Despite similar emotional deficiencies, primary psychopathic individuals can be situated on a con... more Despite similar emotional deficiencies, primary psychopathic individuals can be situated on a continuum that spans from controlled to disinhibited. The constructs on which primary psychopaths are found to diverge, such as self-control, cognitive flexibility, and executive functioning, are crucially regulated by dopamine (DA). As such, the goal of this review is to examine which specific alterations in the meso-cortico-limbic DA system and corresponding genes (e.g., TH, DAT, COMT, DRD2, DRD4) might bias development towards a more controlled or disinhibited expression of primary psychopathy. Based on empirical data, it is argued that primary psychopathy is generally related to a higher tonic and population activity of striatal DA neurons and lower levels of D2-type DA receptors in meso-cortico-limbic projections, which may boost motivational drive towards incentive-laden goals, dampen punishment sensitivity, and increase future reward-expectancy. However, increasingly higher levels of DA activity in the striatum (moderate versus pathological elevations), lower levels of DA functionality in the prefrontal cortex, and higher D1-to-D2-type receptor ratios in meso-cortico-limbic projections may lead to increasingly disinhibited and impetuous phenotypes of primary psychopathy. Finally, in order to provide a more coherent view on etiological mechanisms, we discuss interactions between DA and serotonin that are relevant for primary psychopathy.
Psychopathic individuals identified through contemporary instruments vary considerably in persona... more Psychopathic individuals identified through contemporary instruments vary considerably in personality and etiological background, which creates confusion in practice and inconsistency in data. The goal of this paper is to clarify this heterogeneity and introduce a new typology to narrow down psychopathic subcategories. Towards this end, we will discuss the conceptual history of psychopathy, compare the construct-validity of different psychopathy measures (DSM, PCL-R, PPI-R, and TriPM), and review cluster-analytic studies to identify more homogenous categories. In line with the existing literature, the psychopathic population is broadly divided into a primary and secondary category which diverge crucially in personality (reward/punishment sensitivity, neuroticism, impulsivity, hostility) and etiology (genetic contributions, fronto-limbic circuitry, serotonergic functioning, and testosterone/cortisol endocrinology). Secondary psychopathy may be situated on a continuum with the antisocial or borderline personality disorder because it represents a more severe but not qualitatively different form of environment-contingent emotional disturbance (e.g., prefrontal cortex malfunctioning, serotonin deficiency, impaired predictive allostasis), whereas primary psychopathy is an unique condition that is strongly rooted in a constitutionally defined emotional deficiency (e.g., limbic hyporesponsivity, serotonin hyperstability, dampened reactive allostasis). However, both primary and secondary psychopathic samples show high levels of within-group heterogeneity and may be placed on their own continuum of, respectively, self-control and affect instability. Concluding, we will introduce a new continuum of primary psychopathy (controlled to disinhibited) and secondary psychopathy (detached to unstable) and discuss how these subtypes may differ on a number of psychopathy measures, personality profiles, and endophenotypic pathways. Finally, future directions for resolving conceptual issues are discussed.
Since its theoretical inception, psychopathy has been considered by philosophers, clinicians, the... more Since its theoretical inception, psychopathy has been considered by philosophers, clinicians, theorists, and empirical researchers to be substantially and critically explained by genetic factors. In this systematic review and structural analysis, new hypotheses will be introduced regarding gene–gene and gene–environment interactions in the etiology of psychopathy and sociopathy. Theory and research from neurobiological and behavioral sciences will be integrated in order to place this work in a broader conceptual framework and promote synergy across fields. First, a between groups comparison between psychopathy and sociopathy is made based on their specific dysfunctions in emotional processing, behavioral profiles, etiological pathways, HPA-axis functioning, and serotonergic profiles. Next, it is examined how various polymorphisms in serotonergic genes (e.g., TPH, 5HTT, HTR1A, HTR2A, HTR2C, and HTR3) might contribute either individually or interactively to the development of these disorders and through which specific biological and behavioral endophenotypes this effect could be mediated. A short introduction is made into mediating variables such as GABAergic functioning and testosterone which could potentially alter the decisive effect of serotonergic genotypes on behavior and physiology. Finally, critical commentary is presented on how to interpret the hypotheses put forward in this review.
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Testosterone (T) has received increasing interest in the recent years as a probable biological... more "
Testosterone (T) has received increasing interest in the recent years as a probable biological determinant in the etiology of male-biased clinical conditions such as psychopathy. (i.e. psychopathy is more prevalent in men and leads to an earlier onset and more severe expression of antisocial and aggressive behavior in men compared to women). In this review, the authors evaluated the potential relationship between T and different constructs closely related to the core characteristics of psychopathy (affective empathy, fear-reactivity, and instrumental aggression). After a thorough examination of the literature, it is concluded that a high fetal T exposure and high circulating T levels throughout important life phases (most notably adolescence) or in response to social challenges (e.g. social stress, competition), could be an important etiological risk factor in the emergence of psychopathic behavior. Nevertheless, studies consistently indicate that high T is not related to a significantly reduced fear-reactivity and only indirectly associated with the increased levels of instrumental aggression observed in psychopathic individuals. Therefore, psychopathic behavior is likely to arise from an interaction between high T levels and other endocrinological and socio-psychological risk factors, such as a constitutionally based dampened fear-reactivity, insecure/disordered attachment processes in childhood, and social discrimination/rejection in adolescence and/or adulthood.
Despite similar emotional deficiencies, primary psychopathic individuals can be situated on a con... more Despite similar emotional deficiencies, primary psychopathic individuals can be situated on a continuum that spans from controlled to disinhibited. The constructs on which primary psychopaths are found to diverge, such as self-control, cognitive flexibility, and executive functioning, are crucially regulated by dopamine (DA). As such, the goal of this review is to examine which specific alterations in the meso-cortico-limbic DA system and corresponding genes (e.g., TH, DAT, COMT, DRD2, DRD4) might bias development towards a more controlled or disinhibited expression of primary psychopathy. Based on empirical data, it is argued that primary psychopathy is generally related to a higher tonic and population activity of striatal DA neurons and lower levels of D2-type DA receptors in meso-cortico-limbic projections, which may boost motivational drive towards incentive-laden goals, dampen punishment sensitivity, and increase future reward-expectancy. However, increasingly higher levels of DA activity in the striatum (moderate versus pathological elevations), lower levels of DA functionality in the prefrontal cortex, and higher D1-to-D2-type receptor ratios in meso-cortico-limbic projections may lead to increasingly disinhibited and impetuous phenotypes of primary psychopathy. Finally, in order to provide a more coherent view on etiological mechanisms, we discuss interactions between DA and serotonin that are relevant for primary psychopathy.
Psychopathic individuals identified through contemporary instruments vary considerably in persona... more Psychopathic individuals identified through contemporary instruments vary considerably in personality and etiological background, which creates confusion in practice and inconsistency in data. The goal of this paper is to clarify this heterogeneity and introduce a new typology to narrow down psychopathic subcategories. Towards this end, we will discuss the conceptual history of psychopathy, compare the construct-validity of different psychopathy measures (DSM, PCL-R, PPI-R, and TriPM), and review cluster-analytic studies to identify more homogenous categories. In line with the existing literature, the psychopathic population is broadly divided into a primary and secondary category which diverge crucially in personality (reward/punishment sensitivity, neuroticism, impulsivity, hostility) and etiology (genetic contributions, fronto-limbic circuitry, serotonergic functioning, and testosterone/cortisol endocrinology). Secondary psychopathy may be situated on a continuum with the antisocial or borderline personality disorder because it represents a more severe but not qualitatively different form of environment-contingent emotional disturbance (e.g., prefrontal cortex malfunctioning, serotonin deficiency, impaired predictive allostasis), whereas primary psychopathy is an unique condition that is strongly rooted in a constitutionally defined emotional deficiency (e.g., limbic hyporesponsivity, serotonin hyperstability, dampened reactive allostasis). However, both primary and secondary psychopathic samples show high levels of within-group heterogeneity and may be placed on their own continuum of, respectively, self-control and affect instability. Concluding, we will introduce a new continuum of primary psychopathy (controlled to disinhibited) and secondary psychopathy (detached to unstable) and discuss how these subtypes may differ on a number of psychopathy measures, personality profiles, and endophenotypic pathways. Finally, future directions for resolving conceptual issues are discussed.
Since its theoretical inception, psychopathy has been considered by philosophers, clinicians, the... more Since its theoretical inception, psychopathy has been considered by philosophers, clinicians, theorists, and empirical researchers to be substantially and critically explained by genetic factors. In this systematic review and structural analysis, new hypotheses will be introduced regarding gene–gene and gene–environment interactions in the etiology of psychopathy and sociopathy. Theory and research from neurobiological and behavioral sciences will be integrated in order to place this work in a broader conceptual framework and promote synergy across fields. First, a between groups comparison between psychopathy and sociopathy is made based on their specific dysfunctions in emotional processing, behavioral profiles, etiological pathways, HPA-axis functioning, and serotonergic profiles. Next, it is examined how various polymorphisms in serotonergic genes (e.g., TPH, 5HTT, HTR1A, HTR2A, HTR2C, and HTR3) might contribute either individually or interactively to the development of these disorders and through which specific biological and behavioral endophenotypes this effect could be mediated. A short introduction is made into mediating variables such as GABAergic functioning and testosterone which could potentially alter the decisive effect of serotonergic genotypes on behavior and physiology. Finally, critical commentary is presented on how to interpret the hypotheses put forward in this review.
"
Testosterone (T) has received increasing interest in the recent years as a probable biological... more "
Testosterone (T) has received increasing interest in the recent years as a probable biological determinant in the etiology of male-biased clinical conditions such as psychopathy. (i.e. psychopathy is more prevalent in men and leads to an earlier onset and more severe expression of antisocial and aggressive behavior in men compared to women). In this review, the authors evaluated the potential relationship between T and different constructs closely related to the core characteristics of psychopathy (affective empathy, fear-reactivity, and instrumental aggression). After a thorough examination of the literature, it is concluded that a high fetal T exposure and high circulating T levels throughout important life phases (most notably adolescence) or in response to social challenges (e.g. social stress, competition), could be an important etiological risk factor in the emergence of psychopathic behavior. Nevertheless, studies consistently indicate that high T is not related to a significantly reduced fear-reactivity and only indirectly associated with the increased levels of instrumental aggression observed in psychopathic individuals. Therefore, psychopathic behavior is likely to arise from an interaction between high T levels and other endocrinological and socio-psychological risk factors, such as a constitutionally based dampened fear-reactivity, insecure/disordered attachment processes in childhood, and social discrimination/rejection in adolescence and/or adulthood.
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Testosterone (T) has received increasing interest in the recent years as a probable biological determinant in the etiology of male-biased clinical conditions such as psychopathy. (i.e. psychopathy is more prevalent in men and leads to an earlier onset and more severe expression of antisocial and aggressive behavior in men compared to women). In this review, the authors evaluated the potential relationship between T and different constructs closely related to the core characteristics of psychopathy (affective empathy, fear-reactivity, and instrumental aggression). After a thorough examination of the literature, it is concluded that a high fetal T exposure and high circulating T levels throughout important life phases (most notably adolescence) or in response to social challenges (e.g. social stress, competition), could be an important etiological risk factor in the emergence of psychopathic behavior. Nevertheless, studies consistently indicate that high T is not related to a significantly reduced fear-reactivity and only indirectly associated with the increased levels of instrumental aggression observed in psychopathic individuals. Therefore, psychopathic behavior is likely to arise from an interaction between high T levels and other endocrinological and socio-psychological risk factors, such as a constitutionally based dampened fear-reactivity, insecure/disordered attachment processes in childhood, and social discrimination/rejection in adolescence and/or adulthood.
Keywords: Gender differences, Testosterone, Affective empathy, Fear-reactivity, Instrumental aggression.
"
Testosterone (T) has received increasing interest in the recent years as a probable biological determinant in the etiology of male-biased clinical conditions such as psychopathy. (i.e. psychopathy is more prevalent in men and leads to an earlier onset and more severe expression of antisocial and aggressive behavior in men compared to women). In this review, the authors evaluated the potential relationship between T and different constructs closely related to the core characteristics of psychopathy (affective empathy, fear-reactivity, and instrumental aggression). After a thorough examination of the literature, it is concluded that a high fetal T exposure and high circulating T levels throughout important life phases (most notably adolescence) or in response to social challenges (e.g. social stress, competition), could be an important etiological risk factor in the emergence of psychopathic behavior. Nevertheless, studies consistently indicate that high T is not related to a significantly reduced fear-reactivity and only indirectly associated with the increased levels of instrumental aggression observed in psychopathic individuals. Therefore, psychopathic behavior is likely to arise from an interaction between high T levels and other endocrinological and socio-psychological risk factors, such as a constitutionally based dampened fear-reactivity, insecure/disordered attachment processes in childhood, and social discrimination/rejection in adolescence and/or adulthood.
Keywords: Gender differences, Testosterone, Affective empathy, Fear-reactivity, Instrumental aggression.
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