Animal Secondary Products: Domestic Animal Exploitation in Prehistoric Europe, the Near East and the Far East, 2014
Numerous zooarchaeological studies have associated caprine (sheep and goats) husbandry in the sou... more Numerous zooarchaeological studies have associated caprine (sheep and goats) husbandry in the southern Levantine Bronze and Iron Age with a market economy and interpreted the mortality profiles as a result of specialised production practices focusing on meant, milk, or wool. Sixty-five caprine mortality profiles were studied in order to test two primary economic models of herd production--market-economy and the survival subsistence strategy. The first model implies specialised production with the goal of generating profits, while the second strives to minimise risks and maximise stability. Based on the clear pattern of utilisation of caprines for all their products (meat, milk, and wool) that emerged from the analysis, it is proposed that mortality profiles reflect herd management that coincides with a survival subsistence strategy and exploitation of caprines for full range of products.
1 Introduction 1
On the zooarchaeological perspective 1
The zooarchaeological research of the Bro... more 1 Introduction 1 On the zooarchaeological perspective 1 The zooarchaeological research of the Bronze and Iron Age in Israel: a brief overview 2 What is this book about? 4 2 A Comparative Perspective: The Survival Subsistence Strategy— Animal Husbandry and Economic Strategies in the Bronze and Iron Age 6 Introduction 6 The survival subsistence strategy 10 Subsistence strategies of pastoral-nomads 14 ‘Homo sapiens sedentus’ and ‘Homo sapiens nomadus’ 23 Economic strategies of sedentists 29 The survival subsistence strategy: summary and conclusions 60 3 The Faunal Remains from Tel Beer-Sheba, Stratum II 62 Methods 62 Results and discussion 63 4 A Spatial Perspective: Controlling Space and the Zooarchaeological Record— A GIS Spatial Analysis of Faunal Remains in Stratum II, Tel Beer-Sheba 74 Methods and materials 75 The nature of faunal remains in archaeological sites 75 Results and discussion 76 5 A Sagittal Perspective: Taphonomic Study of Tel Sites—A Case Study from Tel Beer-Sheba 93 Introduction 93 viii AnimAl HusbAndry in Ancient isrAel Phase one: the death assemblage 94 Phase two: pre-depositional processes 98 Phase three: post-depositional processes 100 Phase four: the archaeological excavation 103 Conclusions 105 6 An Ethnographic Perspective: Animal Husbandry and Human Diet— Ethnographic Study of Premodern Villages in Mandatory Palestine 108 Introduction 108 The research area 108 Methodology 111 Discussion 114 Conclusions 117 7 Conclusions 119 The six pillars of the survival subsistence strategy 119 The survival subsistence strategy and the zooarchaeological perspective 121 References 124 Index 146
Recent excavations at the prehistoric Kumeyaay village of Netí, located in Spring Valley, San Die... more Recent excavations at the prehistoric Kumeyaay village of Netí, located in Spring Valley, San Diego County, California, yielded nearly 5,500 faunal vertebrate remains. Thirty-two taxa were identified, including 13 mammalian, 4 avian, 6 reptilian and amphibian taxa, and 9 bony and cartilaginous fish. Among the avian remains was the scapula of an eider, an arctic sea duck (genus Somateria) that rarely migrates south along the Pacific coast and was known previously as far south as San Diego from only a single sighting. All fishes and shellfishes from the site occur near shore and could have been obtained without watercraft. The site's lying within a one-half-day foraging range of the coast, the high diversity of fishes and shellfishes, and the presence of the eider scapula suggest the inhabitants of Netí village made frequent foraging trips to the shore.
The San Diego Presidio, established in AD 1769, was the first European settlement in Upper Califo... more The San Diego Presidio, established in AD 1769, was the first European settlement in Upper California. Very little is known about chicken husbandry in colonial America, which makes this study the first comprehensive analysis of chicken remains in North America. Chickens are scarcely mentioned in historical accounts describing early California, and information on their sex, age, or management is rare. The faunal assemblage from the San Diego Presidio yielded 20 avian and 14 mammalian species. Chicken remains were studied through a wide range of zooarchaeological methods, including taphonomy, biometry, medullary bone, epiphyseal fusion, butchering, and body-part representation. Taphonomic analysis indicates good preservation of the bone assemblage. The biometric study points to two breeds of chickens: a smaller (bantam) breed alongside a standard-size chicken. The percentage of juvenile chickens (23%), the rooster/hen ratio (1:8.5), and high proportion of medullary bone point to on-site chicken husbandry focusing on meat and egg production. The historical record suggests that California presidios were not self-sufficient and that they relied on food provisioned from Mexico and nearby missions. We argue that small-scale poultry production, likely managed by women and children, provided California presidios with a form of subsistence independence.
The San Diego Presidio, established in AD 1769, was the first European settlement in Upper Califo... more The San Diego Presidio, established in AD 1769, was the first European settlement in Upper California. Very little is known about chicken husbandry in colonial America, which makes this study the first comprehensive analysis of chicken remains in North America. Chickens are scarcely mentioned in historical accounts describing early California, and information on their sex, age, or management is rare. The faunal assemblage from the San Diego Presidio yielded 20 avian and 14 mammalian species. Chicken remains were studied through a wide range of zooarchaeological methods, including taphonomy, biometry, medullary bone, epiphyseal fusion, butchering, and body-part representation. Taphonomic analysis indicates good preservation of the bone assemblage. The biometric study points to two breeds of chickens: a smaller (bantam) breed alongside a standard-size chicken. The percentage of juvenile chickens (23%), the rooster/hen ratio (1:8.5), and high proportion of medullary bone point to on-site chicken husbandry focusing on meat and egg production. The historical record suggests that California presidios were not self-sufficient and that they relied on food provisioned from Mexico and nearby missions. We argue that small-scale poultry production, likely managed by women and children, provided California presidios with a form of subsistence independence.
Skeletal remains are commonly recovered from archaeological deposits, both historic and prehistor... more Skeletal remains are commonly recovered from archaeological deposits, both historic and prehistoric. Zooarchaeology, the study of animal bones from archaeological sites, sheds light not only on human use of wildlife but on its past distribution and abundance, a perspective that complements and extends the historical record. For this study, we reviewed previously published zooarchaeological records and identified avifaunal remains recovered from five archaeological sites throughout San Diego County, California, representing periods of human occupation from 10,000 years before present to the mid-19th century. These remains reflect many notable avifaunal changes from this region. Bones of the flightless sea duck Chendytes lawi from ≥15 coastal sites attest to human exploitation of this species for ≥8000 years before it was driven to extinction ~2400 years ago. Bones of the Short-tailed Albatross (Phoebastria albatrus) and at least one of the two smaller North Pacific albatrosses (P. nigripes and P. immutabilis) from numerous sites confirm they once occurred along the California coast in greater numbers and suggest that the Short-tailed Albatross may have nested on San Nicolas Island. At Carrizo Marsh in the Anza-Borrego Desert, excavation of the Carrizo Stage Stop, used in the late 1850s, yielded multiple bones of both sexes of the Yellow-headed Blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus), implying existence of a former colony where none had been recorded since at least the 1960s, confirming a wetland more substantial than today’s small remnant. This site also produced remains of at least 12 species of ducks and geese. Remains of the American Crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) from the San Diego Presidio, occupied in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, indicate that this species had occurred in an area where it was absent from the historical record from the 1870s until the 1980s. The perspective these specimens contribute to our understanding of avian distributions argues for the importance of collecting and studying faunal remains from archaeological sites. In some areas, this resource remains underused, and the current regulations and infrastructure for preserving and curating the specimens are inadequate.
Cattle bones are commonly found in zooarchaeological assemblages and various aspects of cattle hu... more Cattle bones are commonly found in zooarchaeological assemblages and various aspects of cattle husbandry have been discussed in the literature in the past four decades. This paper revisits some misconceptions correlating the abundance of cattle bones in archaeology with intensification of agriculture or with a high meat production. The paper also discusses ideas regarding cattle husbandry and the survival subsistence strategy. It is evident that several taphonomic agents generate an over-representation of cattle in the zooarchaeological record, which should be considered when discussing the relative abundance of cattle. This paper argues that cattle were used primarily for ploughing rather than for meat and milk production. It is demonstrated that the abundance of cattle bones should not be necessarily linked to the intensification of crop-farming. It is apparent that the major factor determining the relative frequency of cattle in antiquity was carrying capacity and not the type of settlement (e.g., urban) or period. Because the survival subsistence strategy was predominant, cattle were maintained in small numbers in many regions of the ancient Near East, in order to minimize risks and preserve subsistence resources.
Over 10,000 mammal and bird bones, originating in 217 loci, gathered in 683 bone baskets, were re... more Over 10,000 mammal and bird bones, originating in 217 loci, gathered in 683 bone baskets, were recovered from Stratum II at Tel Beer-Sheba. This chapter discusses three aspects of the zooarchaeological data: 1. An overview of the zooarchaeological finds from Stratum II, including a description of taxa and their relative frequency and discussions of mortality profiles of the major species—sheep, goats and cattle. 2. A taphonomic investigation of the main species recovered from Stratum II (caprine and cattle), which tracks a sequence of taphonomic agents that altered the bone assemblage from the stage when the animals were slaughtered to the stage when their remains reached the zooarchaeology lab. 3. A GIS (geographic information system) spatial analysis of the bone assemblage.
Numerous zooarchaeological studies have associated caprine (sheep and goats) husbandry in the sou... more Numerous zooarchaeological studies have associated caprine (sheep and goats) husbandry in the southern Levantine Bronze and Iron Ages with a market economy and interpreted the mortality profiles as a result of specialised production practices focusing on meat, milk or wool. Sixty-five caprine mortality profiles were studied in order to test two primary economic models of herd production – market-economy and the survival subsistence strategy. The first model implies specialised production with the goal of generating profits, while the second entails striving to minimise risks and maximise stability. Based on the clear pattern of utilisation of caprines for all their products (meat, milk, and wool) that emerged from the analysis, it is proposed that mortality profiles reflect herd management that coincides with a survival subsistence strategy and exploitation of caprines for full range of products.
Over 30,000 animal bones from the iron age layers at Megiddo, retrieved during the 1994–2008 exca... more Over 30,000 animal bones from the iron age layers at Megiddo, retrieved during the 1994–2008 excavation seasons, were studied. This report therefore covers the entire faunal assemblage from iron age Megiddo recovered thus far. The faunal remains were retrieved from five excavation areas; they represent five chronological horizons and eight levels. the faunal data is presented in a comparative manner under different categories of the faunal analysis (e.g., taphonomy/cut marks; sheep and goats ratio; rare species/swine).
... In: Cohen, R., ed. Ancient Settlement of the Central Negev: The Chalcolithic Period, the Earl... more ... In: Cohen, R., ed. Ancient Settlement of the Central Negev: The Chalcolithic Period, the Early Bronze Age ... The Fiber Revolution: Textile Extensification, Alienation, and Social Stratification in Ancient Mesopotamia. ... Kill-Off Patterns in Sheep and Goats: Mandibles from Asvan Kale. ...
Tel Aviv: Journal of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University, 1998
Pastoralism plays a basic role in the subsistence economy of all ancient Near Eastern societies. ... more Pastoralism plays a basic role in the subsistence economy of all ancient Near Eastern societies. Its importance is evident in most traditional societies to the present-day. The term pastoralism refers to the branch of the economy concerned with animal husbandry, mainly ...
Caprine (sheep and goats) have predominated livestock herds in most sites in the Levant from the ... more Caprine (sheep and goats) have predominated livestock herds in most sites in the Levant from the time of their domestication until premodern times. The aim of this paper is to reassess economic strategies practiced in Bronze and Iron Age sites as revealed by zooarchaeological finds of sheep and goats. Animal bones are, in most cases, the second most common find in archaeological sites. Relative frequency of species and their mortality profile reflect the economy of ancient sites and, furthermore, point to the subsistence strategy of their inhabitants.
Animal Secondary Products: Domestic Animal Exploitation in Prehistoric Europe, the Near East and the Far East, 2014
Numerous zooarchaeological studies have associated caprine (sheep and goats) husbandry in the sou... more Numerous zooarchaeological studies have associated caprine (sheep and goats) husbandry in the southern Levantine Bronze and Iron Age with a market economy and interpreted the mortality profiles as a result of specialised production practices focusing on meant, milk, or wool. Sixty-five caprine mortality profiles were studied in order to test two primary economic models of herd production--market-economy and the survival subsistence strategy. The first model implies specialised production with the goal of generating profits, while the second strives to minimise risks and maximise stability. Based on the clear pattern of utilisation of caprines for all their products (meat, milk, and wool) that emerged from the analysis, it is proposed that mortality profiles reflect herd management that coincides with a survival subsistence strategy and exploitation of caprines for full range of products.
1 Introduction 1
On the zooarchaeological perspective 1
The zooarchaeological research of the Bro... more 1 Introduction 1 On the zooarchaeological perspective 1 The zooarchaeological research of the Bronze and Iron Age in Israel: a brief overview 2 What is this book about? 4 2 A Comparative Perspective: The Survival Subsistence Strategy— Animal Husbandry and Economic Strategies in the Bronze and Iron Age 6 Introduction 6 The survival subsistence strategy 10 Subsistence strategies of pastoral-nomads 14 ‘Homo sapiens sedentus’ and ‘Homo sapiens nomadus’ 23 Economic strategies of sedentists 29 The survival subsistence strategy: summary and conclusions 60 3 The Faunal Remains from Tel Beer-Sheba, Stratum II 62 Methods 62 Results and discussion 63 4 A Spatial Perspective: Controlling Space and the Zooarchaeological Record— A GIS Spatial Analysis of Faunal Remains in Stratum II, Tel Beer-Sheba 74 Methods and materials 75 The nature of faunal remains in archaeological sites 75 Results and discussion 76 5 A Sagittal Perspective: Taphonomic Study of Tel Sites—A Case Study from Tel Beer-Sheba 93 Introduction 93 viii AnimAl HusbAndry in Ancient isrAel Phase one: the death assemblage 94 Phase two: pre-depositional processes 98 Phase three: post-depositional processes 100 Phase four: the archaeological excavation 103 Conclusions 105 6 An Ethnographic Perspective: Animal Husbandry and Human Diet— Ethnographic Study of Premodern Villages in Mandatory Palestine 108 Introduction 108 The research area 108 Methodology 111 Discussion 114 Conclusions 117 7 Conclusions 119 The six pillars of the survival subsistence strategy 119 The survival subsistence strategy and the zooarchaeological perspective 121 References 124 Index 146
Recent excavations at the prehistoric Kumeyaay village of Netí, located in Spring Valley, San Die... more Recent excavations at the prehistoric Kumeyaay village of Netí, located in Spring Valley, San Diego County, California, yielded nearly 5,500 faunal vertebrate remains. Thirty-two taxa were identified, including 13 mammalian, 4 avian, 6 reptilian and amphibian taxa, and 9 bony and cartilaginous fish. Among the avian remains was the scapula of an eider, an arctic sea duck (genus Somateria) that rarely migrates south along the Pacific coast and was known previously as far south as San Diego from only a single sighting. All fishes and shellfishes from the site occur near shore and could have been obtained without watercraft. The site's lying within a one-half-day foraging range of the coast, the high diversity of fishes and shellfishes, and the presence of the eider scapula suggest the inhabitants of Netí village made frequent foraging trips to the shore.
The San Diego Presidio, established in AD 1769, was the first European settlement in Upper Califo... more The San Diego Presidio, established in AD 1769, was the first European settlement in Upper California. Very little is known about chicken husbandry in colonial America, which makes this study the first comprehensive analysis of chicken remains in North America. Chickens are scarcely mentioned in historical accounts describing early California, and information on their sex, age, or management is rare. The faunal assemblage from the San Diego Presidio yielded 20 avian and 14 mammalian species. Chicken remains were studied through a wide range of zooarchaeological methods, including taphonomy, biometry, medullary bone, epiphyseal fusion, butchering, and body-part representation. Taphonomic analysis indicates good preservation of the bone assemblage. The biometric study points to two breeds of chickens: a smaller (bantam) breed alongside a standard-size chicken. The percentage of juvenile chickens (23%), the rooster/hen ratio (1:8.5), and high proportion of medullary bone point to on-site chicken husbandry focusing on meat and egg production. The historical record suggests that California presidios were not self-sufficient and that they relied on food provisioned from Mexico and nearby missions. We argue that small-scale poultry production, likely managed by women and children, provided California presidios with a form of subsistence independence.
The San Diego Presidio, established in AD 1769, was the first European settlement in Upper Califo... more The San Diego Presidio, established in AD 1769, was the first European settlement in Upper California. Very little is known about chicken husbandry in colonial America, which makes this study the first comprehensive analysis of chicken remains in North America. Chickens are scarcely mentioned in historical accounts describing early California, and information on their sex, age, or management is rare. The faunal assemblage from the San Diego Presidio yielded 20 avian and 14 mammalian species. Chicken remains were studied through a wide range of zooarchaeological methods, including taphonomy, biometry, medullary bone, epiphyseal fusion, butchering, and body-part representation. Taphonomic analysis indicates good preservation of the bone assemblage. The biometric study points to two breeds of chickens: a smaller (bantam) breed alongside a standard-size chicken. The percentage of juvenile chickens (23%), the rooster/hen ratio (1:8.5), and high proportion of medullary bone point to on-site chicken husbandry focusing on meat and egg production. The historical record suggests that California presidios were not self-sufficient and that they relied on food provisioned from Mexico and nearby missions. We argue that small-scale poultry production, likely managed by women and children, provided California presidios with a form of subsistence independence.
Skeletal remains are commonly recovered from archaeological deposits, both historic and prehistor... more Skeletal remains are commonly recovered from archaeological deposits, both historic and prehistoric. Zooarchaeology, the study of animal bones from archaeological sites, sheds light not only on human use of wildlife but on its past distribution and abundance, a perspective that complements and extends the historical record. For this study, we reviewed previously published zooarchaeological records and identified avifaunal remains recovered from five archaeological sites throughout San Diego County, California, representing periods of human occupation from 10,000 years before present to the mid-19th century. These remains reflect many notable avifaunal changes from this region. Bones of the flightless sea duck Chendytes lawi from ≥15 coastal sites attest to human exploitation of this species for ≥8000 years before it was driven to extinction ~2400 years ago. Bones of the Short-tailed Albatross (Phoebastria albatrus) and at least one of the two smaller North Pacific albatrosses (P. nigripes and P. immutabilis) from numerous sites confirm they once occurred along the California coast in greater numbers and suggest that the Short-tailed Albatross may have nested on San Nicolas Island. At Carrizo Marsh in the Anza-Borrego Desert, excavation of the Carrizo Stage Stop, used in the late 1850s, yielded multiple bones of both sexes of the Yellow-headed Blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus), implying existence of a former colony where none had been recorded since at least the 1960s, confirming a wetland more substantial than today’s small remnant. This site also produced remains of at least 12 species of ducks and geese. Remains of the American Crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) from the San Diego Presidio, occupied in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, indicate that this species had occurred in an area where it was absent from the historical record from the 1870s until the 1980s. The perspective these specimens contribute to our understanding of avian distributions argues for the importance of collecting and studying faunal remains from archaeological sites. In some areas, this resource remains underused, and the current regulations and infrastructure for preserving and curating the specimens are inadequate.
Cattle bones are commonly found in zooarchaeological assemblages and various aspects of cattle hu... more Cattle bones are commonly found in zooarchaeological assemblages and various aspects of cattle husbandry have been discussed in the literature in the past four decades. This paper revisits some misconceptions correlating the abundance of cattle bones in archaeology with intensification of agriculture or with a high meat production. The paper also discusses ideas regarding cattle husbandry and the survival subsistence strategy. It is evident that several taphonomic agents generate an over-representation of cattle in the zooarchaeological record, which should be considered when discussing the relative abundance of cattle. This paper argues that cattle were used primarily for ploughing rather than for meat and milk production. It is demonstrated that the abundance of cattle bones should not be necessarily linked to the intensification of crop-farming. It is apparent that the major factor determining the relative frequency of cattle in antiquity was carrying capacity and not the type of settlement (e.g., urban) or period. Because the survival subsistence strategy was predominant, cattle were maintained in small numbers in many regions of the ancient Near East, in order to minimize risks and preserve subsistence resources.
Over 10,000 mammal and bird bones, originating in 217 loci, gathered in 683 bone baskets, were re... more Over 10,000 mammal and bird bones, originating in 217 loci, gathered in 683 bone baskets, were recovered from Stratum II at Tel Beer-Sheba. This chapter discusses three aspects of the zooarchaeological data: 1. An overview of the zooarchaeological finds from Stratum II, including a description of taxa and their relative frequency and discussions of mortality profiles of the major species—sheep, goats and cattle. 2. A taphonomic investigation of the main species recovered from Stratum II (caprine and cattle), which tracks a sequence of taphonomic agents that altered the bone assemblage from the stage when the animals were slaughtered to the stage when their remains reached the zooarchaeology lab. 3. A GIS (geographic information system) spatial analysis of the bone assemblage.
Numerous zooarchaeological studies have associated caprine (sheep and goats) husbandry in the sou... more Numerous zooarchaeological studies have associated caprine (sheep and goats) husbandry in the southern Levantine Bronze and Iron Ages with a market economy and interpreted the mortality profiles as a result of specialised production practices focusing on meat, milk or wool. Sixty-five caprine mortality profiles were studied in order to test two primary economic models of herd production – market-economy and the survival subsistence strategy. The first model implies specialised production with the goal of generating profits, while the second entails striving to minimise risks and maximise stability. Based on the clear pattern of utilisation of caprines for all their products (meat, milk, and wool) that emerged from the analysis, it is proposed that mortality profiles reflect herd management that coincides with a survival subsistence strategy and exploitation of caprines for full range of products.
Over 30,000 animal bones from the iron age layers at Megiddo, retrieved during the 1994–2008 exca... more Over 30,000 animal bones from the iron age layers at Megiddo, retrieved during the 1994–2008 excavation seasons, were studied. This report therefore covers the entire faunal assemblage from iron age Megiddo recovered thus far. The faunal remains were retrieved from five excavation areas; they represent five chronological horizons and eight levels. the faunal data is presented in a comparative manner under different categories of the faunal analysis (e.g., taphonomy/cut marks; sheep and goats ratio; rare species/swine).
... In: Cohen, R., ed. Ancient Settlement of the Central Negev: The Chalcolithic Period, the Earl... more ... In: Cohen, R., ed. Ancient Settlement of the Central Negev: The Chalcolithic Period, the Early Bronze Age ... The Fiber Revolution: Textile Extensification, Alienation, and Social Stratification in Ancient Mesopotamia. ... Kill-Off Patterns in Sheep and Goats: Mandibles from Asvan Kale. ...
Tel Aviv: Journal of the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University, 1998
Pastoralism plays a basic role in the subsistence economy of all ancient Near Eastern societies. ... more Pastoralism plays a basic role in the subsistence economy of all ancient Near Eastern societies. Its importance is evident in most traditional societies to the present-day. The term pastoralism refers to the branch of the economy concerned with animal husbandry, mainly ...
Caprine (sheep and goats) have predominated livestock herds in most sites in the Levant from the ... more Caprine (sheep and goats) have predominated livestock herds in most sites in the Levant from the time of their domestication until premodern times. The aim of this paper is to reassess economic strategies practiced in Bronze and Iron Age sites as revealed by zooarchaeological finds of sheep and goats. Animal bones are, in most cases, the second most common find in archaeological sites. Relative frequency of species and their mortality profile reflect the economy of ancient sites and, furthermore, point to the subsistence strategy of their inhabitants.
The Ystagua bone assemblage is exceptionally rich and diverse. Over 30,000 specimens were studied... more The Ystagua bone assemblage is exceptionally rich and diverse. Over 30,000 specimens were studied yielding 105 vertebrate and two invertebrate species. Fifty worked bones, 32 cut, cleaved and hacked boned as well as 115 digested bones provide a unique insight on the human-animal interaction at Ystagua. In summary, the Ystagua inhabitants maintained a broad-spectrum subsistence strategy utilizing diverse environments. They were active instigators of the broad- spectrum diet through their efforts at constructing their local environments to meet a variety of overarching goals. The high diversity of fauna recovered at the site and the lack of clear evidence for seasonal occupation, suggest that it was occupied year-round. It is possible that the large mammal remains reflect animals that were caught by foragers who were away from the permanent settlement for extended periods of time while small mammal, reptile and amphibian remains reflect animals that were procured by the inhabitants who stayed at the site (Szuter 1991). The fact that all bone tools recovered at the site were broken in antiquity suggests that the faunal remains were, in fact, part on a midden of year-round settlement.
In: Data Recovery Excavations at CA-SDI-4609/SDM-W-654, Ethnohistoric Village of Ystagua, for the San Diego Association of Governments Sorrento-to-Miramar Double Track Phase One Project, San Diego, California, edited by S. Gunderman Castells, M. S. Becker, I. Scharlotta, T. Quach and S. Ní Ghabháin
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Books by Aharon Sasson
On the zooarchaeological perspective 1
The zooarchaeological research of the Bronze and Iron Age in Israel:
a brief overview 2
What is this book about? 4
2 A Comparative Perspective: The Survival Subsistence Strategy—
Animal Husbandry and Economic Strategies in the Bronze and Iron Age 6
Introduction 6
The survival subsistence strategy 10
Subsistence strategies of pastoral-nomads 14
‘Homo sapiens sedentus’ and ‘Homo sapiens nomadus’ 23
Economic strategies of sedentists 29
The survival subsistence strategy: summary and conclusions 60
3 The Faunal Remains from Tel Beer-Sheba, Stratum II 62
Methods 62
Results and discussion 63
4 A Spatial Perspective: Controlling Space and the Zooarchaeological Record—
A GIS Spatial Analysis of Faunal Remains in Stratum II, Tel Beer-Sheba 74
Methods and materials 75
The nature of faunal remains in archaeological sites 75
Results and discussion 76
5 A Sagittal Perspective: Taphonomic Study of Tel Sites—A Case Study from
Tel Beer-Sheba 93
Introduction 93
viii AnimAl HusbAndry in Ancient isrAel
Phase one: the death assemblage 94
Phase two: pre-depositional processes 98
Phase three: post-depositional processes 100
Phase four: the archaeological excavation 103
Conclusions 105
6 An Ethnographic Perspective: Animal Husbandry and Human Diet—
Ethnographic Study of Premodern Villages in Mandatory Palestine 108
Introduction 108
The research area 108
Methodology 111
Discussion 114
Conclusions 117
7 Conclusions 119
The six pillars of the survival subsistence strategy 119
The survival subsistence strategy and the zooarchaeological perspective 121
References 124
Index 146
Papers by Aharon Sasson
medullary bone, epiphyseal fusion, butchering, and body-part representation. Taphonomic analysis indicates good preservation
of the bone assemblage. The biometric study points to two breeds of chickens: a smaller (bantam) breed alongside a standard-size chicken. The percentage of juvenile chickens (23%), the rooster/hen ratio (1:8.5), and high proportion of medullary bone point to on-site chicken husbandry focusing on meat and egg production. The historical record suggests that California presidios were not self-sufficient and that they relied on food provisioned from Mexico and nearby missions. We argue that small-scale poultry production, likely managed by women and children, provided California presidios with a form of subsistence independence.
Island. At Carrizo Marsh in the Anza-Borrego Desert, excavation of the Carrizo Stage Stop, used in the late 1850s, yielded multiple bones of both sexes of the Yellow-headed Blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus), implying existence of a former colony where none had been recorded since at least the 1960s, confirming a wetland more substantial than today’s small remnant. This site also produced remains of at least 12 species of ducks and geese. Remains of the American Crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) from the San Diego Presidio, occupied in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, indicate that this species had occurred in an area where it was absent from the historical record from the 1870s until the 1980s. The perspective these specimens contribute to our understanding of avian distributions argues for the importance of
collecting and studying faunal remains from archaeological sites. In some areas, this resource remains underused, and the current regulations and infrastructure for preserving and curating the specimens are inadequate.
1. An overview of the zooarchaeological finds from Stratum II, including a description of taxa and their relative frequency and discussions of mortality profiles of the major species—sheep, goats and cattle.
2. A taphonomic investigation of the main species recovered from Stratum II (caprine and cattle), which tracks a sequence of taphonomic agents that altered the bone assemblage from the stage when the animals were slaughtered to the stage when their remains reached the zooarchaeology lab.
3. A GIS (geographic information system) spatial analysis of the bone assemblage.
The aim of this paper is to reassess economic strategies practiced in Bronze and Iron Age sites as revealed by zooarchaeological finds of sheep and goats. Animal bones are, in most cases, the second most common find in archaeological sites. Relative frequency of species and their mortality profile reflect the economy of ancient sites and, furthermore, point to the subsistence strategy of their inhabitants.
Drafts by Aharon Sasson
On the zooarchaeological perspective 1
The zooarchaeological research of the Bronze and Iron Age in Israel:
a brief overview 2
What is this book about? 4
2 A Comparative Perspective: The Survival Subsistence Strategy—
Animal Husbandry and Economic Strategies in the Bronze and Iron Age 6
Introduction 6
The survival subsistence strategy 10
Subsistence strategies of pastoral-nomads 14
‘Homo sapiens sedentus’ and ‘Homo sapiens nomadus’ 23
Economic strategies of sedentists 29
The survival subsistence strategy: summary and conclusions 60
3 The Faunal Remains from Tel Beer-Sheba, Stratum II 62
Methods 62
Results and discussion 63
4 A Spatial Perspective: Controlling Space and the Zooarchaeological Record—
A GIS Spatial Analysis of Faunal Remains in Stratum II, Tel Beer-Sheba 74
Methods and materials 75
The nature of faunal remains in archaeological sites 75
Results and discussion 76
5 A Sagittal Perspective: Taphonomic Study of Tel Sites—A Case Study from
Tel Beer-Sheba 93
Introduction 93
viii AnimAl HusbAndry in Ancient isrAel
Phase one: the death assemblage 94
Phase two: pre-depositional processes 98
Phase three: post-depositional processes 100
Phase four: the archaeological excavation 103
Conclusions 105
6 An Ethnographic Perspective: Animal Husbandry and Human Diet—
Ethnographic Study of Premodern Villages in Mandatory Palestine 108
Introduction 108
The research area 108
Methodology 111
Discussion 114
Conclusions 117
7 Conclusions 119
The six pillars of the survival subsistence strategy 119
The survival subsistence strategy and the zooarchaeological perspective 121
References 124
Index 146
medullary bone, epiphyseal fusion, butchering, and body-part representation. Taphonomic analysis indicates good preservation
of the bone assemblage. The biometric study points to two breeds of chickens: a smaller (bantam) breed alongside a standard-size chicken. The percentage of juvenile chickens (23%), the rooster/hen ratio (1:8.5), and high proportion of medullary bone point to on-site chicken husbandry focusing on meat and egg production. The historical record suggests that California presidios were not self-sufficient and that they relied on food provisioned from Mexico and nearby missions. We argue that small-scale poultry production, likely managed by women and children, provided California presidios with a form of subsistence independence.
Island. At Carrizo Marsh in the Anza-Borrego Desert, excavation of the Carrizo Stage Stop, used in the late 1850s, yielded multiple bones of both sexes of the Yellow-headed Blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus), implying existence of a former colony where none had been recorded since at least the 1960s, confirming a wetland more substantial than today’s small remnant. This site also produced remains of at least 12 species of ducks and geese. Remains of the American Crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) from the San Diego Presidio, occupied in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, indicate that this species had occurred in an area where it was absent from the historical record from the 1870s until the 1980s. The perspective these specimens contribute to our understanding of avian distributions argues for the importance of
collecting and studying faunal remains from archaeological sites. In some areas, this resource remains underused, and the current regulations and infrastructure for preserving and curating the specimens are inadequate.
1. An overview of the zooarchaeological finds from Stratum II, including a description of taxa and their relative frequency and discussions of mortality profiles of the major species—sheep, goats and cattle.
2. A taphonomic investigation of the main species recovered from Stratum II (caprine and cattle), which tracks a sequence of taphonomic agents that altered the bone assemblage from the stage when the animals were slaughtered to the stage when their remains reached the zooarchaeology lab.
3. A GIS (geographic information system) spatial analysis of the bone assemblage.
The aim of this paper is to reassess economic strategies practiced in Bronze and Iron Age sites as revealed by zooarchaeological finds of sheep and goats. Animal bones are, in most cases, the second most common find in archaeological sites. Relative frequency of species and their mortality profile reflect the economy of ancient sites and, furthermore, point to the subsistence strategy of their inhabitants.
In summary, the Ystagua inhabitants maintained a broad-spectrum subsistence strategy utilizing diverse environments. They were active instigators of the broad- spectrum diet through their efforts at constructing their local environments to meet a variety of overarching goals. The high diversity of fauna recovered at the site and the lack of clear evidence for seasonal occupation, suggest that it was occupied year-round. It is possible that the large mammal remains reflect animals that were caught by foragers who were away from the permanent settlement for extended periods of time while small mammal, reptile and amphibian remains reflect animals that were procured by the inhabitants who stayed at the site (Szuter 1991). The fact that all bone tools recovered at the site were broken in antiquity suggests that the faunal remains were, in fact, part on a midden of year-round settlement.
In: Data Recovery Excavations at CA-SDI-4609/SDM-W-654, Ethnohistoric Village of Ystagua, for the San Diego Association of Governments Sorrento-to-Miramar Double Track Phase One Project, San Diego, California, edited by S. Gunderman Castells, M. S. Becker, I. Scharlotta, T. Quach and S. Ní Ghabháin