The idea of 'Bride of God' is found in the Old and New Testaments, as well as in Catholicism, Judaism, Vaishnavite Hinduism, Bhakti tradition and Sikhism. The bridal symbolism is a well-attested tradition in South Asian sufi literature, particularly in sufi poetry in vernacular languages like Hindavi, Punjabi, Sindhi, Saraiki, Gujrati and Marathi, etc. The poetic exegesis of the Punjabi verses of Shah Husayn of Lahore (1539-1593)-a libertine and non-conformist sixteenth-century sufi, reveal that the bridal metaphor was not only indigenized and situated in context of local cultural ethos and literary conventions by him, its use was also expanded by him through borrowing rich imagery from socio-cultural topography of premodern Punjab.
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