The Fo yi jing 佛醫經 T793, a short text, discusses physical and mental health, presenting its conte... more The Fo yi jing 佛醫經 T793, a short text, discusses physical and mental health, presenting its content as the teachings of the Buddha. The Taishō presents the text as translated by Zhu Lüyan 竺律炎 and Zhi Qian 支謙 . We survey bibliographic records to propose that this attribution is unreliable. Using computer assisted analysis, we locate passages in the text possibly borrowed from early Chinese sources, among them most notably An Shigao’s 安世高 Jiu heng jing 九橫經 T150A(31) . These findings indicate that T793 was probably compiled in China on the basis of various sources. We also find that some basic early Buddhist teachings, such as the four nutriments (āhāra) and rules regarding the eating of meat, are misunderstood or misrepresented in T793 . Taking into account some terms and phrases in T793 that occur more frequently in translations in the Western Jin period, we suggest that T793 is likely a compilation made between the late third and early fourth centuries. It is thus probably one of the earliest extant Chinese compositions of this kind.
Buddhist scholars in the West broadly agree with the proposition that Buddhism has a philosophica... more Buddhist scholars in the West broadly agree with the proposition that Buddhism has a philosophical tradition, in many respects comparable to Western ones, while many claim that it also has a practical or empirical dimension that Western philosophies, especially the analytic tradition, lack. There is also a scholarly consensus that an implicit metaphysical system serves as the foundation for the doctrines and practices of early Buddhism as represented in the Pāli suttas. However, Buddhist scholarship to date has not distinguished clearly between philosophical speculations, on the one hand, and on the other, teachings based on experience and practice. This study explores early Buddhist texts’ concept of “domain” (viṣaya/visaya, 境界), which encompasses both an experiential domain and a linguistic framework; i.e., a word is only valid within its own domain, and fails to refer beyond it. As such, it closely resembles Rudolf Carnap’s ideas of “internal” and “external” questions regarding linguistic frameworks, and his suggestion that metaphysical questions, considered as external questions, are meaningless and cannot be answered. More specifically, the Buddha’s refusal to directly answer the “unanswered” questions may indicate that early Buddhism took an attitude similar to Carnap’s rejection of metaphysics. Moreover, textual evidence suggests that teachings such as impermanence and dependent origination, though they may appear to be “metaphysical” to modern readers, are in fact empirical in the context of the early suttas.
In her 2010 study of the Shi zhu duan jie jing 十住斷結經 T309, Jan Nattier found that several passage... more In her 2010 study of the Shi zhu duan jie jing 十住斷結經 T309, Jan Nattier found that several passages in T309 were copied from earlier Chinese Buddhist texts. She thus proposed that T309 is not a translation from an Indian text, but a “forgery” by Zhu Fonian. Extending Nattier’s analysis with the help of TACL, a tool for computational textual analysis, we conducted a more thorough analysis of Zhu Fonian’s four Mahāyāna texts, namely, T309, the Pusa chu tai jing 菩薩處胎經 T384, the Zhongyin jin 中陰經 T385, and the Pusa yingluo jing 菩薩瓔珞經 T656, and found in T309 and T656 additional content deriving from earlier Chinese texts. On the basis of this analysis of these features of the texts, we propose that all four were likely compiled by Zhu Fonian himself.
Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 2019
The Satipaṭṭhānasutta teaches the meditation practice of contemplating four types of objects (bod... more The Satipaṭṭhānasutta teaches the meditation practice of contemplating four types of objects (body, feelings, mind, and mental qualities). Its refrain instructs the meditator to contemplate each object 'internally' (ajjhattaṃ), 'externally' (bahiddhā), and both internally and externally (ajjhattabahiddhā). What 'internally' and 'externally' mean in this context have puzzled both ancient commentators and modern practitioners. The dominant traditional interpretation understands 'internally' as referring to oneself, and 'externally' to other beings. This study surveys various interpretations preserved in both northern and southern commentarial and Abhidharma texts, including the Pāli Abhidhamma and commentaries, the Śāriputrābhidharma, the Dharmaskandha, the Mahāvibhāṣā, the Da zhidu lun (*Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa), and the Śrāvakabhūmi. Most of these interpretations gloss the adverbs ajjhattaṃ and bahiddhā as adjectives and devote great efforts to classify relevant phenomena as internal or external. However, this study suggests that the 'oneself vs. other beings' interpretation does not fit well in the context of early Buddhist sūtra texts. With the help of passages from Āgama/Nikāya sūtras, the author proposes that the adjectives 'internal' and 'external' more likely refer to the subjective and objective aspects regarding a meditative experience. Moreover, in the sentence ajjhattaṃ/bahiddhā kāye kāyānupassī viharati, the adverbs ajjhattaṃ/bahiddhā qualify the verb instead of the noun, hence it should be more suitable to understand the sentence as 'considering the body as the subjective/objective aspects of experience'. Such an understanding can also be supported by the interpretation proposed in the Mahāvibhāṣā that relates the internal/external contemplations to the elimination of the 'personal entity views' (satkāyadṛṣṭi/sakkāyadiṭṭhi).
(PhD Dissertation, 2015. University of Washington, Seattle, USA.) This dissertation is an in-dept... more (PhD Dissertation, 2015. University of Washington, Seattle, USA.) This dissertation is an in-depth study of the dispute on the doctrines regarding the structure of mind as recorded in the fourth century CE Abhidharma work, the *Tattvasiddhi (成實論, TatSid hereafter) by Harivarman. Despite the specific differences among the various Buddhist Abhidharma analyses of mind, in general they can be divided into two major positions. Some propose that mind is composed of consciousness (citta or vijñāna) and various numbers of mental factors (caitasika or caitta), which are mental phenomena that are different from but associated (saṃprayukta) with consciousness. Others oppose the existence of caitasikas as entities separate from consciousness; instead they suggest that caitasikas are not different from citta by nature but are only citta in different modes. In chapters 60-67, the TatSid records arguments representing both sides of the dispute. The present study consists of an annotated English translation (chapter 5) of chapters 60-67 of the TatSid as well as detailed analyses of and comments on each of the arguments for or against the notions of “mental factor” (caitasika) (chapter 2) and “association” (saṃprayoga) (chapter 3). The study also includes a general introduction (chapter 1), and in the introductory sections in chapters 2 and 3 extensive surveys of the origins and development of the two interconnected doctrines regarding caitasika and saṃprayoga in the sūtras, Abhidharma, and Yogācāra texts. Unlike previous scholarship on the TatSid, which views the work primarily from the perspective of doctrinal history and investigates the sectarian or school affiliations of its arguments, the present study is based firstly on the textual and philological examination of the work itself as well as the texts quoted in it. This textual investigation reveals that Harivarman and the TatSid have a close relationship with the Sarvāstivāda lineage, and the doctrinal positions of Harivarman regarding the structure of mind bear great affinities with those of the so-called Dārṣṭāntikas as recorded in other Abhidharma texts. In addition, by comparing extensively the cited texts and the doctrinal positions in the arguments of the TatSid with the sūtras and extant Abhidharma and Yogācāra texts, this study also demonstrates how Buddhist teachers differed in their understanding of fundamental Buddhist doctrines and also how doctrines changed throughout history.
(MA thesis, 2003. Bristol University, UK) Dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda) is not only on... more (MA thesis, 2003. Bristol University, UK) Dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda) is not only one of the most important Buddhist doctrines, but also one of the most difficult to understand as well. Presently, scholarship is divided—there exist many controversies and disputes relating to the understanding of dependent origination. This dissertation represents the first stage of a research to seek an understanding of the doctrine of dependent origination. The first chapter surveys the present literature of dependent origination, both from European languages and Japanese sources. The second chapter is a list of the major occurrences of dependent origination, it is made based on part of Mitsuyoshi Saigusa’s sutta-by-sutta list, and I re-organize and categorize the instances according to Saigusa’s categorization system. The third chapter summarizes the explanations regarding the variations of the twelve-linked formula of dependent origination from the Vaibhāṣika and the Pāli traditions. It also summarizes the works by modern Japanese scholars Hajime Nakamura and Mitsuyoshi Saigusa concerning the formation and development of the standard twelve-linked formula. Finally, I evaluate the fundamental premises held by scholars like Nakamura and Saigusa, and conclude that the evidence they employ do not sufficiently support their conclusion.
The Fo yi jing 佛醫經 T793, a short text, discusses physical and mental health, presenting its conte... more The Fo yi jing 佛醫經 T793, a short text, discusses physical and mental health, presenting its content as the teachings of the Buddha. The Taishō presents the text as translated by Zhu Lüyan 竺律炎 and Zhi Qian 支謙 . We survey bibliographic records to propose that this attribution is unreliable. Using computer assisted analysis, we locate passages in the text possibly borrowed from early Chinese sources, among them most notably An Shigao’s 安世高 Jiu heng jing 九橫經 T150A(31) . These findings indicate that T793 was probably compiled in China on the basis of various sources. We also find that some basic early Buddhist teachings, such as the four nutriments (āhāra) and rules regarding the eating of meat, are misunderstood or misrepresented in T793 . Taking into account some terms and phrases in T793 that occur more frequently in translations in the Western Jin period, we suggest that T793 is likely a compilation made between the late third and early fourth centuries. It is thus probably one of the earliest extant Chinese compositions of this kind.
Buddhist scholars in the West broadly agree with the proposition that Buddhism has a philosophica... more Buddhist scholars in the West broadly agree with the proposition that Buddhism has a philosophical tradition, in many respects comparable to Western ones, while many claim that it also has a practical or empirical dimension that Western philosophies, especially the analytic tradition, lack. There is also a scholarly consensus that an implicit metaphysical system serves as the foundation for the doctrines and practices of early Buddhism as represented in the Pāli suttas. However, Buddhist scholarship to date has not distinguished clearly between philosophical speculations, on the one hand, and on the other, teachings based on experience and practice. This study explores early Buddhist texts’ concept of “domain” (viṣaya/visaya, 境界), which encompasses both an experiential domain and a linguistic framework; i.e., a word is only valid within its own domain, and fails to refer beyond it. As such, it closely resembles Rudolf Carnap’s ideas of “internal” and “external” questions regarding linguistic frameworks, and his suggestion that metaphysical questions, considered as external questions, are meaningless and cannot be answered. More specifically, the Buddha’s refusal to directly answer the “unanswered” questions may indicate that early Buddhism took an attitude similar to Carnap’s rejection of metaphysics. Moreover, textual evidence suggests that teachings such as impermanence and dependent origination, though they may appear to be “metaphysical” to modern readers, are in fact empirical in the context of the early suttas.
In her 2010 study of the Shi zhu duan jie jing 十住斷結經 T309, Jan Nattier found that several passage... more In her 2010 study of the Shi zhu duan jie jing 十住斷結經 T309, Jan Nattier found that several passages in T309 were copied from earlier Chinese Buddhist texts. She thus proposed that T309 is not a translation from an Indian text, but a “forgery” by Zhu Fonian. Extending Nattier’s analysis with the help of TACL, a tool for computational textual analysis, we conducted a more thorough analysis of Zhu Fonian’s four Mahāyāna texts, namely, T309, the Pusa chu tai jing 菩薩處胎經 T384, the Zhongyin jin 中陰經 T385, and the Pusa yingluo jing 菩薩瓔珞經 T656, and found in T309 and T656 additional content deriving from earlier Chinese texts. On the basis of this analysis of these features of the texts, we propose that all four were likely compiled by Zhu Fonian himself.
Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 2019
The Satipaṭṭhānasutta teaches the meditation practice of contemplating four types of objects (bod... more The Satipaṭṭhānasutta teaches the meditation practice of contemplating four types of objects (body, feelings, mind, and mental qualities). Its refrain instructs the meditator to contemplate each object 'internally' (ajjhattaṃ), 'externally' (bahiddhā), and both internally and externally (ajjhattabahiddhā). What 'internally' and 'externally' mean in this context have puzzled both ancient commentators and modern practitioners. The dominant traditional interpretation understands 'internally' as referring to oneself, and 'externally' to other beings. This study surveys various interpretations preserved in both northern and southern commentarial and Abhidharma texts, including the Pāli Abhidhamma and commentaries, the Śāriputrābhidharma, the Dharmaskandha, the Mahāvibhāṣā, the Da zhidu lun (*Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa), and the Śrāvakabhūmi. Most of these interpretations gloss the adverbs ajjhattaṃ and bahiddhā as adjectives and devote great efforts to classify relevant phenomena as internal or external. However, this study suggests that the 'oneself vs. other beings' interpretation does not fit well in the context of early Buddhist sūtra texts. With the help of passages from Āgama/Nikāya sūtras, the author proposes that the adjectives 'internal' and 'external' more likely refer to the subjective and objective aspects regarding a meditative experience. Moreover, in the sentence ajjhattaṃ/bahiddhā kāye kāyānupassī viharati, the adverbs ajjhattaṃ/bahiddhā qualify the verb instead of the noun, hence it should be more suitable to understand the sentence as 'considering the body as the subjective/objective aspects of experience'. Such an understanding can also be supported by the interpretation proposed in the Mahāvibhāṣā that relates the internal/external contemplations to the elimination of the 'personal entity views' (satkāyadṛṣṭi/sakkāyadiṭṭhi).
(PhD Dissertation, 2015. University of Washington, Seattle, USA.) This dissertation is an in-dept... more (PhD Dissertation, 2015. University of Washington, Seattle, USA.) This dissertation is an in-depth study of the dispute on the doctrines regarding the structure of mind as recorded in the fourth century CE Abhidharma work, the *Tattvasiddhi (成實論, TatSid hereafter) by Harivarman. Despite the specific differences among the various Buddhist Abhidharma analyses of mind, in general they can be divided into two major positions. Some propose that mind is composed of consciousness (citta or vijñāna) and various numbers of mental factors (caitasika or caitta), which are mental phenomena that are different from but associated (saṃprayukta) with consciousness. Others oppose the existence of caitasikas as entities separate from consciousness; instead they suggest that caitasikas are not different from citta by nature but are only citta in different modes. In chapters 60-67, the TatSid records arguments representing both sides of the dispute. The present study consists of an annotated English translation (chapter 5) of chapters 60-67 of the TatSid as well as detailed analyses of and comments on each of the arguments for or against the notions of “mental factor” (caitasika) (chapter 2) and “association” (saṃprayoga) (chapter 3). The study also includes a general introduction (chapter 1), and in the introductory sections in chapters 2 and 3 extensive surveys of the origins and development of the two interconnected doctrines regarding caitasika and saṃprayoga in the sūtras, Abhidharma, and Yogācāra texts. Unlike previous scholarship on the TatSid, which views the work primarily from the perspective of doctrinal history and investigates the sectarian or school affiliations of its arguments, the present study is based firstly on the textual and philological examination of the work itself as well as the texts quoted in it. This textual investigation reveals that Harivarman and the TatSid have a close relationship with the Sarvāstivāda lineage, and the doctrinal positions of Harivarman regarding the structure of mind bear great affinities with those of the so-called Dārṣṭāntikas as recorded in other Abhidharma texts. In addition, by comparing extensively the cited texts and the doctrinal positions in the arguments of the TatSid with the sūtras and extant Abhidharma and Yogācāra texts, this study also demonstrates how Buddhist teachers differed in their understanding of fundamental Buddhist doctrines and also how doctrines changed throughout history.
(MA thesis, 2003. Bristol University, UK) Dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda) is not only on... more (MA thesis, 2003. Bristol University, UK) Dependent origination (paṭiccasamuppāda) is not only one of the most important Buddhist doctrines, but also one of the most difficult to understand as well. Presently, scholarship is divided—there exist many controversies and disputes relating to the understanding of dependent origination. This dissertation represents the first stage of a research to seek an understanding of the doctrine of dependent origination. The first chapter surveys the present literature of dependent origination, both from European languages and Japanese sources. The second chapter is a list of the major occurrences of dependent origination, it is made based on part of Mitsuyoshi Saigusa’s sutta-by-sutta list, and I re-organize and categorize the instances according to Saigusa’s categorization system. The third chapter summarizes the explanations regarding the variations of the twelve-linked formula of dependent origination from the Vaibhāṣika and the Pāli traditions. It also summarizes the works by modern Japanese scholars Hajime Nakamura and Mitsuyoshi Saigusa concerning the formation and development of the standard twelve-linked formula. Finally, I evaluate the fundamental premises held by scholars like Nakamura and Saigusa, and conclude that the evidence they employ do not sufficiently support their conclusion.
Uploads
Articles by Lin Qian
Book Review by Lin Qian
Dissertations by Lin Qian
Unlike previous scholarship on the TatSid, which views the work primarily from the perspective of doctrinal history and investigates the sectarian or school affiliations of its arguments, the present study is based firstly on the textual and philological examination of the work itself as well as the texts quoted in it. This textual investigation reveals that Harivarman and the TatSid have a close relationship with the Sarvāstivāda lineage, and the doctrinal positions of Harivarman regarding the structure of mind bear great affinities with those of the so-called Dārṣṭāntikas as recorded in other Abhidharma texts. In addition, by comparing extensively the cited texts and the doctrinal positions in the arguments of the TatSid with the sūtras and extant Abhidharma and Yogācāra texts, this study also demonstrates how Buddhist teachers differed in their understanding of fundamental Buddhist doctrines and also how doctrines changed throughout history.
chapter surveys the present literature of dependent origination, both from European languages and Japanese sources. The second chapter is a list of the major occurrences of dependent origination, it is made based on part of Mitsuyoshi Saigusa’s sutta-by-sutta list, and I re-organize and categorize the instances according to Saigusa’s categorization system. The third chapter summarizes the explanations
regarding the variations of the twelve-linked formula of dependent origination from the Vaibhāṣika and the Pāli traditions. It also summarizes the works by modern Japanese scholars Hajime Nakamura and Mitsuyoshi Saigusa concerning the formation and development of the standard twelve-linked formula. Finally, I evaluate the fundamental premises held by scholars like Nakamura and Saigusa, and conclude
that the evidence they employ do not sufficiently support their conclusion.
Unlike previous scholarship on the TatSid, which views the work primarily from the perspective of doctrinal history and investigates the sectarian or school affiliations of its arguments, the present study is based firstly on the textual and philological examination of the work itself as well as the texts quoted in it. This textual investigation reveals that Harivarman and the TatSid have a close relationship with the Sarvāstivāda lineage, and the doctrinal positions of Harivarman regarding the structure of mind bear great affinities with those of the so-called Dārṣṭāntikas as recorded in other Abhidharma texts. In addition, by comparing extensively the cited texts and the doctrinal positions in the arguments of the TatSid with the sūtras and extant Abhidharma and Yogācāra texts, this study also demonstrates how Buddhist teachers differed in their understanding of fundamental Buddhist doctrines and also how doctrines changed throughout history.
chapter surveys the present literature of dependent origination, both from European languages and Japanese sources. The second chapter is a list of the major occurrences of dependent origination, it is made based on part of Mitsuyoshi Saigusa’s sutta-by-sutta list, and I re-organize and categorize the instances according to Saigusa’s categorization system. The third chapter summarizes the explanations
regarding the variations of the twelve-linked formula of dependent origination from the Vaibhāṣika and the Pāli traditions. It also summarizes the works by modern Japanese scholars Hajime Nakamura and Mitsuyoshi Saigusa concerning the formation and development of the standard twelve-linked formula. Finally, I evaluate the fundamental premises held by scholars like Nakamura and Saigusa, and conclude
that the evidence they employ do not sufficiently support their conclusion.